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THE 

CALIFORNIA  FRUITS 

AND 

HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


A  MANUAL  OF  METHODS  WHICH  HAVE 
YIELDED  GREATEST  SUCCESS,  WITH  THE 
LISTS  OF  VARIETIES  BEST  ADAPTED  TO 
THE  DIFFERENT  DISTRICTS  OF  THE  STATE 


BY 
EDWARD  J.   WICKSON,   A.   M. 

Professor  of  Horticulture  in  the  College  of  Agriculture  of  the  University  of  California; 
Horticulturist  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station;  Author  of  "  California  Vegetables 
in  Garden  and  Field"  and  "One  Thousand  Questions  in  California  Agriculture  Answered"; 
Editor  of  the  Pacific  Rural  Press;  Member  of  the  National  Council  of  Horticulture,  Etc. 


The  branch  here  bends  beneath  the  weighty  pear. 
And  verdant  olives  flourish  round  the  yean 
The  balmy  Spirit  of  the  Western  gale 
Eternal  breathes  on  fruits  untaught  to  fail: 
Each  dropping  pear  a  following  pear  supplies. 
On  apples,  apples;  figs  on  figs  arise. 
The  same  mild  season  gives  the  blooms  to  blow. 
The  buds  to  harden,  and  the  fruits  to  grow. 

—Popes  Horn.  Odys.  Bk.  VII. 


SEVENTH  EDITION  — Fully  Revised 


SAN  FRANCISCO.   CAL. 

PACIFIC   RURAL    PRESS 
NINETEEN  HUNDRED  FOURTEEN 


Copyright,   1914. 

By  E.  J.  Wickson  and  Pacific  Rural  Press, 
Published  June,   1914. 

i-^Va          k 
»  'ipt' 


THE  HICKS-JUDD  COMPANY 
PRINTERS  AND  BOOKBINDERS 
51-65  First  Street,  San  Francisco 


PREFACE 


The  Sixth  Edition  of  this  treatise  has  shared  the  good 
fortune  of  its  immediate  predecessors  in  meeting  a  public 
demand  which  covered  the  available  supply  much  sooner 
than  anticipated.  Because  of  the  desirability  of  keeping  the 
work  abreast  of  the  progress  of  a  constantly  changing  and 
developing  industry,  the  publishers  have  assumed  the  bur- 
den of  resetting  the  type  for  each  edition,  resisting  the 
temptation  of  greater  profit  which  would  attend  reprinting 
from  plates  with  minimum  revision.  Therefore  this  edition 
is  wholly  set  anew — the  seventh  opportunity  for  free  revi- 
sion which  the  writer  has  enjoyed  during  the  publication  of 
the  work,  which  has  reached  a  total  of  nineteen  thousand 
copies  since  the  appearance  of  the  first  edition  in  1889. 

Of  the  quality  of  the  book,  it  does  not  become  the  writer 
to  speak,  but  he  may  express  his  satisfaction  at  its  popular- 
ity. Its  circulation  may  be  cited  as  a  testimonial  of  its 
suitability  for  service  in  the  building  up  of  the  fruit  indus- 
tries, and  the  demand  for  it  may  be  regarded  as  rather 
unique,  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  book  deals  exclu- 
sively with  the  fruit  growing  of  a  single  State  which  is  only 
one,  although  it  be  the  greatest,  of  the  agricultural  interests 
of  that  State.  The  demand  for  the  book  is  an  exponent  of 
the  continued  activity  in  California  fruit  planting,  and  its 
sale  abroad  indicates  the  fact  that  the  outside  world  is 
watching  California's  fruit  development,  and  desires  to 
know  the  methods  by  which  such  a  great  product  as  $100,- 
000,000  'worth  in  a  year  is  secured. 

The  writer  repeats  the  request  which  he  has  made  in 
earlier  editions  that  all  readers  whose  observation  and  work 
teach  them  any  better  way  than  he  has  described  in  this 
book  shall  share  with  him  the  advantages  of  such  greater 
wisdom. 

EDWARD  J.  WICKSON. 


University  of  California, 

Berkeley,  May,  1914. 


CONTENTS 


Chapter. 
I 

II 
III 

IV 

V 

VI 


PART  ONE  :    GENERAL. 

The  Climate  of  California  and  Its  Modifications. 
Why  the  California  Climate  Favors  the  Growth  of  Fruit. 
The  Fruit  Soils  of  California. 
The  Wild  Fruits  of  California. 
The  California  Mission  Fruits. 
Introduction  of  New  Fruit  Varieties. 


PART   TWO:     CULTURAL. 

VII  Clearing  the  Land  for  Fruit. 

VIII  The  Nursery. 

IX  Budding  and  Grafting. 

X  Preparation  for  Planting. 

XI  Planting  of  Trees. 

XII  Pruning  Trees  and  Thinning  Fruit. 

XIII  Cultivation. 

XIV  Fertilizers  for  Trees  and  Vines. 

XV  Irrigation  of  Fruit  Trees  and  Vines. 


PART  THREE:    ORCHARD  FRUITS. 

XVI  Commercial  Fruit  Varieties. 

XVII  The  Apple. 

XVIII  The  Apricot 

XIX  The  Cherry. 

XX  The  Peach. 

XXI  The  Nectarine. 

XXII  The  Pear. 

XXIII  Plums  and  Prunes. 

XXIV  The  Quince. 


PART    FOUR:     THE    GRAPE. 
Chapter. 

XXV  The  Grape  Industry. 

XXVI  Propagating  and  Planting  Vines. 

XXVII  Pruning  and  Care  of  the  Vine. 

XXVIII  Grape  Varieties  in  California. 

PART  FIVE:     SEMI-TROPICAL  FRUITS. 

XXIX  The  Date. 

XXX  The  Fig. 

XXXI  The  Olive. 

XXXII  The  Orange. 

XXXIII  The  Pomelo  or  Grape  Fruit. 

XXXIV  The  Lemon. 

XXXV      Minor  Semi-Tropical  Fruits. 

PART   SIX:     SMALL   FRUITS. 
XXXVI      Berries  and  Currants. 

PART    SEVEN:     NUTS. 
XXXVII      Nut  Growing:     Almond,  Walnut,  etc. 

PART  EIGHT:    FRUIT  PRESERVATION. 
XXXVIII      Fruit  Canning,  Crystalizing  and  Preserving. 

PART  NINE:    FRUIT  PROTECTION. 

XXXIX  Injurious  Insects. 

XL  Diseases  of  Trees  and  Vines. 

XLI  Suppression  of  Injurious  Animals  and  Birds. 

XLII  Protection  from  Wind  and  Frost. 


PART   TEN:     MISCELLANEOUS. 

XLIII      Utilization  of  Fruit  Wastes. 
Topical  Index. 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS 


PART  ONE :  GENERAL 


CHAPTER  I 

THE    CLIMATE    OF    CALIFORNIA    AND    ITS    LOCAL 
MODIFICATIONS 

In  climatic  conditions  affecting  horticulture  we  have  in  Cali- 
fornia almost  an  epitome  of  all  other  parts  of  the  United  States, 
with  added  climatic  characters  which  no  other  part  possesses.  We 
have  high  mountain  valleys  with  wintry  temperature-conditions,  where 
only  hardy  northern  fruits  can  be  grown;  we  have  hot  valleys  where 
the  date  palm  confidently  lifts  its  head  to  the  fiery  sunshine,  while  its 
feet  are  deeply  planted  in  moist  substrata  beneath  the  sandy  surface; 
but  we  can  not  claim  tropical  conditions,  because  our  dry  air  denies 
us  many  strictly  tropical  growths,  although  we  have  frostless  sites 
for  them.  Intermediate  between  the  cold  and  snow  of  the  moun- 
tains and  the  heat  and  sand  of  the  desert,  we  have  every  describable 
modification  and  gradation,  and,  naturally,  it  is  between  these  extremes 
that  our  richest  inheritance  of  horticultural  adaptation  lies. 

When  the  breadth  and  scope  of  our  horticultural  adaptations 
are  realized,  it  becomes  apparent  that  an  enumeration  of  the  fruits 
we  can  grow  successfully  would  be,  in  fact,  a  catalogue  of  the 
known  fruits  of  the  world,  except  those  which  are  strictly  tropical. 
Wherever  there  is  a  northern  or  southern  departure  from  the 
equator  sufficient  to  bring  energy  to  mankind,  or  where  the  same 
is  accomplished  by  elevation  upon  tropical  mountainside  or  plateau, 
there  also  are  fruits  which  find  a  welcoming  home  in  California, 
and  are  improved  by  the  intelligent  cultivation  and  selection  which 
here  prevail.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  abundantly  demon- 
strated, during  recent  years,  by  official  awards  at  great  exhibitions 


10  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW   TO   GROW   THEM 

and  by  the  sharp  criteria  of  the  markets  as  well,  that  the  fruits  of 
wintry  regions  are  quite  as  much  benefited  by  transfer  to  proper 
locations  in  California  as  are  the  people  who  come  to  grow  them. 
From  north  and  south  alike,  then,  California  makes  grand  acquisi- 
tions and  includes  within  her  area  the  adaptations  of  the  whole 
country,  with  some  which  no  other  State  possesses. 

But  while  this  horticulutral  scope  is  claimed  for  the  State  as  a 
whole,  it  is  necessary  to  add  that  local  adaptations  within  the  State 
must  be  very  narrowly  drawn.  Our  greatest  failures  have  followed 
ill  choice  of  location  for  the  purpose  intended.  Whenever  certain 
California  fruits  have  been  ill  spoken  of,  they  have  been  produced 
in  the  wrong  places,  or  by  ill-advised  methods.  It  is  possible, 
then,  to  produce  both  poor  and  perfect  fruit  of  a  given  kind.  It 
may  be  said  this  can  be  done  anywhere  by  the  extremes  of  culture 
and  neglect,  but  to  this  proposition  it  must  be  added  that  in  Cali- 
fornia equally  excellent  methods  and  care  may  produce  perfection 
in  one  place  and  the  opposite  in  another.  One  who  seeks  to  know 
California  well  must  undertake  to  master  both  its  horticultural 
greatness  and  littleness;  and  so  closely  are  these  associated,  and 
so  narrow  the  belts  of  special  adaptations,  that  there  are  many 
counties  which  have  a  range  of  products  nearly  as  great  as  the 
State  itself. 

It  is  hard  for  the  stranger  to  realize  this.  It  is  difficult  for 
him  to  believe  that  the  terms  "northern"  and  "southern"  have 
almost  no  horticultural  significance  in  California;  that  northern  fruits 
reach  perfection,  under  proper  conditions,  at  the  south,  and  vice  versa; 
that  some  regions  of  greatest  rainfall  have  to  irrigate  most  frequently ; 
that  some  of  greatest  heat  have  sharpest  valley  frosts;  that  some 
fruits  can  be  successfully  grown  through  a  north  and  south  distance 
of  300  miles,  but  can  not  be  successfully  carried  a  few  hundred  feet 
of  either  less  or  greater  elevation ;  that  on  the  same  parallel  of  latitude 
within  a  hundred  miles  of  distance,  from  coast  to  mountainside,  one 
can  continuously  gather  marketable  Bartlett  pears  for  three  months — 
not  to  mention  the  second  crop,  from  belated  blossoms,  which  is  often 
of  account  on  the  same  trees  in  the  same  season. 

Through  the  multitude  of  local  observations,  which  seem  per- 
plexing and  almost  contradictory,  it  is  possible  to  clearly  discern 
certain  general  conditions,  of  both  nature  and  culture,  which  may 
be  briefly  advanced  as  characteristically  and  distinctively  Cali- 
fornian. 

The  climate  of  the  Pacific  Coast  is  described  by  the  meteorologist 
as  "insular  or  moderate,"  as  contrasted  with  the  "continental  or 
excessive"  climate  of  the  regions  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The 
west  coast  of  Europe  is  also  insular  in  its  climate.  The  northern 
limit  of  an  annual  mean  temperature  of  50  degrees  Fahr.  is  50 
degrees  and  47  degrees  of  north  latitude  on  western  coasts  of  Europe 
and  America  respectively.  But  though  there  is  this  similarity  in 
mean  annual  temperature,  there  is  a  decided  advantage  pertaining  to 
our  climate  over  that  of  west  Europe  in  that  our  range  of  temperature 
is  less;  that  is,  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  nearer  together,  and 


CALIFORNIA'S  FORTUNATE  SITUATION  11 

changes  are  therefore  much  less  excessive.  This  characteristic  of 
our  local  climates  is  due  in  the  main  to  two  great  agencies,  one  active, 
bringing  heat,  the  other  passive,  shielding  us  from  arctic  influences. 

First:  Our  proximity  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Professor  Alexander 
G.  McAdie,  for  twenty  years  in  charge  of  the  San  Francisco  office  of 
the  United  States  Weather  Bureau,  and  now  Professor  of  Meteorology 
at  Harvard  University,  says  of  the  mildness  of  the  California 
climate:  "The  Pacific  Ocean  is  a  great  natural  conservator  of  heat, 
the  mean  annual  temperature  of  which  near  the  California  Coast 
ranges  from  50  degrees  to  60  degrees  F.  The  strength  of  the  westerly 
winds  which  prevail  on  the  California  Coast  for  more  than  half  the 
days  of  the  year  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  whole  drift  of  the  atmos- 
phere is  prevailingly  from  the  west  to  east.  The  climate  of  west 
coasts  is  consequently  less  severe  than  the  climate  of  east  coasts."* 

Second:  Another  agency  contributing  to  the  mild  climate  of 
the  Pacific  Coast  consists  in  the  the  mountain  barriers  upon  our 
northern  and  eastern  boundaries.  It  was  Guyot  who  first  called 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Cascade  Mountains 
reach  the  coast  of  Alaska  and  bend  like  a  great  arm  around  its 
western  and  southern  shore,  thus  shutting  off  or  deflecting  the  polar 
winds  that  otherwise  would  flow  down  over  the  Pacific  Coast  States, 
while  California  has  her  own  additional  protection  from  the  north  in 
the  mountain  arch  which  has  its  keystone  in  Mount  Shasta. 


CHIEF     TOPOGRAPHICAL     AND    CLIMATIC     DIVISIONS 

OF     CALIFORNIA 

California  is  usually  divided  into  three  main  areas  and  climates, 
each  distinct  in  typical  conditions  and  yet  separated  by  regions,  more 
or  less  wide,  in  which  these  conditions  merge  and  influence  each  other. 
Dr.  Robertson  says  :f 

Isothermal  lines  which  normally  run  east  and  west  are,  as  they  near  the 
Pacific,  deflected  north  and  south,  and  define  three  distinct  climatic  belts.  These 
may  be  named  coast,  valley  and  mountain ;  and  while  they  resemble  each  other  in 
having  only  two  seasons,  they  are  dissimilar  in  other  respects.  These  differences 
depend  upon  the  topography  of  the  country,  and  are  of  degree  rather  than  of 
kind;  altitude,  distance  from  the  ocean,  and  situation  with  reference  to  mountain 
chains,  giving  to  each  region  its  characteristic  climate. 

How  similar  are  the  conditions  which  prevail  in  these  belts  may  be 
learned  from  the  data  shown  in  the  following  table,  which  includes 
points  separated  by  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  State,  the  difference 
in  latitude  of  the  extreme  north  and  south  points  being  seven  or  eight 
degrees.  Thus,  through  a  north  or  south  distance  great  as  that  which 
separates  the  States  of  Georgia  and  New  York,  similar  climatic 
conditions  prevail  in  California.  In  the  following  table  the  averages 
are  deduced  from  observations  by  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau 
observers  for  a  long  series  of  years : 

*"The  Rainfall  of  California,"  University  of  California  Publications  in  Geography,   1914. 
tReport  of  State  Agricultural   Society,   1886,  page  322. 


12 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS  I    HOW    TO   GROW   THEM 


Seasonable  and  extreme  temperatures  and  average  rainfall  in  various  Cali- 
fornia regions  from  the  records  of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau  to  the 
close  of  1913. 


STATIONS. 


COUNTY. 


COAST— 

Eureka    Humboldt 

San  Francisco  . .  San  Francisco 

San  Jose   Santa  Clara  . . . 

King  City Monterey 

Santa  Barbara  . .  Santa  Barbara 
Los  Angeles  . . .  Los  Angeles  . . 
San  Diego San  Diego 


64  47  50  56  54  52  85  20  46.2 

155  51  55  59  59  56  101  29  22.8 

95  50  57  67  60  58  108  18  15.4 

333  49  57  66  60  58  116  14  11.3 

130  55  58  65  63  60  108  27  17.3 

293  55  60  70  65  62  109  28  15.9 

933  55  59  68  63  61  110  25  9.5 

VALLEY— 

Redding  Shasta 552  47  60  80  64  63  117  18  38.7 

Sacramento   ....Sacramento   71  47  59  72  62  60  110  19  19.4 

Merced  Merced 173  49  61  79  65  63  120  16  10.6 

Fresno    Fresno    293  47  60  79  64  63  115  20  10.0 

Visalia    Tulare    334  46  59  78  62  61  113  17  10.3 

FOOTHILL  AND  MESA— 

Auburn    Placer  1360  47  57  75  64  61  110  12  35.1 

Redlands    San  Bernardino. .  .1352  52  61  77  65  64  113  18  14.9 


LOCATIONS     FOR    THE     GROWTH     OF    DIFFERENT 

FRUITS 

It  is  intended  to  describe  as  definitely  as  possible  the  locations 
suitable  for  the  growth  of  different  fruits  in  the  special  chapters 
given  to  those  fruits,  but  there  are  a  few  general  conditions  which 
should  be  outlined. 

In  discussing  the  choice  of  location  for  an  orchard  it  is  not 
intended  to  speak  geographically.  As  has  already  been  intimated, 
latitude,  which  is  a  prime  factor  in  geography,  is  of  exceedingly 
small  account  as  an  indication  of  horticultural  adaptations  in  California. 
The  fact  becomes  strikingly  apparent  when  it  is  known  that  the  apple 
and  the  orange,  fruit  kings  whose  kingdoms  lie  at  opposite  borders 
of  the  temperate  zone,  so  far  distant  that  one  may  be  called  semi- 
frigid  and  the  other  semi-tropical,  have  in  California  utter  disregard 
for  the  parallels  of  latitude,  which  set  metes  and  bounds  upon  them 
in  other  hands,  and  flourishes  side  by  side,  in  suitable  localities,  from 
San  Diego  to  Shasta.  Impressive  as  this  truth  may  be,  it  is  not  so 
startling  as  another  fact,  viz.,  that  fruits,  in  suitable  interior  situations, 
ripen  earlier  at  the  north  than  in  coast  valleys  at  the  south. 

"That  almost  any  extreme  of  weather,"  says  Professor  McAdie 
in  his  publication  just  cited,"  can  be  found  within  the  limits  of 
California  is  readily  comprehensible  when  it  is  considered  that  the 
state  is  800  miles  in  length,  contains  a  hundred  million  acres,  and 


COAST    CLIMATES    OF    CALIFORNIA  13 

varies  from  deserts  as  much  as  280  feet  below  the  sea  to  Shasta,  14,380 
feet,  or  the  High  Sierra,  where  66  peaks  exceed  10,000  feet  in  height, 
while  40  exceed  13,000  feet,  and  Mount  Whitney  rises  to  14,502  feet." 

It  is  apparent  then,  in  view  of  such  diversity,  that  the  selection  of 
locations  for  orchards  must  be  made  with  a  knowledge  of  special  condi- 
tions governing  the  distribution  of  equal  temperatures  and  other  natural 
agencies  contributing  to  the  development  of  fruit.  This  distribution,  as 
has  been  intimated,  is  not  by  parallels  of  latitude,  great  circles  which 
appear  as  straight  lines  on  a  map,  but  by  curves,  which  proceed  in 
various  directions,  governed  chiefly  by  topography.  These  are  curves 
of  temperature,  of  rainfall,  of  elevation,  of  soil  formation  and  deposit. 
Geography  must  be  interpreted  by  topography  and  climatography. 

Let  these  ruling  conditions  be  reviewed,  then,  briefly:  First,  as 
to  general  areas;  second,  with  reference  to  special  situations  and 
locations. 

COAST     CLIMATE 

The  chief  characteristics  of  the  coast  are  equable  temperature, 
increasing  southward ;  summers  cool  and  winters  warm,  as  compared 
with  the  interior;  abundant  rainfall,  decreasing  considerably  south- 
ward; a  somewhat  humid  atmosphere,  as  compared  with  the  interior; 
frequent  fogs  or  overcast  skies;  prevailing  westerly  winds. 

The  extension  of  coast  influence  toward  the  interior  is  gov- 
erned by  local  topography.  Coast  valleys  open  to  ocean  winds  are 
cooler  and  moister  and  demand  hardier  fruits  than  valleys  sheltered 
by  intervening  ranges.  Gaps  and  passes  in  the  ranges  are  subject  to 
winds  of  considerable  force  and  low  temperature,  and  are  not  generally 
favorable  for  fruit ;  on  the  other  hand,  situations  sheltered  on  the  north 
and  west  favor  growth  of  fruits  even  though  quite  near  the  coast. 
Sometimes  a  distance  of  a  few  miles,  sometimes  a  wind-break  or 
natural  forest,  or  of  planted  trees,  so  modifies  coast  influences  that 
fruits  do  well.  Elevation  on  the  sides  of  coast  valleys  secures  similar 
results.  For  example,  the  floor  of  the  Pajaro  Valley  is  well  suited 
for  apples,  late  pears,  cherries,  plums,  prunes,  and  berries  (except 
gooseberries),  while  on  adjacent  hillsides  peaches  do  well. 

In  southern  California,  coast  winds  are  warmer  than  in  the  upper 
half  of  the  State,  but  coast  influences  intrude  further,  as  a  rule, 
because  the  hills  near  the  coast  in  Southern  California  are  low;  the 
high  ranges,  answering  to  the  Coast  Range  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  State,  trending  far  into  the  interior.  On  the  coast  side  of  these 
ranges  fruits  ripen  later  than  in  sheltered  interior  points  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  State,  but  eastward  of  the  mountains,  where  soil  and 
moisture  favor,  or  irrigation  is  practised,  extra  early  locations  have 
been  found  and  are  now  being  rapidly  developed — in  the  Imperial 
and  adjacent  valleys,  for  instance. 

Some  of  the  horticultural  effects  of  the  conditions  prevailing  on 
the  coast  may  be  described  as  follows : 

Late  Ripening  of  Fruits. — The  late  ripening  of  fruits  west  of 
the  mountains  in  southern  California  has  just  been  mentioned.  In- 
trusion of  coast  influences  has  the  same  effect  in  more  marked  degree 


14  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO   GROW    THEM 

at  the  north  because  the  ocean  winds  are  colder.  Directly  on  the 
coast,  at  Pescadero,  San  Mateo  County,  for  example,  fruits  ripen 
about  a  month  later  than  in  Santa  Clara  Valley,  which  is  just  across 
the  Coast  Range.  Napa  Valley,  though  about  forty  miles  inland  and 
sheltered  by  ranges  of  hills,  still  is  sufficiently  affected  by  the  coast 
influences  to  mature  fruits  considerably  later  than  Vaca  Valley,  ten 
or  fifteen  miles  further  east,  beyond  a  higher  range,  which  completely 
bars  out  these  influences.  Similar  local  effects  are  found  in  southern 
California.  For  instance,  in  Ventura  County  in  a  canyon  sixteen  miles 
from  the  ocean,  and  at  an  elevation  of  sixteen  hundred  feet,  fruits 
ripen  three  weeks  earlier  than  on  the  coast  or  in  the  valleys  opening 
thereon. 

Failure  of  Certain  Fruits. —  Though  killing  frosts  are  few  directly 
on  the  coast,  the  deficiency  in  summer  heat  and  sunshine  renders 
some  fruits  unsatisfactory.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  the  upper 
coast  region.  Grapes  and  figs  ripen  imperfectly,  while  but  a  short 
distance  back  from  the  coast,  in  situations,  sheltered  by  ridges  parallel 
to  the  coast,  they  do  well.  Elevation  sometimes  produces  correspond- 
ing effects. 

Pests  and  Diseases. — Certain  blights  are  more  prevalent  under 
coast  conditions.  The  scab  blight  of  the  apple,  the  curl-leaf  of  the 
peach,  and  some  other  blights,  are  prevalent  on  the  coast  and  in 
coast  valleys,  on  the  river  bottoms  in  the  interior,  and  on  the  moun- 
tains, and  less  serious,  or  wholly  absent,  in  the  hot  interior  valleys. 
Some  insects  prefer  the  coast  but  thrive  also  in  the  interior,  as  hot 
dry  wind  is  excluded  by  dense  growth  of  the  tree*  and  the  included 
air  TDecomes  moister  above  irrigated  soil.  "A  notable  instance  is  the 
black  scale,  which,  with  the  black  slnuf  which  attends  it,  has  long  been 
a  grievous  pest  of  growers  of  olives  and  citrus  fruits,  and  has  re- 
cently become  prevalent  on  deciduous  fruit  trees  in  some  regions. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  the  face  of  ocean  winds  the  codlin  moth  seems 
to  have  less  chance  to  fill  pears  and  apples  with  her  destructive  off- 
spring, than  she  enjoys  in  interior  valleys  and  mountain  regions. 
Directly  under  coast  influences,  moss  and  lichens  gather  quickly  and 
should  be  removed.  Spraying  with  alkaline  washes  not  only  kills 
insects  but  cleans  the  bark  from  parasitic  vegetable  growth.  Although 
fruit  trees  on  the  coast  are  not  so  subject  to  sunburn  as  in  the  interior, 
there  is  especial  value  in  low  heading  to  withstand  winds ;  there 
should  also  be  plenty  of  room  given  the  trees,  that  sunshine  may  have 
free  access  to  warm  the  ground  all  around  the  tree,  which  may  be 
undesirable  in  the  interior. 

VALLEY     CLIMATE 

The  characteristics  of  the  interior  valley  climate  are  higher 
summer  and  lower  winter  temperatures  than  on  the  coast,  the  range 
of  temperature  being1  nearly  the  same  both  north  and  south;  rainfall 
abundant  in  the  north  and  decreasing  rapidly  southward,  so  that  as 
a  rule  the  interior  valleys  in  the  south  half  of  the  State  require  irriga- 
tion; very  dry  air  and  almost  constant  sunshine,  freedom  from  fogs 


CALIFORNIA   VALLEY   CLIMATES  15 

and  from  dew  in  summertime ;  winds  occasionally  strong,  hot,  and 
desiccating  in  summer  and  cold  in  winter. 

Local  Modifications. — The  term  "valley  climate"  is  broad,  and 
includes  everything,  away  from  the  coast  to  a  certain  elevation  on 
the  slope  of  the  mountains.  Certain  small  valleys  protected  from  cold 
northerly  winds  and  from  fog-bearing  westerly  winds  and  open  to 
the  spring  sunshine,  have  a  forcing  climate  which  produces  the  earliest 
maturing  fruit  of  the  season ;  earlier  not  only  than  the  coast  and  the 
mountain,  as  has  been  stated,  but  also  somewhat  earlier  than  adjacent 
locations  in  the  broad,  open  valley.  Slight  elevation,  even  on  the 
sides  of  small  valleys,  frequently  secures  freedom  from  winter  frosts 
and  ministers  to  early  ripening.  Elevation  above  sea-level  on  the 
rims  of  great  valleys  also  secures  similar  results  and  gives  rise  to 
thermal  belts  in  which  semi-tropical  fruits  are  successfully  growing 
even  as  far  north  as  Shasta  County.  On  the  floors  of  great  valleys 
moderating  influences  are  secured  on  the  lee  side  of  wide  rivers  and 
by  planting  on  the  river  bank  or  on  slightly  elevated  swells  rather 
than  on  the  level,  open  plain.  The  river  bottom  lands  of  the  great 
valleys,  though  subject  to  severe  frosts,  are  freer  from  the  effects 
of  desiccating  winds  than  the  open  plains;  they  are,  however,  more 
favorable  to  the  spread  of  certain  blights  than  the  plains. 

Some  of  the  horticultural  effects  of  valley  conditions  are  as 
follows :  Early  ripening  and  perfection  of  summer  and  autumn 
fruits,  owing  to  continual  sunshine  and  dry  air;  forced  maturity  of 
certain  fruits,  as  apples  for  instance,  which  destroys  character  and 
keeping  quality;  injury  from  sunburn  and  hot  winds  in  summer, 
which  seriously  affect  both  fruit  and  foliage  of  some  varieties ; 
occasional  injury  to  tender  fruits  (semi-tropicals)  and  to  young  trees 
of  hardy  fruits,  which  have  been  kept  growing  late  in  the  season, 
from  low  temperature,  which  sometimes  is  reached  suddenly  on  the 
floor  of  the  valleys;  freedom  from  some  blights  and  insects  which 
are  prevalent  on  the  coast,  but  not  from  others.  Many  of  these  minor 
troubles  are,  however,  counterbalanced  by  the  earliness,  size,  beauty, 
and  quality  of  certain  fruits,  and  by  the  most  rapid  and  successful 
open-air  drying  of  fruits,  owing  to  high  autumn  temperature,  the 
freedom  from  summer  fog,  dew  and  generally  from  rain  during  the 
drying  season. 

FOOTHILL     CLIMATE 

Foothill  climate  is  usually  considered  as  a  modification  of  valley 
climate.  It  has  been  shown  that  up  to  about  two  thousand  five 
hundred  feet,  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  the  seasonal 
temperatures  are  quite  like  those  of  the  valley,  but  the  rainfall  in- 
creases about  one  inch  for  each  hundred  feet  of  elevation.  There 
are,  however,  in  the  foothillls,  places  where  early  spring  heat  and 
freedom  from  frost  give  very  early  ripening  fruits,  and  other  places 
at  the  same  elevation  where  winter  temperature  drops  below  the 
valley  minimum,  and  where  late  frosts  also  prevail.  This  is  gov- 
erned by  local  topography.  In  many  of  the  small  valleys  among  the 
foothills,  both  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Coast  Ranges,  frosts 


16  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO   GROW   THEM 

are  more  severe  than  on  the  hills  adjacent  or  in  the  broader  valleys 
to  which  they  are  tributary.  These  small  "protected  valleys"  are 
apparently  warm  and  cozy  for  early  blooming  deciduous  and  citrus 
fruits,  but  they  are  really  very  dangerous.  They  frequently  have 
such  narrow  and  obstructed  openings  that  cold  air  is  dammed  up 
over  their  lower  lands  and  frosts  are  more  severe  and  later  than  in 
valleys  which  have  ample  and  free  outlets  and  seem  less  protected. 

Of  course  the  disposition  of  cold  air  to  settle  in  low  places  and 
to  flow  down  canyons  and  creek-beds  while  the  warm  air  rises  and 
bathes  the  adjacent  hillsides,  has  much  to  do  with  frost  in  the  hollow 
and  the  freedom  from  it  on  the  hills.  The  constant  motion  of  the  air 
on  the  slopes  is  also  a  preventive  of  frost,  providing  the  general 
temperature  is  not  too  low.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  in  deeper 
valleys,  protected  against  the  western  wind,  flakes  of  snow  and  a 
wintry  chill,  with  dormant  vegetation,  while  one  thousand  feet  higher 
up  the  foliage  is  fast  developing. 

MOUNTAIN     CLIMATE 

Above  an  elevation  of  two  thousand  five  hundred  to  three 
thousand  feet,  conditions  gradually  intrude  which  'resemble  those 
of  wintry  climates.  The  tender  fruits,  the  apricots,  peach,  etc., 
become  liable  to  winter  injury  and  give  irregular  returns,  or  as 
greater  elevation  is  attained,  become  wholly  untrustworthy.  Early 
blooming  of  these  fruits  during  warm  spells  which  are  followed  by 
severe  frosts,  renders  the  trees  unfruitful.  At  four  thousand  to  four 
thousand  five  hundred  feet  the  hardy  apple  and  pear  flourish,  ripen- 
ing late,  and  winter  varieties  possessing  excellent '  keeping  qualities. 
Here,  however,  winter  killing  of  trees  begins  and  locations  even  for 
hardy  fruits  have  to  be  choosen  with  circumspection. 

There  are  elevated  tracts  of  large  extent  among  the  Sierras 
where  the  common  wild  plum,  choke-cherry,  gooseberry,  and  Cali- 
fornia chestnut  are  produced  abundantly.  April  frosts  have  killed 
the  fruit  of  those  same  plums,  transplanted  to  lower  ground,  while 
those  left  in  their  natural  situation  were  quite  unharmed.  It  has 
been  observed  that  these  plum  trees  with  other  fruits  and  nuts  in 
their  original  positions,  invariably  occupy  the  broad  tops  of  the 
great  ridges  instead  of  the  sides  and  bottoms  of  ravines  or  narrow, 
pent-up  valleys.  Follow  nature  in  the  choice  of  orchard  sites  (with 
due  regard  to  a  supply  of  moisture  in  the  soil,  either  natural  or 
artificial)  and  little  hazard  attends  the  culture  of  the  hardier  fruits 
of  our  latitude  among  the  highlands  of  the  State  than  is  incident 
to. other  seemingly  more  favored  localities.  The  beauty  and  quality 
of  these  mountain  fruits  are  proverbial. 

A       RULE     OF     GENERAL    APPLICATION 

What  has  been  thus  suggested  of  the  great  variation  of  tem- 
perature conditions  within  narrow  limits  should  lead  to  the  conclusion 
that  not  only  must  the  kind  of  fruit  to  plant  be  determined  by  local 


REST  OF  TREES  NOT  DUE  TO  FROSTS  17 

observation  and  experience,  but  often  varieties  of  these  fruits  must 
be  chosen  with  reference  to  adaptation  to  local  environment.  For 
this  reason  it  is  impossible  to  compile  tables  of  varieties  suited  for 
wide  areas — and  yet  it  is  true  that  some  varieties  have  shown  them- 
selves hardy  and  satisfactory  under  all  conditions.  These  facts  will 
be  shown  by  the  discussion  which  will  be  given  to  each  of  the 
different  fruits. 

REST    AND    ACTIVITY    OF     FRUIT     TREES 

Indication  has  already  been  made  of  regions  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  early  and  of  late  fruits.  There  is,  of  course,  difference 
in  time  of  rest  and  of  returning  activity  in  blooming.  On  the 
mountains  under  wintry  conditions  the  trees  leaf  out  and  bloom 
late,  following  more  or  less  the  habit  of  Eastern  trees.  In  the 
foothills,  the  valleys,  and  the  coast,  there  is  less  difference  in  time 
of  rest  and  of  leaf  and  bloom.  Even  in  regions  where  there  may 
be  a  month's  difference  in  ripening  of  fruit,  as,  for  example,  in  the' 
Vacaville  district,  fifty  miles  inland,  and  in  Berkeley,  two  miles  from 
the  bay  shore,  trees  bloom  almost  at  the  same  date.  The  difference 
in  ripening  is  due  to  the  higher  temperature  and  fuller  sunshine  of 
the  interior  situation,  which  have  a  forcing  effect,  while  the  low 
temperature  and  dull  skies  of  the  summer  on  the  coast  retard 
maturity. 

The  rest  of  the  tree,  in  all  save  the  mountain  district,  is  not 
dependent  upon  the  touch  of  frost.  It  comes  rather  from  thirst  than 
from  cold.  The  immense  weight  of  fruit,  the  vigorous  growth  of 
wood,  and  the  exhaustion  of  moisture  from  the  soil  by  the  draught 
of  the  roots  to  compass  this  growth,  are  the  chief  causes  which 
bring  the  sere  and  yellow  leaf  in  California.  It  is  not  frost,  for  the 
petunias  may  be  blooming  and  the  tomato  vines  still  green  in  the 
fields.  But  the  time  has  come  for  a  rest.  The  trees  sleep ;  but  merely 
as  a  nap  at  midday ;  the  early  rains  wake  them  soon.  The  roots 
are  active  first,  then  the  buds  swell,  and  the  blossoms  burst  forth — 
sometimes  as  early  as  January — the  almond  first  heralding  the  advent 
of  California's  springtime. 

Sometimes  this  season  of  rest  is  too  short  for  the  good  of  the 
tree  or  vine.  The  early  rains,  when  followed  by  a  spring-like  tem- 
perature, as  sometimes  happens,  induce  activity  in  the  top  as  well 
as  the  root,  and  the  tree  is  not  in  condition  to  withstand  cold 
weather,  which  may  follow.  It  is  probable  that  such  stimulated 
activity,  suddenly  checked,  is  responsible  for  more  ills  to  tree  and 
vine  than  are  usually  attributed  to  it.  Both  to  insure  hardiness  and 
fruitfulness  it  is  important  that  a  tree  shall  have  summer  moisture 
enough  to  finish  its  late  summer  and  early  autumn  growth-processes. 
Reference  to  this  'important  matter  is  made  in  the  chapter  on 
irrigation. 


CHAPTER    II 

WHY    THE    CALIFORNIA    CLIMATE    FAVORS    THE 
GROWTH     OF     FRUIT 

It  is  pointed  out  by  the  earliest  students  of  meteorology,  as 
related  to  horticulture,  that  perfect  development  of  fruits  depends 
upon  certain  atmospheric  conditions,  which  are  included  in  the  term 
climate:  First,  temperature;  second,  light;  third,  humidity  or 
atmospheric  moisture, — considered  wholly  apart  from  soil  moisture. 
It  was  also  shown  that  temperature  and  humidity  should  be  equable, 
or  as  free  as  possible  from  excessive  extremes  or  rapid  changes. 

Obviously,  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  California  climate  are: 
First,  freedom  from  extremes  of  low  temperature;  second,  an  abun- 
dance of  sunshine;  and  third,  and  atmosphere  with  a  low  percentage 
of  humidity.  It  will  be  interesting  to  introduce  enough  statistics 
to  demonstrate  these  claims,  and  to  cite  reasons  why  these  con- 
ditions are  of  special  value  to  the  fruit  grower. 

THE    OFFICE    OF     HEAT     IN     FRUIT     PRODUCTION 

Temperature  conditions  may  preclude  the  success  of  a  fruit  tree 
either  by  destroying  it  outright,  by  dwarfing  it,  or  by  preventing 
it  from  setting  or  ripening  its  fruit.  Extremes  of  temperature  ac- 
complish the  death  of  plants,  and  insufficient  or  excessive  mean 
temperatures  may  prevent  fruition  without  killing  the  plant.  The 
first  quality  of  the  California  climate  to  arrest  the  attention  of  fruit 
growers  in  the  states  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  is  the  freedom 
from  the  effects  of  the  extremely  low  winter  temperatures,  to  which 
is  due  the  deplorable  failure,  in  the  eastern  and  western  states,  of 
many  of  the  fruit  varieties  from  the  west  of  Europe,  and  to  escape 
which  such  zealous  efforts  now  being  so  successfully  put  forth  to 
secure  hardy  varieties  of  native  and  foreign  origin. 

How  slight  is  the  injury  from  low  temperatures  in  all  parts  of 
the  State  where  fruit  is  largely  grown  may  be  seen  from  the  follow- 
ing compilation  of  extreme  low  temperatures  at  different  points 
approximately  at  the  same  latitude  on  the  coast,  in  the  interior  valleys, 
and  on  the  foot-hills. 

Lowest  Temperatures  at  Several  California  Points. 

Coast  and  Coast       Deg.  above  Deg.  above  Deg.  above 

Valleys —  zero.  Interior  Valleys —       zero.  Foothills —  zero. 

Eureka 20      Redding 18      

Ukiah   12      Red  Bluff   18      

Cloverdale   17      Oroville    15      Nevada  City  4 

Napa   18      Marysville   19     Colfax    8 

San  Francisco   28       Sacramento    19      Auburn    12 

San  Jose   18       Merced    16     Jackson    10 

Gilroy   20      Fresno    17      

San  Miguel  11       Tulare   City    18      Porterville    18 

Los  Angeles  28       Colton    19     Redlands    18 

San  Diego 25       Imperial    20      

18 


IMPORTANCE   OF   ADEQUATE    HEAT  19 

These  records  will  show  any  one  familiar  with  winter  killing  of 
the  leading  orchard  fruits  that  such  disasters  are  not  to  be  feared 
in  the  chief  fruit  regions  of  California.  Local  temperature  is  largely 
controlled  by  local  conditions,  as  has  been  already  pointed  out,  and 
in  the  districts  named  in  the  table  there  are  special  locations  where 
the  lowest  temperature  probably  differed  a  few  degrees  from  the 
figures  given. 

NECESSITY     OF     ADEQUATE     SUMMER     HEAT 

Passing  beyond  the  freedom  from  winter  killing,  it  may  be  re- 
marked that  the  influences  of  certain  degrees  of  heat  upon  the  growth 
of  the  plant  and  the  perfection  of  its  fruit,  has  been  the  subject  of 
much  close  observation.  Boussingault  conducted  careful  experiments, 
and  showed  that  a  temperature  above  a  certain  minimum  of  heat  is 
found  necessary  for  germination,  another  for  chemical  modification, 
and  a  third  for  flowering,  a  fourth  for  the  ripening  of  seeds,  a  fifth 
for  the  elaboration  of  the  saccharine  juices,  and  a  sixth  for  the 
development  of  aroma  or  bouquet. 

Originally  the  mean  annual  temperature  was  alone  observed,  and 
the  polar  limits  of  plants,  it  was  presumed,  could  be  thereby  deter- 
mined. More  recently  it  was  taught  that  the  mean  temperature  of 
seasons  is  of  more  importance  than  that  of  the  year,  and  it  is  believed 
that  to  the  relative  distribution  of  heat  over  the  seasons  rather  than 
to  the  absolute  amount  received  during  the  year,  we  are  to  attribute 
the  fitness  or  unfitness  of  a  region  for  the  growth  of  certain  kinds 
of  vegetation. 

It  is  held  in  Europe  that  the  mean  heat  of  the  cycle  of  vegetation 
of  the  vine  must  be  at  least  59  degrees  Fahr.,  and  that  of  the  summer 
from  65  degrees  to  66  degrees  Fahr.  It  is  stated  to  be  impossible, 
for  instance,  to  cultivate  the  vine  upon  the  temperate  tablelands  of 
South  America,  where  they  enjoy  a  mean  temperature  of  62.6  de- 
grees to  66.2  degrees  Fahr.,  because  these  climates  are  characterized 
by  a  constancy  of  temperature,  never  rising  to  the  higher  heats  nec- 
essary to  the  process  of  sugar  forming,  and  the  vine  grows  and 
flourishes,  but  the  grapes  never  become  thoroughly  ripe.  Boussin- 
gault shows  that,  in  addition  to  a  summer  and  autumn  sufficiently 
hot,  it  is  indispensable  that  at  a  given  period — that  which  follows  the 
appearance  of  seeds — there  should  be  a  month  the  mean  temperature 
of  which  does  not  fall  below  66.2  degrees  Fahr.  As  will  appear 
presently,  this  temperature  test  should  not  be  taken  alone,  but  it  will 
serve  as  a  standard  to  show  one  feature  of  the  horticultural  adapta- 
tion of  the  California  climate.  Boussingault  claims  the  need  of  66.2 
degrees  Fahr.  for  a  single  month.  To  be  sure  to  include  this,  the 
accompanying  table  gives  the  average  summer  temperature  at  the 
leading  fruit-growing  centers  named. 


20  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS  I    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Average  Summer  Temperature  at  Various  California  Points 

Coast  and  Coast  Eleva-      Deg. 

Valleys —  Deg.  F.     Interior  Valleys —  Deg.  F.      Foothills —  tion.         F. 

Upper  Lake   86      Redding   80  Auburn    1,363      75 

Napa    65      Oroville    79  Colfax  2,241      76 

Livermore    69       Marysville    78  Georgetown   2,500      85 

San  Jose   67      Sacramento   72  Caliente    1,290      82 

Hollister    66      Merced  79  Fall   Brook    700      68 

Santa  Barbara  ...  65      Fresno    79  Redlands  1,352      77 

Los   Angeles    ....  70      Tulare    78  

San   Diego    68      Riverside  73  , 

These  points  are  selected  because  the  European  varieties  of  the 
grape  reach  perfection  in  their  vicinity.  The  excess  of  heat  above 
that  required,  as  is  found  at  all  the  interior  points  mentioned  in  the  table, 
results  in  a  very  high  sugar  percentage  in  the  grapes,  and  contributes 
to  the  ripening  of  a  second  and  third  crop,  as  will  be  noted  presently. 
The  superior  length  of  the  growing  season  in  California,  of  course, 
is  an  important  agency  toward  the  same  end. 


DIRECT     SUNLIGHT     ALSO     A  REQUISITE 

Count  de  Gasparin  was  first  to  point  out  that  not  alone  sufficient 
heat,  but  abundance  of  continuous  sunshine  is  a  requisite  of  perfec- 
tion in  fruit  growth  and  ripening,  and  on  his  authority  may  be  based 
a  claim  of  exceptional  value  to  the  fruit  grower  in  the  months  of 
cloudless  skies  which  are  characteristic  of  the  California  summer. 

"The  solar  rays,"  says  Gasparin,  "do  not  only  produce  heat,  but 
brings  us  light,  and  the  effects  of  the  heat  and  light  rays  differ  in  a 
very  pronounced  manner.  Without  light  there  is  no  fructification ; 
it  is  not  necessary  that  the  want  of  light  should  be  complete  that 
there  should  be  a  failure  of  fruits.  In  fact,  diffused  light  alone  does 
not  suffice  for  the  greater  number  of  plants;  cultivated  plants  will 
not  ripen  their  seed  without  the  direct  rays  of  sun,  and  the  longer 
they  are  deprived  of  it  the  smaller  the  quantity  which  they  will 
mature."* 

Again  referring  to  the  grape,  for  in  connection  with  the  growth 
of  this  fruit  the  most  careful  researches  have  been  made,  Humboldt 
wrote :  "If  to  give  a  potable  wine  the  vine  shuns  the  islands  and 
nearly  all  seacoasts,  even  those  of  the  West,  the  cause  is  not  only 
in  the  moderate  heat  of  summer  upon  the  seashore,  but  it  exists 
more  in  the  difference  which  there  is  between  direct  and  diffused 
light ;  between  a  clear  sky,  and  one  veiled  with  clouds. "f 

*Cours  d' Agriculture,  t.  II,  p.  96. 
fCosmos,  t.  I,  p.  349. 


CLEAR   SUNLIGHT   A   REQUISITE  21 

Normal  Cloudiness  at  California  and  Eastern  Points 

Avg.  for 

Mar.  April.      May.     June    July.       Aug.     Sept.       Oct.     Nov.       9  mo. 
California — 


Red  Bluff 

44 

42 

36 

1  9 

10 

07 

1  3 

24 

34 

2.5 

Sacramento   

3Q 

3.5 

2.7 

15 

0.5 

0.4 

1.1 

2.0 

2.8 

?0 

San  Francisco   .... 

48 

43 

42 

38 

43 

43 

35 

3.3 

38 

40 

Fresno    .... 

43 

29 

27 

1  5  ' 

07 

09 

14 

22 

28 

70 

San  Diego 

48 

44 

53 

48 

43 

39 

37 

38 

33 

42 

Eastern  — 
Rochester,  N.  Y. 
New  York,  N.  Y.   . 
Philadelphia,    Pa.    .. 
Baltimore,  Md 

.6.6 

.5.5 
.5.6 
54 

5.4 
5.3 
5.4 
5  1 

5.2 
5.2 
5.1 
5  1 

4.9 
4.9 
5.0 
49 

4.6 
5.0 
5.0 
48 

4.6 
4.9 
4.9 
49 

4.9 

4.7 
4.8 
47 

6.0 
4.9 
4.7 
46 

7.6 

5:2 

5.2 
49 

5.5 
5.0 
5.0 
49 

Cleveland,   Ohio    .  .  . 
Grand   Haven,   Mich 
Jacksonville,   Fla.    .  . 
New  Orleans,  La.  .  . 

.6.4 
.6.2 
.4.2 
.4.8 

5.3 

5.4 
4.1 
4.8 

4.9 
4.8 
4.1 
4.3 

4.6 
4.6 
5.1 
4.7 

4.3 
3.8 
4.8 
4.9 

4.3 
4.0 
4.9 
4.7 

4.9 
4.4 
5.0 
4.3 

5.7 
5.6 
4.2 
3.5 

7.3 
7.5 
4.5 
4.5 

5.3 
5.1 
4.5 

4.5 

It  is  noticeable  that  at  the  California  coast  points  the  average 
cloudiness  is  almost  twice  that  of  the  interior  valleys,  while  at  the 
East  the  interior  fruit  regions  of  western  New  York,  Ohio,  and 
Michigan,  have  a  greater  average  cloudiness  than  the  Hudson  River, 
New  Jersey,  and  Delaware  regions  near  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  The 
average  cloudiness  in  the  Eastern  fruit  regions  is  rather  more  than 
twice  as  great  as  in  the  regions  of  California  where  most  fruit  is 
grown. 

This  excess  of  advantage,  as  it  may  be  termed,  in  connection 
with  the  high  and  protracted  heat  already  mentioned,  takes  practical 
form  in  the  successful  ripening  of  a  second  and  sometimes  a  third 
crop  of  these  grapes  in  a  season,  from  later  bloom  on  younger  cane 
growth.  This  behavior  is  of  more  value  as  a  demonstration  of  clim- 
atic conditions  than  otherwise,  for  it  is  generally  better  to  produce 
the  main  crop  alone  than  to  undertake  later  ones. 

Another  indication  of  excess  of  advantage  in  the  interior  valley 
is  found  in  the  development  of  high  sugar  contents,  which  is  of 
direct  value  in  raisin  production.  The  same  tendency,  though  per- 
haps of  less  commercial  value,  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  some  grapes 
which  yield  a  good  claret  wine  nearer  the  coast  develop  too  much 
alcohol  when  grown  in  the  interior. 

The  advantage  of  California  over  Eastern  and  Southern  fruit 
regions  in  the  abundance  of  clear  sunshine  is  shown  in  the  table 
on  the  preceding  page.  Cloudiness  is  rated  from  0  to  10,  three 
observations  daily,  and  the  figures  in  the  table  are  the  averages  from 
these  daily  observations  for  a  series  of  years,  compiled  from  the 
records  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau. 

RELATION     OF     ATMOSPHERIC     HUMIDITY     TO     THE 
GROWTH    OF    TREES 

Here  is  another  important  condition  of  the  climate  of  California 
which  is  intimately  related  to  those  which  have  been  considered, 
and  which  is  to  be  credited  with  no  small  influence  in  the  perfection 


22  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO   GROW   THEM 

of  our  fruits,  and  that  is  the  low  percentage  of  humidity  which  our 
atmosphere  contains.  In  California  the  percentage  of  humidity  is 
high  in  the  winter  and  low  in  the  summer ;  in  the  East  the  condi- 
tion is  just  reversed.  For  this  reason  summer  heat  is  far  more 
oppressive  in  the  East  than  in  California,  and  for  the  same  reason 
certain  serious  fungoid  diseases  which  prevail  at  the  East,  though 
found  here  in  less  injurious  degree  directly  on  the  coast,  may  be 
wholly  unknown  in  the  interior  where  the  air  is  drier.  The  dry  air 
also  favors  the  access  and  action  of  light  and  heat,  for  Tyndall  says 
that  a  sheet  of  vapor  acts  as  a  screen  to  the  earth,  being  in  a  great 
measure  impervious  to  heat. 

It  is  not  necessary,  then,  that  there  should  be  clouds  to  lessen  the 
chemical  effects  of  sun  heat  in  fruit  ripening.  Not  only  do  clouds 
intercept  sunshine,  but  water  vapor  in  the  air — when  to  the  eve  the 
sun  is  bright  as  ever — can  absorb  a  large  quantity  of  the  effective 
sun  rays,  and  so  retard  fruit  ripening.  Hence  an  apparently  sunny 
country  which  has  much  invisible  water  vapor  in  the  air,  may  prove 
defective  in  fruit-ripening  qualities. 

It  is  true  that  air  free  from  humidity  allows  rapid  escape  of  heat 
by  radiation  as  well  as  free  access  of  it,  and  in  dry  air  frost  is  more 
severe,  but  at  the  time  of  the  greatest  fruit  growth,  from  June  to 
October,  radiation  down  to  a  frost  point  is  prevented  by  other  natural 
agencies.  In  the  early  spring  and  late  autumn  the  humidity  per- 
centage rises  again  and  checks  radiation  just  at  the  time  of  the  year 
when  it  is  most  desirable  to  have  it  checked. 

The  accompanying  table,  compiled  from  the  records  of  the  United 
States  Weather  Bureau,  shows  the  prevailing  relative  humidity  in  the 
East  and  South  and  in  California. 

Normal  Relative  Humidity  at  Eastern  and  California  Points 


Eastern  Stations  — 
Jacksonville,  Fla.   .  .  . 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Rochester,  N.  Y.   ... 
Grand  Haven,  Mich. 
St.  Louis,  Mo  
New  Orleans.  La.  .  .  . 

April 

..72.3 
.  .63.4 
..67.8 
..70.9 
.  .63.7 
..76.0 

May 

73.0 
68.9 
68.6 
71.4 
67.8 
74.2 

June 

77.6 
69.2 
69.1 
73.7 
68.8 
78.1 

July 

78.6 
68.6 
67.3 
69.0 
66.3 
78.3 

Aug. 

80.9 
71.2 
70.7 
73.1 
67.3 
78.8 

Sept. 

82.9 

75.2 
75.2 
75.0 
70.2 
77.3 

Oct. 

79.8 
70.7 
75.6 
75.7 
65.9 
74.0 

Avg.  for 
Nov.      8.  mo. 

82.2      78.3 
73.6      70.1 
76.2      71.3 
79.1      73.5 
71.1      67.6 
79.4      78.0 

Galveston,  Tex 84.6  78.0  79.3  77.4  78.1  77.2  75.6  80.4  78.5 

California  Stations  — 

Los  Angeles   73.1  75.2  73.0  75.4  76.2  72.9  74.3  66.6  73.3 

Fresno  59.3  52.7  42.4  "  34.7  34.7  43.6  55.1  64.1  48.3 

Sacramento    67.6  67.6  66.1  59.8  59.8  59.0  62.4  66.8  63.6 

Red  Bluff  .                 ..61.9  56.8  43.7  35.6  35.3  43.6  51.6  60.7  48.8 


THE     THREE     POINTS     COMBINED 

The  three  great  advantages  of  the  California  climate — abundant 
heat,  continuous  sunshine,  and  dry  air — taken  in  connection  with 
the  fitness  of  the  soil  and  the  great  length  of  the  growing  season, 
insure  the  characteristic  excellence  of  California  fruit,  and  the  early 


WHY   CALIFORNIA   FRUIT   IS   LARGE  AND   FINE  23 

maturity,  great  growth,  and  abundant  fruitage  of  our  trees  and 
vines.  Heat,  sunshine,  dry  air,  and  a  rainless  summer  also  minister 
directly  to  the  curing  of  fruits  in  the  open  air.  All  things  considered, 
it  is  doubtful  whether  any  area  in  the  world  excels  California  in 
possession  of  natural  adaptation  to  fruit  production  and  preservation. 

A      RECAPITULATION      OF      CALIFORNIA'S      CLIMATIC 

ENDOWMENT 

Through  the  multitude  of  local  observations,  which  seem  per- 
plexing and  almost  contradictory,  it  is  possible  to  clearly  discern 
certain  general  conditions  of  both  nature  and  culture,  which  may  be 
briefly  advanced  as  «haracteristically  and  distinctively  Californian. 
Of  these,  perhaps  the  most  striking  is  the  length  of  the  growing 
season. 

Take,  for  instance,  the  peach  in  a  good  peach  region.  The  bloom 
may  appear  in  February,  followed  by  the  grand  foliage  expanding 
to  a  leaf-size,  marvelous  to  one  unused  to  such  peach  leaves.  The 
shoots  of  new  growth  rush  out  with  vigor  promised  by  such  leaf; 
and  yet  the  fruit  below  expands  as  though  it  would  burst  its  skin 
in  rapid  enlargement — and  still  it  grows.  The  new  shoot,  apparently 
weary  of  its  several  feet  of  extension,  stops  for  a  rest,  and  then, 
reviving,  starts  out  its  laterals — while  still  below  the  peach  is  grow- 
ing. The  laterals  push  out  a  foot  or  more — all  carrying  large,  fresh 
leaves.  While  these  are  in  full  vigor,  the  fruit  ripens,  after  having 
a  full  year's  joint  work  of  root  and  foliage,  if  it  is  a  late  variety. 
Is  it  any  wonder  it  weighs  a  pound?  But  still  the  tree  is  active. 
It  forms  its  terminal  buds,  and  then  all  along  the  new  main  shoots 
and  their  laterals  are  formed  the  leaf  and  blossom  buds  for  the 
following  year.  Still  the  foliage  holds  green  and  active,  if  the 
moisture  below  be  adequate,  and  the  leaves  seem  loath  to  fall  in  the 
ninth  month  from  time  of  blooming.  Is  it  any  wonder  California 
peaches  are  large  and  the  trees  require  pruning  and  thinning  to  en- 
able them  to  carry  the  weight  produced  in  such  a  season  of  growth? 
And  what  has  been  said  of  the  peach  is  true  of  other  trees,  according 
to  their  nature  and  habits.  The  trees  themselves  are  more  eloquent 
of  California's  conditions  for  growth  than  descriptions  or  statistical 
tables  can  be  made. 

But  the  quality  of  the  light  and  heat,  if  the  term  is  admissible, 
is  a  factor  as  well  as  their  duration.  The  air,  free,  not  alone  from 
clouds,  but  from  the  insensible  aqueous  vapor  which  weakens  sun- 
shine in  its  effort  to  serve  vegetation  in  a  humid  climate,  has  a 
clearness  and  brilliance  from  its  aridity  which  makes  each  day  of 
the  long,  growing  season  more  than  a  day  in  other  climates,  and 
thus  adds  to  the  calendar  length  of  the  growing  season.  The  surplus 
light  and  heat  also  act  directly  in  the  chemistry  which  proceeds  in  the 
tissues  of  the  plant,  and  we  have  not  only  size,  but  quality,  color,  aroma 
— everything  which  makes  the  perfect  fruit  precious  and  beautiful 
beyond  words. 


24  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW   TO   GROW    THEM 

It  is  true  that  for  commercial  purposes  it  is  not  possible  to  allow 
this  process  to  go  too  far,  for  its  later  effects  are  higher  sweetness, 
accompanied  by  such  juiciness  that  the  fruit  can  not  endure  trans- 
portation. But  go  to  the  tree  to  apply  the  only  test  which  can  fairly 
be  put  to  a  juicy  fruit,  and  the  demonstration  of  the  service  of  clear, 
unobstructed  sunshine  through  an  adequate  period  is  complete.  But 
if  this  can  not  be  done,  place  the  judgment  upon  the  mature  peach 
carefully  sun-dried  and  intelligently  cooked,  or  upon  the  ripe  peach 
skilfully  canned,  and  the  distinctive  adaptations  of  California  for 
fruit  production  will  display  themselves. 

But  there  are  other  agencies  involved  in  the  perfection  of  fruit 
than  intensity  and  duration  of  light  and  heat.  Without  adequate 
moisture  in  the  soil,  the  air  which  we  have  credited  with  such  benign 
power  in  carrying  heat  and  light  for  perfection  of  fruit  would  trans- 
mit the  same  as  agencies  for  the  destruction  of  the  tree  which 
bears  it.  If  this  moisture  comes  from  rainfall,  it  descends  at 
the  time  of  the  year  when  the  tree  is  least  active,  consequently  is 
least  retarded  by  a  clouded  sky  and  moisture-laden  air,  and  least 
affected  by  atmospheric  disturbances.  Strong  storm  winds  find 
the  tree  with  reefed  sails,  and  able  to  endure  pressure  which  would 
tear  it  to  pieces  if  they  came  upon  its  grand  spread  of  foliage  on 
branches  heavy  with  fruit.  It  is  a  priceless  horticultural  endow- 
ment that  no  tornado  can  pierce  our  protecting  mountain-barriers, 
and  that  it  is  exceedingly  rare  that  our  local  winds  disturb  the  confident 
swaying  of  the  branches  and  leaf  movement  beyond  the  activity  which 
ministers  to  the  sap  flow.  And  if  the  adequate  moisture  is  not  from 
rainstorm,  but  by  irrigation,  the  same  facts  remain,  for  the  water 
reaches  the  tree  without  interrupting  its  aerial  activity.  Temperature 
is  maintained,  light  is  unobstructed,  and  the  tree  is  refreshed  with 
moisture  without  the  chill  and  darkness  which  favor  fungoid  parasites. 
Of  all  the  ways  by  which  moisture  could  come  to  soils  supporting  fruit 
tree  or  vine,  the  natural  by  its  time,  and  the  artificial  by  its  method, 
endow  California  with  the  best. 

The  characteristics  of  the  California  climate  which  have  been  espe- 
cially pointed  out  in  this  sketch  are  not  propitious  to  fruit  culture 
when  they  exist  to  excessive  degree,  as  in  some  interior  or  continental 
climates.  Local  conditions  of  altitude,  distance  from  the  sea,  and 
exposure  to  the  sweep  of  arctic  winds,  induce  sudden  and  great  weather 
changes  which  are  serious  in  their  effects.  Excessively  low  percentage 
of  atmospheric  humidity,  in  connection  with  desiccating  wind,  often 
produce  greater  evaporation  from  the  leaves  than  the  roots  can  supply. 
Excessively  dry  air  admits  a  parching  sun  heat  at  one  time,  and  at 
another  facilitates  radiation  of  heat,  until  the  rapid  decline  in  tempera- 
ture makes  killing  frosts  frequent.  It  is  evident  that  California  has 
these  agencies  constantly  held  in  check  by  her  insular  situation  and 
protecting  environment,  and  owes  her  wonderful  adaptation  to  growth 
of  tree  and  perfection  of  fruit  not  more  to  the  possession  of  certain 
conditions  than  to  the  fact  of  their  existence  in  moderation. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE    FRUIT    SOILS    OF    CALIFORNIA 

The  favoring  characteristics  of  the  California  climates,  which  have 
been  described,  find  their  fitting  complement  in  the  adaptation  of  the 
California  soils  to  the  perfect  development  of  fruit-bearing  tree  and 
vine.  In  their  wonderful  variety  and  consequent  great  range  of 
special  adaptations  within  narrow  limits  of  area  our  soils  also  resemble 
our  climates.  As  a  man  may  sometimes  find  within  the  boundaries  of 
an  ordinary-sized  farm  such  a  difference  of  atmospheric  conditions 
that  the  same  fruit  will  thrive  in  one  spot  and  not  in  another,  so  he 
may  find  differences  in  soil  which  will  tend  to  produce  the  same  results. 
For  this  reason  the  precise  spot  in  which  to  plant  any  given  fruit  must 
be  chosen  with  regard  to  both  soil  and  exposure.  In  the  chapters 
devoted  to  the  several  fruits,  there  will  be  an  attempt  made  to  describe 
the  soil  requirements  of  each,  so  that  the  inexperienced  planter  may 
not  err  seriously  in  choosing  the  location  for  each  kind  of  fruit  he 
desires  to  grow.  While  this  is  true,  it  will  also  appear  in  these  special 
chapters  that  the  choice  of  roots  upon  which  to  bud  or  graft  gives 
the  planter  a  certain  latitude  and  independence.  This  is  of  greatest 
value  in  the  planting  of  home  orchards,  or  orchards  for  local  markets, 
in  regions  where  the  soil  is  not  what  is  usually  preferred  for  fruit 
production.  With  proper  choice  of  stocks  and  wisdom  and  diligence 
in  cultivation,  one  need  hardly  despair  of  growing  good  fruit  on  soil 
which  will  support  any  laudable  plant  growth.  And  yet  in  commercial 
orcharding,  the  secret  of  which  is  producing  most  abundantly  and 
cheaply,  too  great  attention  can  not  be  paid  to  choice  of  specially 
adapted  soils. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  more  complete  and  exact  knowledge 
exists  of  the  soils  of  California  than  of  any  other  State  of  the  Union, 
and  for  this  knowledge  the  public  is  indebted  to  E.  W.  Hilgard,  Pro- 
fessor Emeritus  of  Agriculture,  and  Director  of  the  Agricultural 
Experiment 'Stations  of  the  University  of  California  from  1875  to 
1905.  For  the  last  forty  years  he  has  given  all  the  time  he  could 
spare  from  many  other  and  pressing  duties,  to  the  examination,  and, 
when  needed,  the  analysis,  of  representative  soil  specimens,  and  to 
practical  expositions  of  their  nature,  adaptations,  and  requirements  in 
the  event  of  exhaustion  from  too  long  cropping,  and  he  has  published 
a  general  treatise  entitled,  "Soils;  Their  Formation,  Properties,  Compo- 
sition and  Relations  to  Climate  and  Plant  Growth  in  the  Humid  and 
Arid  Regions,"  which  includes  the  results  of  his  long  study  of  Cali- 
fornia soils  and  climates. 

Since  the  honorable  retirement  of  Professor  Hilgard  and  of  Pro- 
fessor R.  H.  Loughridge,  who  was  for  many  years  closely  associated 
with  him  in  soil  work,  the  University  instruction  and  research  in  soils 
have  been  in  charge  of  Professor  C.  B.  Lipman,  whose  original  work, 
especially  in  soil  bacteriology,  is  making  notable  contributions  to  a 
25 


26  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO   GROW   THEM 

fuller  understanding  of  the  distinctive  character  of  California  soils 
and  their  intelligent  utilization. 

Veny  extensive  studies  of  California  soils  have  been  recently  made 
under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Milton  Whitney,  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of 
Soils  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  a  new 
classification  and  nomenclature  of  them,  from  his  points  of  view,  with 
extended  maps  of  their  occurrence,  are  to  be  found  in  the  special  reports 
of  the  Bureau. 

In  1913  a  systematic  and  comprehensive  study  of  California  soils 
preliminary  to  their  mapping  and  an  exposition  of  their  suitabilities  was 
begun  by  Professor  C.  F.  Shaw  of  the  University  of  California. 

DISTINCTIVE  CHARACTERS  OF  CALIFORNIA  SOILS 

One  of  the  most  interesting  and  important  recent  achievements  in 
soil  investigation  consists  in  demonstrating  distinctive  differences  be- 
tween soils  formed  under  arid  and  under  humid  climatic  conditions. 
In  the  development  of  this  subject  certain  distinctive  characters  of 
California  soils  clearly  appear,  and  they  are  of  direct  relation  to  the 
thrift,  productiveness,  treatment  and  longevity  of  fruit  trees.  These 
characters  are:  (a)  lightness  and  consequent  permeability  and  ease 
of  cultivation;  (b)  depth,  admitting  exceptional  root  extension  and 
penetration;  and  (c)  richness,  containing  some  kinds  of  plant  food 
in  considerably  greater  amounts  than  are  found  in  the  soils  of  humid 
regions.  These  characteristics,  as  demonstrated  by  Prof.  Hilgard, 
may  be  outlined  in  this  way  with  special  reference  to  their  relations 
to  fruit  growing. 

Lightness. — California  soils  predominately  exhibit  the  sandy, 
silty  or  pulverulent  nature  of  all  soils  formed  under  arid  conditions, 
save  in  case  of  pre-existing  clay  formations  of  former  geological  epochs, 
as  well  as  slack-water  deposts  of  the  present  epoch,  all  of  which  are 
substantially  independent  of  climate.  While  "sand"  in  the  humid 
regions  means  virtually  quartz  grains  only,  in  the  arid  country  it  means 
very  largely  grains  and  powder  of  the  other  soil-forming  minerals  as 
well.  While,  therefore,  in  the  humid  region  sandy  land  as  a  rule 
means  poor  land,  in  the  arid,  on  the  contrary,  sandy  lands  are  at 
least  as  desirable  as  heavier  ones,  both  on  the  score  of  high  productive- 
ness, durability,  and  ease  of  cultivation,  together  with  ready  resistance 
to  drouth. 

Depth. — Another  point  of  great  importance  is  that  the  difference 
between  soil  and  subsoil,  which  is  so  striking  and  important  in  regions 
of  abundant  rainfall,  is  largely  obliterated  in  arid  climates.  Very  com- 
monly hardly  a  perceptible  change  of  tint  or  texture  is  found  for  depths 
of  several  feet;  and  what  is  more  important,  material  from  such 
depths,  when  thrown  on  the  surface  oftentimes  subserves  the  agricul- 
tural uses  of  a  soil  nearly  or  quite  as  well  as  the  original  surface  soil. 
The  unconcern  with  which  irrigators  proceed  to  level  or  otherwise 
grade  their  land,  even  though  this  may  involve  covering  up  large 
areas  of  surface  soil  with  subsoil  from  several  feet  depth ;  the  rapidity 


CALIFORNIA    SOIL    CHARACTERS  27 

with  which  the  red  loam  of  the  placer  mines  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
foothills  is  re-covered  with  the  natural  forest  growth  of  the  region, 
etc.,  are  examples  familiar  to  the  residents  but  surprising  to  new- 
comers, who  are  accustomed  to  dread  the  upturning  of  the  subsoil  as 
likely  to  deprive  them  of  remunerative  crops  for  several  years,  until 
the  "raw"  subsoil  has  had  time  to  be  "vitalized"  by  the  fallowing  effect 
of  the  atmosphere,  and  to  acquire  the  needful  amounts  of  humus  or 
vegetable  mold.  Thus  the  surface  soil,  which  in  the  humid  regions 
supplies  the  bulk  of  the  nourishment,  becomes  here  of  minor  impor- 
tance, serving  chiefly  as  a  mulch  to  prevent  waste  of  moisture;  while 
the  active  process  of  nutrition  occurs  in  the  deeper  portion  of  the  soil 
stratum,  whose  composition,  as  well  as  condition  of  disintegration  and 
aeration,  is  substantially  the  same  as  above.  The  second  foot  is  rarely 
found  to  differ  materially  from  the  first,  even  as  to  humus  content; 
for  the  latter,  being  almost  exclusively  derived  from  the  humification 
of  roots,  the  leaves  and  herbage  on  the  surface  being  mostly  oxidized 
away  under  the  intense  heat  and  abundant  aeration  of  summer;  it 
not  uncommonly  happens  in  very  porous  soils  that  the  first  six  inches 
of  surface  soil  are  poorer  in  humus  than  the  second  foot. 

Practical  Results  of  Lightness  and  Depth. — The  "lightness"  and 
previousness  of  the  prevailing  soils  of  the  arid  region  permit  of  the 
penetration  of  roots  to  depths  which  in  the  humid  region  are  inac- 
cessible to  them  on  account  of  the  dense  subsoils,  which  prevent  the 
needful  access  of  air.  This  deep  penetration  enables  even  annual  plants 
to  avail  themselves  directly  of  the  stores  of  moisture  in  the  substrata, 
at  depths  which  in  the  humid  region  are  scarcely  reached  save  by  the 
tap-roots  of  some  perennials  and  trees;  while  the  latter  themselves 
reach  depth  never  approached  by  them  in  the  region  of  summer  rains. 
Professor  Hilgard  has  personally  found  the  ends  of  the  roots  of  grape- 
vines at  a  depth  of  twenty-three  feet,  in  a  gravelly  clay-loam;  from 
ten  to  fifteen  feet  'are  ordinary  depths  reached  by  the  root  system  of 
fruit  trees.  Even  the  roots  of  cereals  have  been  found  to  penetrate 
to  a  depth  of  twelve  feet  in  California  sandy  alluvial  soils  and  to  four- 
teen feet  in  loams.  Such  depth  of  rooting,  when  conservation  of  mois- 
ture is  secured  by  proper  surface  cultivation,  enables  deciduous  fruit 
trees  to  grow  thrifty  and  bear  fine  fruit  through  six  months  of  drouth 
while  as  many  week's  of  drouth  may  bring  distress  and  loss  of  fruit  to 
surface-rooting  trees  on  the  shallow  soils  of  the  humid  region.  Recent 
investigations  at  the  California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  have 
also  disclosed  that  the  good  physical  and  chemical  conditions  of  the 
deeper  layers  of  our  soi\s  have  also  made  possible  the  penetration  from 
the  surface  layers,  of  various  forms  of  micro  organisms  upon  which 
we  are  dependent  not  only  for  a  solution  of  the  insoluble  plant  food, 
but  for  the  addition  of  nitrogen  to  the  soil  from  the  atmosphere. 

Richness. — The  foregoing  conditions  are  rendered  the  more  sig- 
nificant and  effective  through  the  third  characteristic  of  soils  formed 
in  arid  climates.  The  average  aggregate  amounts  of  plant-food  ingre- 
dients are  markedly  greater  in  the  arid  than  in  the  humid  soils,  wherever 
their  derivation  is  at  all  generalized.  Among  the  agriculturally  impor- 
tant ingredients  contained  in  larger  average  amounts  in  the  arid  soils 


28  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS  I    HOW   TO   GROW   THEM 

than  in  the  humid,  lime  stands  foremost;  its  percentage  in  soils 
not  derived  from  calcareous  formations  being  from  twelve  to  fourteen 
times  greater  in  the  arid  than  in  the  humid  soils.  Magnesia  follows 
lime  in  this  respect,  but  the  average  difference  is  only  about  half  as 
great.  The  average  content  of  potash  in  the  arid  soils  exceeds  that  in 
the  humid  in  about  the  proportion  of  one  to  three  or  four.  But  no 
such  constant  difference  exists  in  respect  to  phosphoric  acid.  As  re- 
gards humus,  and  the  nitrogen  of  which  it  is  the  carrier  and  reservoir, 
its  amount  is  usually  considerably  less  than  in  the  humid  soils;  but 
the  total  nitrogen  percentage  does  not  differ  widely,  because  the 
humus  of  arid  soils  contains,  on  the  average,  from  three  to  five  times 
as  much  nitrogen  as  is  found  in  the  humus  of  humid  soils,  and  there- 
fore, the  supply  of  soil  nitrogen  is  very  nearly  the  same  in  both  regions, 
while  from  several  causes,  the  humus-nitrogen  of  arid  soils  is  more 
available  to  plants.  . 

Practical  Lessons  from  the  Constitution  of  Our  Soils. — The  ex- 
traordinary depth  of  our  soils,  which  reveals  a  favorable  physical, 
chemical  and  biological  nature,  teaches  the  importance  and  essential 
nature  of:  (1)  deep  tillage;  (2)  deep  incorporation  of  manures  and 
fertilizers;  (3)  deep  irrigation.  It  is  clear  that  if  we  can  make  condi- 
tions just  as  congenial  for  the  roots  of  plants  in  the  lower  layers  of 
the  soil  as  in  the  upper,  there  is  but  one  course  left  open  to  us,  namely : 
taking  advantage  of  the  opportunities  afforded  us  by  nature,  if  we 
would  maintain  the  fertility  of  our  soils.  To  do  this  we  must  en- 
courage the  deep  rooting  of  our  trees,  and  nothing  in  the  line  of  soil 
management  can  accomplish  the  desired  end  so  well  as  making  available 
to  the  roots  in  the  deeper  soil  layers,  air,  plant  food  and  water  by  the 
methods  above  enumerated. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF    CALIFORNIA   SOILS 

Any  attempt  to  classify  the  soils  of  California  upon  scientific  lines 
or  even  to  describe  them  in  their  wonderful  variety,  according  to  their 
geographical  occurrence,  would  lead  beyond  the  limitations  of  a  treatise 
upon  the  practice  of  fruit  growing.  Rather  let  an  attempt  be  made 
to  designate  certain  grades  of  soil  with  brief  characterization  of  their 
leading  features  as  they  are  related  to  the  growth  of  fruits.  By  such 
a  course  it  may  be  made  to  appear  that  though  the  soils  of  the  State 
are  predominantly  light,  deep  and  rich  and  thus  eminently  fitted  for 
fruit  growing,  there  are  many  degrees  in  the  possession  of  these  char- 
acters or  any  of  them,  in  local  soils,  and  upon  this  individual  manifesta- 
tion they  rate  all  the  way  from  perfection  to  defectiveness.  Let  a 
classification  proceed  then  upon  a  descending  scale. 

Light,  Deep  Loams. —  Admixture  of  clay  with  enough  coarse 
materials  to  secure  permeability  to  air  and  water,  ease  in  cultivation, 
deep  root  penetration  and  free  drainage  of  surplus  water,  produces 
soil  of  the  highest  adaptability  to  the  growth  of  fruit  trees  and  vines. 
These  soils  rae  popularly  known  as  loams.  They  are  designated  as 
sandy  loams,  medium  loams  and  clay  loams,  according  to  the  propor- 
tion of  clay  commingled  with  the  sand  or  coarse  materials. 


CALIFORNIA   VALLEY    LOAMS  29 

Professor  Hilgard  has  devised  the  following  nomenclature  of  soils 
based  upon  their  content  of  clay ;  sandy  soils,  less  than  5  per  cent  of  clay ; 
sandy  loams,  from  5  to  10  per  cent;  ordinary  or  medium  loams,  from 
10  to  15  per  cent;  clay  loams,  from  15  to  20  per  cent;  clay  soils,  from 
20  to  50  per  cent  of  clay. 

The  coarse  materials  are  sand  grains  of  various  sizes  or  rock  par- 
ticles in  various  degrees  of  disintegration.  The  fine  materials  are  clay 
and  rock  powder,  commonly  designated  as  fine  silt.  Loam  soils  may 
result  from  deposits  by  flowing  water  or  may  consist  of  debris  but  little 
removed  from  local  rock  disintegration.  They  include  a  wide  variety 
of  materials  but  agree  in  the  possession  of  striking  adaptability  to  fruit 
culture.  Some  of  the  leading  instances  of  such  soils  may  be  cited. 

Loams  of  the  Valley  Plains. — On  the  east  side  of  the  Sacra- 
mento Valley  low  ridges  and  swales  at  right  angles  to  the  river's 
course  come  in  from  the  foothills,  forming  a  gently  undulating  plain 
with  a  fall  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  per  mile,  sometimes  right  up 
to  the  river  channels.  Nearly  all  the  soils  of  the  east  side  have  a  red- 
dish tinge,  showing  the  admixture  of  the  red  foothill  soil  and  demon- 
strating, by  the  way,  that  all  these  lands  are  well  drained.  In  cuts 
ten  to  twelve  feet  deep,  made  by  the  sloughs,  the  reddish  plains  loam 
is  seen  to  reach  from  six  to  ten  feet  in  depth,  being  then  underlaid  by 
gravelly  substrata.  The  width  of  this  class  of  profusely  fertile  valley 
land,  east  and  west,  varies  considerably,  according  to  the  meanderings 
of  the  rivers.  Away  from  the  water  courses,  the  higher  lands  of  the 
valleys  are  largely  red  or  yellow  loams,  sometimes  clayey  and  difficult 
of  cultivation  unless  taken  just  in  the  right  condition,  sometimes 
gravelly  and  apt  to  dry  out  unless  the  natural  water  supply  is  supple- 
mented by  irrigation,  but  mostly  a  free-working,  fairly  retentive,  light 
loam,  very  satisfactory  for  some  kinds  of  fruit. 

The  soils  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  have,  as  a  rule,  a  much  greater 
admixture  of  sand  than  those  of  the  Sacramento  Valley;  there  is  also 
a  more  distinct  subdivision  of  the  valley  lands  into  upland  or  "bench" 
lands,  and  lowland  or  alluvial  lands  proper. 

Upon  the  upland  or  plains  soils,  especially  of  Fresno  and  Tulare 
counties,  wonderful  progress  in  fruit-growing  by  irrigation  has  been 
made  during  the  last  few  years.  Though  its  summer  aspect  is  most 
forbidding  and  almost  desert-like  in  lack  of  vegetation,  the  application 
of  water  has  shown  exceptional  quickness  of  growth,  early  bearing, 
and  lavish  productiveness  of  tree  and  vine.  These  plains  loams  vary 
in  appearance,  and  are  from  this  fact  locally  named,  "reddish  loam," 
"white  ash,"  and  "sand  hill."  All  are  distinctly  calcareous.  Even  in 
the  case  of  the  latter,  which  is  the  lightest  and  made  of  almost  90  per 
cent  of  inert  sand,  it  is  so  deep  and  has  its  plant  food  in  such  highly 
available  condition  that  it  is  producing  very  large  crops  of  fruits  where 
there  is  no  rise  of  the  bottom  water  to  prevent  root  penetration.  In 
the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  there  are  some  loose  loams  of  light 
color  resulting  from  the  decomposition  of  granite,  but  they  are  as  a 
rule  inferior  to  the  red  foothill  soils,  which  are  more  clayey,  and  will 
be  mentioned  among  the  clay  loams  later. 


30  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

The  soils  prevailing  in  the  valley  of  Southern  California,  from 
Redlands  at  its  head  to  Los  Angeles  at  it  opening  out  toward  the  sea, 
consist  chiefly  of  granitic  sand,  which  at  some  points  on  the  slopes 
forms  the  soils  exclusively,  but  everywhere  constitutes  a  prominent 
ingredient  of  the  valley  and  mesa  lands.  These  mesa  lands  are  con- 
spicuous for  their  orange-red  tint,  and  the  red  sandy  loam  of  which 
they  are  composed,  to  depths  varying  from  ten  to  as  much  as  eighty 
feet,  is  evidently  the  choice  soil  for  orange  culture.  It  is  manifest 
that  at  some  remote  epoch  it  filled  the  entire  valley.  Of  the  middle 
portion  much  has  been  washed  away,  but  islands  of  it  form  red-land 
tracts  of  greater  or  less  extent  all  over  the  region,  traversed  by  and 
more  or  less  commingled  with,  the  gigantic  wash  from  the  valleys  and 
canyons  of  the  Sierra  Madre.  The  latter  frequently  consists  largely 
of  gravel,  and  were  it  not  for  the  luxuriant  natural  vegetation  borne 
by  these  gravel  beds,  few  would  have  thought  of  devoting  them  to  the 
costly  experiment  of  orange  planting,  which,  nevertheless,  has  proved 
eminently  successful  even  on  these  unpromising-looking  masses  of 
debris.  In  the  upper  valley  (San  Bernardino  Valley  proper)  the  red 
loam  is  conspicuous,  and  gives  its  name  to  the  flourishing  city  and 
citrus  district  of  Redlands,  on  the  terminal  slope;  but  the  heavy  flow 
of  water  from  the  upper  canyons,  notably  from  that  of  the  Santa  Ana 
River,  has  scoured  it  out  of  the  valley  itself,  and  left  there,  at  least 
on  the  northern  portion,  gray  and  blackish  granitic  loams  of  great 
depth  and  productiveness,  underlaid,  and  therefore  underdrained,  by 
the  enormous  gravel  beds  that  hold  the  artesian  water  of  this  favored 
region. 

The  reddish  mesa  soils  prevail  through  the  smaller  Southern  Cali- 
fornia valleys  as  well,  and  are  similar  in  character,  as  they  are  derived 
from  similar  geological  formations. 

Where  the  surface  descends  gradually  to  the  seashore,  and  not  in 
bluffs,  there  are  as  in  Los  Angeles  and  Orange  counties,  coast  flats 
several  miles  in  width,  where  the  soil  is  a  dark-colored  sandy  loam, 
glistening  with  scales  of  mica,  and  more  or  less  affected  with  alkali 
in  the  lower  portions.  Similar  soils  are  found  in  tracts  of  greater 
or  less  extent  up  the  coast  as  far  as  Santa  Barbara  at  least.  As  a 
rule,  these  seashore  lands  are  very  productive,  but  fruits  for  them  must 
be  chosen  with  reference  to  their  low  level  and  exposure  to  coast 
influences. 

The  light  loams  of  the  so-called  desert  region  of  Southern  California 
are  not  inferior  in  productive  capacity  to  some  of  the  best  soils  of  the 
great  valley,  which  they  greatly  resemble,  save  in  the  scarcity  of 
humus,  or  vegetable  matter.  Only  a  detailed  survey,  however,  can 
determine  the  tracts  having  an  arable  soil,  as  against  those  overrun 
by  arid  sand.  The  soil  of  the  Colorado  River  bottom  is  highly  produc- 
tive, easily  worked,  being  quite  light.  It  is  a  highly  calcareous  soil, 
and  now,  as  the  water  of  the  Colorado  River  has  been  made  available 
for  irrigation,  is  yielding  rich  returns  for  cultivation. 

The  valleys  of  the  seaward  slope  of  the  Coast  Range  have  mostly 
gray,  light,  and  silty,  rather  than  sandy  soils,  quite  similar  in  appear- 
ance from  Ventura  to  Humboldt  county,  though  differing  considerably 


CALIFORNIA   ALLUVIAL   LOAMS  31 

in  composition,  those  of  the  southern  region  being  more  calcareous, 
and  apparently  richer  in  phosphoric  acid;  as  the  coast  region  consists 
for  the  most  part  of  low  ranges  with  intervening  valleys,  the  valleys 
are,  as  a  rule,  small,  though  a  few  show  considerable  area.  In  such 
a  country  the  soil  surface  shows  wide  diversity  with  its  smaller  areas 
than  on  the  vast  stretches  of  the  great  interior  valley;  consequently, 
so  far  as  soil  goes,  the  coast  farms  are  often  suited  to  a  wider  range  of 
fruits  than  the  interior  valley  farms  of  similar  size. 

ALLUVIAL  OR  SEDIMENTARY  LOAMS 

These  soils  have  been  considered  from  the  earliest  plantings  by 
Americans  as  par  excellence  the  fruit  soils  of  the  great  valley  of  central 
and  northern  California.  They  occur  along  the  courses  of  existing 
streams,  and  extend  back  to  variable  distances,  until  they  merge  into 
the  valley  loams,  or  adobes.  These  deposits  are  considerably  higher 
than  the  present  beds  of  the  streams,  and  are  sometimes  described 
as  "next  to  river  bottom."  They  consist  of  fine  alluvium,  with  seldom 
any  admixture  of  coarse  materials.  These  river  soils  are  usually  very 
deep  and  they  are  naturally  well  drained. 

These  deposits  cross  the  valley  in  somewhat  irregular  courses ;  they 
are  of  greater  or  less  width  according  to  the  drainage  area  whence 
they  have  come.  They  vary  also  in  depth,  and  taper  down  on  either 
side  to  the  level  of  the  red  loam  or  adobe  upon  which  they  have  been 
deposited.  Such  strips  are  first  chosen  by  the  fruit  planters  of  the 
district  in.  which  they  occur.  In  the  valleys  of  the  rivers  crossing  the 
eastern  side  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  there  are,  bordering  the  streams 
as  well  as  Tulare  Lake,  considerable  areas  of  brown  to  blackish  loam 
varying  from  heavy  to  light,  but  for  the  most  part  easily  tilled  and 
exceedingly  rich.  Considerable  fruit  has  been  grown  for  years  on 
these  situations,  and  some  kinds  do  well  on  these  bottoms  which  do  not 
show  adaptation  to  the  plains.  Some  even  of  the  higher  lying  portions 
of  these  "black  lands"  support  thrifty  orchards  without  irrigation. 
The  wider  stretches  of  alluvial  soils  in  the  upper  part  of  the  valley,  as 
in  the  Mussel  Slough  country  and  the  Visalia  region,  for  instance,  are 
notably  well  adapted  to  fruit  growing.  The  occasional  intrusion  of 
alkali,  which  must  be  carelly  avoided,  is  the  chief  obstacle  to  the 
general  approval  of  these  alluvial  lands  for  fruit  purposes. 

Soil  of  similar  character  is  found  in  some  small  valleys  consisting 
of  an  alluvial  wash  from  the  bordering  hills  which  in  some  places 
reaches  a  depth  of  thirty  feet  or  more  without  notable  change  in  char- 
acter. Such  soils  have  proved  very  fertile  and  durable. 

The  rich  river  bottom,  adjacent  to  the  beds  of  the  main  rivers  and 
sloughs  of  the  valley,  has  usually  a  dark,  rich,  and  moist  soil,  easily 
tilled  and  not  subject  to  baking  and  cracking.  It  is  largely  used  for  the 
growth  of  vegetables  and  alfalfa,  but  considerable  areas  have  been 
planted  with  fruit  trees,  especially  with  pears,  which  do  not  suffer  from 
submergence  of  their  roots  for  considerable  time. 

In  the  coast  valleys  of  the  State  there  are  also  very  extensive  areas 
of  alluvial  soils  which  are  largely  used  in  fruit  production,  as  well 


32  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

as  upland  loams  formed  in  place  by  the  disintegration  of  local  rock 
formations.  The  famous  fruit  region  extending  from  Oakland  south- 
ward nearly  one  hundred  miles,  including  the  Alameda  and  Santa 
Clara  Valleys,  has  very  large  areas  of  alluvial  soil,  ranging  from  deep, 
rich  blackish  loams  used  for  vegetables  and  small  fruits  to  lighter 
loams  resulting  from  intermixture  of  sediment  brought  by  streams 
from  adjacent  hillsides  with  the  clay -of  the  valley  bottom.  It  is  to 
these  deep,  rich  alluvial  deposits  that  the  region  owes  its  great  reputa- 
tion in  fruit  lines. 

CLAY   LOAMS 

Of  loams  containing  sufficient  clay  to  render  them  somewhat  heavy 
and  tenacious,  there  is  also  a  great  variety  in  California.  Their  suit- 
ability for  different  fruits  depends  upon  selection  of  roots  adapted  to 
their  character  and  upon  the  depth  and  degree  of  retentiveness  of  the 
soils  themselves.  They  are  more  difficult  of  tillage  than  the  free  loams, 
but  offer  some  compensation  therefor  in  their  richness  and  durability. 

Clay  Loams  of  the  Foothills  and  Valley  Border. — The  soils  of 
the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  throughout  its  courses  along  the 
great  valley,  vary  from  a  moderately  clayey  loam  to  a  heavy,  though 
not  uncommonly  gravelly,  often  orange-red  clay.  This  character  seems 
to  be  sensibly  the  same,  whether  the  soil  be  derived  from  the  decompo- 
sition of  the  ancient  slate  bed-rock  or  directly  from  the  dark-colored 
granites,  thus  creating  a  presumption  that  the  two  rocks  are  closely 
related.  The  soils  are  highly  charged  with  iron  to  the  extent  of  from 
seven  to  over  twelve  per  cent,  which  being  finely  divided,  imparts  to 
them  the  intense  orange-red  tint.  The  soils  of  the  foothills  agree  with 
the  soils  of  the  valley  in  having  a  good  percentage  of  lime,  while  the 
supply  of  potash  and  phosphates,  as  well  as  of  organic  matter,  is 
smaller,  and  sometimes  low,  though  never  apparently  inadequate  for 
present  productiveness,  in  the  presence  of  so  much  lime. 

Along  the  base  of  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  there  is  in  Fresno, 
Tulare,  and  part  of  Kern  county,  a  narrow  belt,  irregular  in  width,  of 
partly  red  and  partly  black  clay  or  adobe,  so  highly  calcareous  as  to 
break  up,  when  dry,  into  small  fragments,  producing  a  condition  that 
has  received  the  name  "dry  bog."  It  is  upon  this  that  many  of  the 
citrus  orchards  of  the  Porterville  and  Mt.  Campbell  districts  are  chiefly 
grown.  A  white,  calcareous  marl  sometimes  occurs  beneath  this  soil 
at  varying  depths,  inducing  chlorosis  or  yellowing  of  citrus  leaves, 
owing  to  its  impervious  nature  which  does  not  allow  of  good  drainage 
and  therefore  kills  the  roots  through  suffocation  and  acid  production. 
Westward  of  this  "dry  bog"  land  there  is  a  belt  of  reddish  or  brown 
loam  soils,  corresponding  to  those  similarly  located  in  the  Sacramento 
Valley,  but  generally  more  clayey,  and  hence  frequently  designated 
as  adobe  by  contrast  with  the  very  sandy  soils  of  the  valley  at  large, 
although  properly  they  should  be  classed  simply  as  clayey  loams.  This 
belt  is  eight  to  ten  miles  wide  in  middle  Tulare  county  and  narrows  to 
the  north  and  south.  Here  these  lands  have  a  gentle  slope  of  ten  to 
twenty  feet  per  mile  from  the  base  of  the  foothills,  and  appear  to  be 
underlaid  at  a  depth  of  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  by  water-bearing  gravel. 


SOILS  DEFECTIVE  FOR  FRUITS  33 

The  soil  is  a  reddish,  more  or  less  sandy,  loam,  changing  little  in  its 
aspect  for  several  feet.  Its  adaptation  to  fruit  is  shown  by  the  products 
of  the  Lindsay  region. 

CLAY    SOILS 

Thus  far  a  very  small  area  of  true  adobe*  soil  has  been  employed 
in  horticulture.  There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  character  of  what 
is  known  as  adobe  in  different  localities.  Its  color  varies,  as  the 
popular  terms  "black  waxy,"  "black,"  "brown,"  and  "gray"  adobe 
indicate.  Its  physical  condition  and  chemical  composition  also  vary 
greatly.  The  black  adobe  of  the  east  side  of  the  Sacramento  Valley 
is  easily  tilled  as  compared  with  the  gray  adobe  on  the  west  side, 
which  is  very  refractory  and  often  largely  impregnated  with  alkali. 
To  render  soil  of  adobe  character  useful  for  fruit  growing,  this 
tendency  to  dry  out  and  crack,  thus  allowing  evaporation  from  below 
as  well  as  from  the  surface,  must  be  overcome.  The  discussion  of  this 
point  belongs  to  the  chapter  on  cultivation.  Adobe  soils  are,  as  a  rule, 
rich  and  durable  and  therefore  promise  long  fruitfulness  to  trees  and 
vines  with  roots  adapted  to  heavy  soils,  but  difficulty  of  cultivation, 
excessive  retention  of  water,  and  other  evils  are  always  present.  Some 
suggestions  on  the  treatment  of  such  soils  will  be  given  in  the  chapter 
on  fertilization. 

DEFECTIVE     SOILS 

Although  California  soils  are  predominantly  of  the  depth,  light- 
ness and  richness  best  suited  to  the  growth  and  bearing  of  fruit  trees 
and  vines,  it  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  are  marked 
exceptions,  and  failure  to  observe  this  fact  has  resulted  in  considerable 
disappointment  and  loss.  There  is  in  California  much  land  which  is 
bad  from  a  horticultural  point  of  view  and  it  is  apt  to  occur  even  in  the 
vicinity  of  lands  of  the  highest  excellence.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary 
to  advise  that  the  closest  examination  to  be  made  before  investment  be 
made  in  the  planting  of  fruits. 

Although  there  are  instances  of  deficiency  in  plant  food  in 'Cali- 
fornia soils  and  considerable  areas  of  land  sterile  through  excess  of 
saline  and  alkaline  salts,  these  are  usually  indicated  by  the  local  reputa- 
tion of  the  tracts,  if  the  newcomer  will  take  pains  to  make  inquiry. 
It  is  rather  the  more  obscure,  subsoil  conditions  which  lead  to  loss  or 
failure,  and  they  may  be  unknown  even  to  men  who  have  owned  or 
farmed  the  land  for  years  for  ordinary  field  crops.  These  defects  are, 
in  the  main,  three: 

Leachy  Subsoils. — While  it  is  best  in  all  cases  to  choose  deep 
soils  for  cropping  purposes,  it  is  frequently  profitable  to  grow  fruit 
on  soils  with  defective  subsoils.  Among  these  defective  subsoils  there 
is  frequently  encountered,  underlying  good  alluvial  loams,  a  very  per- 
vious sand  or  gravel  which  allows  of  a  too  rapid  escape  of  moisture 
and  plant  food.  This  may  result  in  starving  the  tree  or  killing  it  for 

*This  name  has  been  erroneously  applied  to  the  loam  commonly  used  in  the  construction 
of  adobe  houses.  Agriculturally,  it  means  "a  heavy  clay  soil,"  such  as  could  not  be  used  in 
building. 


34  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

want  of  water.  Under  such  circumstances  it  is  possible  with  three 
or  four  feet  of  good  loam  above  the  gravel  to  maintain  profitably  the 
shallower  rooted  trees  by  practicing  heavy  green  manuring  and  con- 
stant summer  cultivation  to  conserve  what  moisture  the  loam  retains 
and  by  recourse  to  irrigation,  when  required. 

Hardpan. —  It  has  ferquently  been  observed  that  even  where 
hardpan  has  been  blasted  prior  to  tree  planting,  the  evil  effects  of 
waterlogging  in  a  rather  retentive  overlying  soil  have  either  killed 
trees  or  made  them  unprofitable.  This  condition  occurs  not  only  on 
level  land,  but  also  on  rather  steep  hillsides  where  on  a  priori  considera- 
tions it  would  never  be  expected.  In  such  cases  drainage  gives  imme- 
diate relief  and  the  maintenance  of  a  good  humus  supply  in  the  soil 
with  constant  summer  cultivation,  will  usually  insure  good  moisture 
conditions. 

"Plow  Sole"  or  "Plow  Pan." — Constant  plowing  to  the  same 
depth  or  a  failure  to  break  up  thoroughly  the  silty  deposits  at  the 
bottom  of  irrigation  furrows  may  in  a  few  seasons  produce  a  hard- 
ened and  difficulty  permeable  layer  of  soil  known,  according  to  its 
origin,  as  plow  sole  or  "irrigation  hardpan."  This  may  also  be  aggra- 
vated through  the  treading  of  stock  and  fruit  pickers.  Such  hardened 
soil  layers  interfere  with  root  development  and  make  for  poor  aeration 
and  water  supply.  They  must  be  broken  up  by  plowing  or  subsoiling. 

Rise  of  Ground  Water. — The  rise  of  the  water  table  mainly 
due  to  excessive  irrigation  or  the  impermeability  of  one  of  the  under- 
lying soil  layers  is  a  question  of  the  most  serious  significance  and  one 
which  the  prospective  purchaser  of  land  or  the  owner  of  cropped  land 
must  not  lose  sight  of.  For  this  reason  precautions  taken  in  the  ex- 
amination of  land  for  hardpan,  irrigation  with  necessary,  but  not 
superfluous,  amounts  of  water  and  adequate  provision  for  drainage  wili 
not  only  go  far  toward  making  land  profitable  at  the  time  cropping  is 
commenced,  but  will  prevent  troubles  for  the  future  through  the  ac- 
cumulation of  alkali  and  other  baneful  physiological  effects  on  plants 
of  a  high  water  table. 

Alkali. — The  term  "alkali"  denotes  an  accumulation  of  salts,  in 
a  limited  depth  of  soil,  which  may  be  of  such  nature  and  quantity  as 
to  render  the  soil  partially  or  totally  unfit  for  profitable  cropping. 
The  term  has  no  necessary  reference  to  the  reaction  of  the  soil,  as  is 
commonly  supposed,  therefore,  a  misnomer,  and  should  not  be  confused 
with  the  term  "alkaline,"  as  referred  to  soil,  since  the  latter  denotes 
merely  a  "sweet"  or  favorable  condition  for  the  development  of  most 
of  our  crop  plants. 

The  "Alkali"  salts  may  include  common  salt,  Glauber  salt,  car- 
bonate of  soda,  Epsom  salt,  the  chlorides  of  calcium  and  magnesium 
and  more  rarelv  some  others,  but  for  practical  purposes  we  may  take 
the  ordinary  classification  namely  that  of  "black"  and  "white"  alkali 
as  being  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  soil  management.  By  the  "black" 
alkali  which  is  by  far  the  most  harmful  of  the  sodium  of  salts  men- 
tioned, we  mean  carbonate  of  soda.  It  is  so  called  because  it  dissolves 
out  the  humus  and  forms  a  black  slimy  layer  on  the.  surface.  Very 


CHARACTERS    OF   ALKALI    SOILS  35 

small  quantities  of  this  salt  are  sufficient  to  make  clay  soils  unworkable 
because  of  the  puddling  effect  it  has  on  clay,  and  similarly  very  small 
quantities  of  it  have  the  power  of  stopping  the  important  process  of 
nitrification.  Since  poorly  aerated  soils  in  the  arid  regions  are  favor-  t 
able  to  the  reactions  which  produce  "black"  alkali,  especially  where 
carbonates  are  plentiful  or  where  excessive  amounts  of  nitrate  of  soda 
are  used  for  fertilizing,  no  pains  should  be  spared  to  insure  to  soils,  as 
nearly  as  possible,  perfect  aeration  through  drainage  and  tillage ;  great 
care  should  be  exercised  in  the  use  of  irrigation  water,  and  nitrate  of 
soda  should  be  employed  sparingly. 

The  term  "white  alkali"  is  usually  applied  to  either  common  salt 
or  Glauber  salt  or  both  in  soils.  Where  present  in  sufficient  quantity 
white  alkali  salts  may,  through  evaporation  of  water,  be  deposited  on 
the  surface  of  the  soil  as  a  white  efferescence,  such  as  that  seen  in 
exaggerated  form  on  the  Nevada  desert,  on  some  soils  of  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley  and  on  some  of  the  Coachella  Valley  soils.  Of  the 
"white"  alkali  salts  common  salt  is  by  far  the  more  harmful  and  most 
fruit  trees  are  not  very  resistant  to  it.  They  can,  however,  be  success- 
fully grown  in  very  considerable  quantities  of  Glauber  salt. 

The  actual  tolerance  of  fruit  trees  for  the  various  salts  men- 
tioned, varies  greatly  with  the  different  trees  for  the  different  salts, 
and  it  is  always  best,  when  planting  on  alkali  land  is  contemplated, 
to  consult  the  revised  reprint  of  Bulletins  128  and  133  of  the  California 
Experiment  Station,  and  after  having  determinations  for  alkali  made 
on  the  soil,  to  be  guided  by  the  information  therein  contained.  The 
same  publication  also  contains  much  valuable  information  with  refer- 
ence to  the  reclamation  of  alkali  land  and  describes  conditions  under 
which  it  may  and  may  not  be  feasible  to  reclaim  such  lands  so  as  to 
preclude  the  possibility  of  useless  expenditures. 

Prospecting  for  Soil  Defects. — For  subterranean  prospecting, 
Professor  Hilgard  commends  a  steel  rod  not  less  than  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  in  diameter  (round  or  square,  preferably  the  latter),  well 
pointed  at  one  end,  and  provided  at  the  other  with  a  stout  iron  ring 
for  the  reception  of  a  stout  cross-handle,  such  as  is  used  for  post-hole 
augers.  With  such  a  prod,  or  sounding  rod,  not  less  than  five  feet  in 
length,  the  exploration  of  the  subsoil  for  hard-pan  or  dense  clay 
layers  becomes  a  matter  of  a  few  minutes.  It  is  easy  also  to  detect 
thus  the  presence  of  underlying  layers  of  quicksand,  gravel,  or  other 
loose  materials  through  which  irrigation  water  would  waste,  or  which 
would  prevent  the  rise  of  bottom  water  within  the  reach  of  plant  roots, 
by  the  large  interspaces  between  their  grains.  Any  remaining  doubts 
as  to  the  nature  of  such  underlying  materials  ati  particular  points  can 
then  quickly  be  solved  by  the  use  of  a  post-hole  auger  or  by  digging, 
for  thorough  inspection  of  each  foot  of  depth  which  may  be  found 
desirable.  Subsoil  prospecting  or  sampling  can  also  be  very  easily 
done  by  boring  with  an  ordinary  carpenter's  auger,  \l/2  inches  in 
diameter — the  shank  being  lengthened  by  welding-in  a  piece  of  steel, 
three  or  four  feet  in  length,  according  to  the  depth  it  is  thought  de- 
sirable to  penetrate.  Separate  samples  for  each  foot  of  depth  are  thus 
easily  taken. 


CHAPTER    IV 

THE    WILD    FRUITS    OF    CALIFORNIA 

The  wild  fruits  of  California  are  numerous,  and  for  the  most  part 
peculiar  to  the  region,  being  either  of  local  genera  or  local  species  of 
more  widely  distributed  genera.  Very  few  are  identical  with  the  wild 
fruits  common  to  great  areas  of  the  continent.  For  this  reason  our 
wild  fruits  constitute  a  very  interesting  subject  for  botanical  study, 
and  they  are  now,  perhaps,  more  widely  than  ever  before,  attracting 
the  attention  of  botanical  promologists.  Viewed  from  the  standpoint 
of  practical  pomology  or  'Horticulture,  our  wild  fruits  can  not  be 
claimed,  on  the  whole,  to  have  attained  any  very  great  importance. 

A  few  fruits,  as  will  be  noted  further  on,  have  demonstrated  their 
culinary  or  household  value,  and  are  locally  sought  for,  but  none  have 
any  notable  commercial  value.  This  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  some 
of  our  most  delicious  wild  fruits  are  very  exacting  in  their  choice  of 
conditions,  and  can  not  be  moved  far,  even  within  the  limits  of  our  own 
State. 

Another  reason  why  we  have  made  little  of  our  own  wild  species 
is  found  in  the  fact  that  our  climate  favors  the  superior  growth  of  the 
best  improved  fruits  of  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world.  Therefore,  we 
have  little  occasion  for  recourse  to  the  improvement  of  local  wild 
fruits,  because  of  superior  hardiness  and  adaptation,  as  has  been  done 
in  other  parts  of  the  country. 

The  distribution  of  our  wild  fruits  is  determined  by  limitations  of 
areas  of  similar  climatic  conditions.  In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said 
that  fruits  are  most  abundant  in  foothill  and  mountain  regions,  and 
that  our  great  valleys  have  always  been  practically  destitute  of  them, 
except  along  streams  borders.  These  fruits  are  most  abundant  in 
the  northern  portion  of  the  State,  but  some  exist  throughout  the  State, 
usually  thriving  at  higher  elevations  as  they  proceed  southward. 

Oregon  Crabapple  (Pirus  rivularis). — This  fruit,  though  more 
abundant  in  the  more  northerly  regions  of  the  coast,  as  its  name  in- 
dicates, is  found  in  the  northwest  counties  of  this  State.  It  chooses  a 
moist  situation,  becomes  a  tree  fifteen  to  twenty-five  feet  high,  shows 
white  bloom,  and  red  or  yellow  oblong  fruit,  about  half  an  inch  long. 
The  flavor  is  rather  acid,  but  the  fruit  is  eaten  by  the  Indians,  and 
was  sometimes  used  for  jelly-making  by  early  settlers. 

Wild  Plum  (Prunus  subcordata). — This  must  be  regarded  as 
one  of  the  most  useful  of  our  wild  fruits.  Even  now,  when  the  plum 
varieties  of  all  the  world  have  been  introduced,  residents  in  some  of 
the  Sierra  regions,  where  an  excellent  variety  (Kelloggii)  abounds, 
prefer  it  to  the  cultivated  fruit,  both  for  eating  and  preserving  and 
jelly-making.  The  typical  species  is  widely  distributed  over  the  moun- 
tainous regions  of  the  State,  and  is  a  low  shrub  with  white  bloom  and 
fruit  three-quarters  of  an  inch  long,  of  red  color  and  inferior  pulp. 

36 


WILD   CHERRIES   AND   GRAPES  37 

The  better  variety  has  a  narrower  range,  forms  a  larger  shrub,  and  bears 
a  yellow  fruit,  larger  and  better  than  the  typical  species.  Some 
attempts  have  been  made  to  improve  this  variety  by  cultivation  and 
selection  of  seedlings,  and  the  results  are  promising,  as  fruit  has  been 
shown  at  our  fairs  notably  better  than  the  wild  gatherings.  The  roots 
have  also  been  used  to  some  extent  as  stocks,  but  seem  to  possess  no 
marked  advantage.  The  late  Mr.  Felix  Gillet,  of  Nevada  City,  re- 
ported that  grafting  an  improved  plum  on  the  wild  stock  seems  to 
cause  the  root  to  grow  to  much  greater  size  than  natural  to  it.  Ob- 
servation upon  grafted  and  non-grafted  seedlings  in  the  same  nursery 
row  convinced  him  of  this  behavior.  Other  experimenters  have  con- 
demned the  stock  because  of  dwarfing  and  suckering.  In  the  early 
days  the  wild  plums  in  the  mining  regions  of  the  mountains  were 
largely  made  use  of  and  are  highly  praised  by  pioneers. 

Oso  Berry  (Osmaronia  cerasif ormis) . — This  fruit  is  sometimes 
called  the  "California  false  plum."  It  has  a  plum-like  form,  one- 
half  inch  long,  and  is  of  a  rich,  blue-black  color,  but  is  bitter,  though 
not  disagreeable  to  birds  and  animals,  which  feed  upon  it.  The  white 
bloom  of  the  shrub  has  an  almond  odor.  Used  as  a  stock,  the  plum 
varieties  grafted  upon  it  have  been  dwarfed. 

Wild  Cherries  (Prunus  sp.). — Quite  a  group  of  wild  fruits  come 
under  this  generic  grouping,  and  they  have  marked  and  widely  differ- 
ent characteristics.  The  western  Choke-cherry  (Prunus  demissa) 
closely  resembles  the  Eastern  choke-cherry,  and  bears  its  round,  red, 
or  dark  purple  fruit  on  a  racme  .  It  is  used  for  marmalade  by 
housewives  in  the  mountain  districts.  This  species  has  proved  of  some 
utility  both  for  its  fruit  and  as  a  stock  for  grafting  in  early  days  when 
better  cherry  stock  was  not  available.  Another  species,  Islay  (Prunus 
ilicifolia),  has  evergreen  foliage,  and  is  a  useful  hedge  plant. 

Of  species  bearing  fruits  in  umbels,  or  true  cherry  style,  we  have 
the  Bitter  Cherry  (Prunus  emarginata),  which  makes  a  handsome 
tree,  sometimes  thirty  feet  high,  but  its  oval,  dark  red  fruit  is  quite 
bitter  and  astringent.  The  bush  form  bearing  bright  red  fruit  in- 
tensely bitter,  is  the  variety  of  California. 

California  Grape  (Vitis  Calif ornica). — Along  our  streams  the 
native  grape-vine  attains  large  size  and  fruits  freely,  the  fruit  re- 
sembling the  "frost  grape"  of  the  East.  The  vine  frequently  covers 
and  sometimes  kills  large  trees  with  the  density  of  its  foliage.  Some 
variation  is  reported  in  the  species,  but  it  is  possible  that  some  of  the 
better  kinds  are  seedlings  from  some  imported  species,  bird  planted. 
The  species  has  attained  something  of  a  reputation  as  a  phyloxera- 
resisting  root  for  grafting,  but  it  has  proved  exacting  in  its  choice 
of  soils  and  situations,  and  otherwise  not  desirable,  and  some  East- 
ern species  are  now  relied  upon  for  this  service. 

Elderberry  (Sambucus  glauca). — The  elderberry  makes  a  fine 
tree  in  California,  sometimes  twenty  feet  or  more  in  height,  and  with 
a  trunk  a  foot  and  a  half  in  diameter.  The  fruit  is  borne  in  large 
quantities  and  is  used  to  some  extent  for  preserves  and  pastry. 


38  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Raspberries  (Rubus  sp.). — In  the  mountains  of  the  eastern  part 
of  the  State  is  a  scarlet  hemispherical  berry  of  pleasant  flavor,  which 
is  called  "thimbleberry"  (Rubus  parviflorus.)  It  seems  to  have  an 
advantage  over  a  variety  (velutinus)  of  the  same  species  which  is 
found  near  the  coast  and  has  a  dry,  insipid  fruit.  Another  raspberry, 
which  is  found  in  all  hilly  and  mountainous  regions,  both  on  the  coast 
and  in  the  interior  is  Rubus  leucodermis.  It  resembles  the  black-cap 
raspberry  of  the  Atlantic  slope,  except  that  it  has  yellowish-re  1  fruit. 
This  fruit  is  quite  largely  gathered  for  domestic  uses,  and  some  efforts 
have  been  made  to  cultivate  the  plants. 

Salmon  Berry  (Rubus  spectabilis). — The  beauty,  size,  and  de- 
licious flavor  of  this  fruit  are  highly  commended  by  all  who  have 
enjoyed  it  in  the  upper  coast  counties  of  California  and  farther  north- 
ward. The  plant  makes  a  strong  bush,  five  to  ten  feet  high,  and 
delights  in  the  woods  and  shady  banks  of  streams.  The  praise  of  all 
who  know  the  fruit  has  led  to  frequent  attempts  to  introduce  the 
plant  to  warmer  and  drier  parts  of  the  State,  but  such  efforts  have 
thus  far  uniformly  failed. 

Wild  Blackberry  (Rubus  vitifolius). — This  fruit  should  perhaps 
be  called  a  "dewberry,"  as  it  has  trailing,  or,  at  most,  but  partially 
raised  stems,  which  extend  from  five  to  twenty  feet.  The  plant  occurs 
abundantly  on  banks  of  streams  and  other  sufficiently  moist  locations, 
both  in  the  coast  and  interior  regions  of  the  State.  Around  the 
margin  of  Humboldt  Bay,  on  land  cleared  by  fire  or  axe,  blackberries 
spring  up  abundantly  on  the  denuded  land.  Tons  of  the  fruit  are  said 
to  remain  after  the  local  housewives  have  done  their  utmost  in  pre- 
serving and  jelly-making.  In  the  low-land  region  around  Stockton 
considerable  quantities  are  sometimes  gathered  for  sale.  The  fruit, 
which  has  been  held  in  high  repute  ever  since  pioneer  days,  is  oblcng, 
black,  and  sweet.  The  species  is  variable,  and  the  anomaly,  a  white 
blackberry,  has  been  reported  from  Del  Norte  county.  The  native 
wild  blackberry  is  one  of  the  parents  of  the  Loganberry  and  of  some 
of  Mr.  Burbank's  hybrids  which  are  widely  know. 

Wild  Strawberries  (Fragaria  sp.). — We  have  in  California  two 
Eastern  species :  Fragaria  vesca  and  F.  Virginiana.  Thus  far  these 
have  only  been  reported  from  localities  in  the  Sierra  mountain  region. 
Another,  the  sand  strawberry/has  been  found  identical  with  a  South 
American  species,  Chilensis,  and  it  occurs  along  the  coast,  where  the 
fruit  is  esteemed,  and  is  sometimes  abundant  enough  to  gather  in 
quantity.  A  fourth  species,  wood  strawberry,  is  local,  and  is  named 
California.  It  bears  a  small  round  fruit  and  is  partial  to  the  coast 
region.  Recently  some  cultural  attention  has  been  given  to  the  wild 
strawberries,  and  varieties  worthy  of  propagation  have  been  reported 
by  growers  resident  in  the  Sierra  region.  Mr.  Albert  F.  Etter  of 
Briceland,  Humboldt  county,  has  secured  notable  results  in  crossing 
with  the  wild  strawberry,  as  will  be  noted  in  the  chapter  on  that  fruit. 

Wild  Gooseberries  and  Currants  (Ribes  sp.). — Some  of  our 
currant  species  are  achieving  quite  a  reputation  abroad  as  ornamental 
shrubs,  but  they  bear  insipid  fruit.  The  fruit  of  Ribes  tenuiflorum  is, 


CALIFORNIA    WILD    BERRIES  39 

however,  more  agreeable,  and  is  esteemed  for  jellies,  etc.,  by  dwellers 
in  its  region,  which  is  the  mountain  region  of  the  extreme  north  of 
the  State.  We  also  have  a  species  (bracteosum)  which  has  something 
of  the  black  currant  flavor  and  a  fair-sized  fruit,  black  with  whitish 
bloom,  and  very  sweet. 

There  are  also  several  species  of  Ribes  which  are  classed  with  the 
gooseberries,  but  only  three  bear  edible  fruit.  One  of  these  (Ribes 
divaricatum)  is  peculiar  to  this  coast;  another  (Ribes  oxyacanthoides) 
occurs  at  an  elevation  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  thence  extends  east- 
ward beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  berries  are  small  to  medium, 
of  pleasant  flavor,  and  well  armed  with  spines.  Another  species  (Ribes 
leptanthum),  common  in  San  Luis  Obispo  and  Kern  counties,  resembles 
the  flavor  of  the  cultivated  gooseberry,  and  is  free  from  spines. 

Cranberries  and  Huckleberries  (Vaccinium  sp.). — We  have  sev- 
eral species  belonging  to  the  same  botanical  genus  as  the  Eastern 
cranberry,  but  quite  different  from  it  both  in  growth  of  the  plant  and 
character  of  fruit.  The  fruit  of  two  species  is  reddish,  but  insipid. 
Other  species  (V .  ovatum,  etc.}  have  dark  blue  or  purple  fruit.  Some 
of  these  are  locally  esteemed,  and  the  argument  drawn  from  them  is 
that  the  cranberry  of  commerce  would  succeed.  It  should  be  stated, 
however,  that  the  situations  in  which  these  plants  thrive  are  not  at 
all  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  bog  cranberry.  A  huckleberry 
(Vaccinium  ovatum)  is  largely  gathered  in  the  redwood  region  of 
Northern  California,  for  canning  and  pie-making.  The  berries  are 
juicy  and  delicious,  and  the  preserved  fruit  has  a  very  agreeable  flavor. 
In  one  year  as  many  as  two  thousand  boxes  were  profitably  gathered 
on  the  hills  of  western  Sonoma  county. 

Other  Berries. — There  are  many  small,  wild  fruits  commonly 
designated  as  berries,  which  are  of  considerable  botanical  interest. 
The  fruit,  too,  may  be  said  to  be  edible,  judging  by  the  taste  of  Indians, 
birds,  and  wild  beasts,  but  not  likely  to  be  much  more  than  ornamental 
in  the  eyes  of  white  people.  They  may  be  briefly  enumerated: 

The  "manzanita"  (various  species  of  Arctostaphylos,  especially  A. 
manzanita)  the  "little  apple"  of  the  Spaniards,  bears  a  rather  dry  but 
sub-acid  fruit. 

The  "bear  berry"  (Arctostaphylos  uvaursi)  is  esteemed  by  the 
Indians  both  as  food  and  medicine. 

"The  western  buffalo  berry"  (Shepherdia  argentia)  has  small  acid 
edible  fruits. 

The  "salal"  (Gaultheria  shallon),  small  fruit,  either  red  or  purple, 
is  also  a  favorite  of  the  aborigines. 

Of  "barberries"  we  have  three  species  of  Berberis.  One,  aqui- 
folium,  is  called  the  "Oregon  grape,"  chiefly  notable  for  its  handsome 
bloom,  which  has  been  chosen  the  State  flower  of  Oregon.  The  fruit 
is  dark  blue  and  the  root  is  said  to  be  a  febrifuge.  Another  species 
(nervosa)  has  a  larger  fruit  which  is  esteemed  in  cookery;  and  a 
third  species  (pinnata)  bears  a  small,  pleasant-flavored  fruit.  It  is 
the  Lena  amarilla  of  the  Spanish  Californians. 

Our  "service  berry"  (Amelanchier  alnifolia)  is  from  a  quarter  to 
a  third  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  of  a  purple  color. 


40  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW   TO   GROW   THEM 

The  "lemon  berry"  is  a  fruit  of  Rhus  integrifolia,  and  is  coated 
with  an  acid  exudation  which  is  said  to  dissolve  in  water  and  make  a 
pleasant  drink.  The  fruit  of  Rhus  trilobata  is  said  to  have  both  a 
sweet  and  an  acid  coating. 

The  berries  of  the  "toyon"  or  "tollon"  (Heteromeles  arbutifolia)' 
or  "California  holly,"  are  said  to  be  eaten  by  Indians,  but  they  serve 
the  white  people  a  better  purpose  in  Christmas  decorations. 

The  "jujubs"  of  commerce  (Zizyphus  jujuba)  has  a  local  relative 
in  Zizyphus  parryi,  which  is,  however,  dry,  and  mealy,  rather  than 
juicy. 

The  "beach  strawberry,"  or  "sea  fig,"  is  the  fruit  of  Mcsembrian- 
themwm  aequilaterale,  a  relative  of  the  ice-plant.  The  good -sized  fruit 
is  gathered  along  the  seashore,  and  remotely  suggests  a  strawberry. 

Wild  Olive  (Forestieria  Neo-mexicana.) — This  is  a  tall  willow- 
like  shrub,  found  in  springy  places  on  the  borders  of  the  Mojave 
Desert.  It  also  grows  in  the  Salinas  Valley.  It  bears  an  abundance 
of  small  fruits  which,  from  their  botanical  relationship  to  the  olive,  have 
attracted  some  attention.  Experiments  to  determine  its  standing  as  a 
possible  root  for  the  olive  have  been  suggested. 

Wild  Nuts  of  California. — The  wild  nuts  of  California  are  of 
very  little  commercial  importance.  The  wild  almond  (Prunus  Ander- 
sonii)  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas  is  chiefly  of  botani- 
cal interest,  although  some  experiments  are  in  progress  in  its  use  as 
a  grafting  stock  for  the  sweet  almond.  The  California  filbert  (Corylus 
Calif  ornica)  has  none  of  the  quality  of  the  improved  filberts  nor  even 
of  the  wild  hazelnut.  Our  native  chestnut,  the  giant  Chinquapin 
(Castanopsis  chrysophylla)  has  a  sweet  kernel,  but  a  hard  shell,  almost 
like  a  hazelnut;  its  near  relative,  Castanopsis  sempervirens  or 
Bush  Chinquapin  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  dry  Coast  Range,  is  said 
to  have  a  bitter  flavored  kernel.  The  nuts  of  both  of  these  species  are 
very  difficult  to  obtain  because  the  fruit  sets  sparingly  and  the  squirrels 
harvest  the  crop  early.  Our  native  walnut  (Juglans  Calif  ornica)  is 
better  in  flavor  than  the  Eastern  black  walnut,  but  its  hard  shell  makes 
it  of  little  commercial  account  in  competition  with  better,  cultivated 
nuts.  The  root  is  widely  used  as  a  stock  for  the  English  walnut. 

The  one  native  nut  which  is  regularly  sold  in  the  local  market  is  the 
"pinenut" — seeds  of  several  species  of  Pacific  Coast  pines,  particularly 
the  "Nevada  Nut  Pine"  or  "One-leaf  Pinion."  Their  flavor  is  somewhat 
resinous,  but  is  agreeable. 

The  seeds  of  two  species  of  palms,  Washingtonia  filifera  and  the 
Lower  California  Erythea  armata,  are  sought  for  by  the  Indians,  who 
also  eat  the  sweetish  fruit  of  the  Yucca  Mojavensis,  which  somewhat  re- 
sembles in  shape  the  banana,  and  in  flavor  the  fig,  and  is  called  the 
"wild  date." 

The  Indians  also  use  the  acorns  of  several  species  of  California 
oaks  as  food,  extracting  the  bitterness  by  soaking  in  water,  and  then 
making  a  rude  bread  of  the  acorn  meal. 

The  "jajoba,"  or  "goat-nut"  (Simmondsia  Calif  ornica),  is  a  low 
shrub,  the  fresh  fruits  of  which,  deprived  of  their  seed-coats,  are  eaten 


CALIFORNIA    CACTUS    FRUITS  41 

like  almonds,  and  when  dried  by  fire  and  ground  they  are  used  as  a 
beverage,  in  the  form  of  tablets  made  up  with  sugar,  or  as  a  simple 
infusion.  Fire-dried  seeds  contain  48.30  per  cent  of  fatty  matter;  the 
oil  is  suitable  for  foods  and  of  good  quality,  and  is  said  not  to  turn 
rancid.  In  lower  California  it  is  prepared  by  boiling  with  water. 

The  nuts  of  the  California  laurel  were  roasted  by  the  native  tribes 
and  esteemed  a  great  delicacy. 

Cactus. — The  common  cactus  (Opuntia  Engelmanni)  bears  a  sweet 
edible  fruit  which  the  Indians  dry  in  large  quantities  for  winter  use. 
By  long  boiling  they  make  a  sauce,  which,  after  slight  fermentation, 
they  consider  especially  nutritious  and  stimulating.  The  local  species 
has  been  used  by  Mr.  Burbank  in  crossing  to  secure  improved  spineless 
fruits  on  plants  of  greater  productiveness. 


CHAPTER    V 

CALIFORNIA    MISSION    FRUITS 

Cultivated  fruits  were  first  brought  into  California  from  the  south. 
Mission  work  among  the  Indians  of  Lower  California  was  actually 
begun  by  the  establishment  of  the  mission  at  Loreto  by  Salvaj^erra, 
October  19,  1697.  The  following  years  horses  and  cattle  were  brought 
from  Mexico,  and  from  this  introduction  came  ultimately  the  vast 
herds  which  roamed  the  hills  and  plains  of  California.  Probably  the 
first  seeds  and  plants  of  cultivated  vegetables  and  fruits  came  about 
the  same  time,  for  there  was  a  small  garden  and  a  few  fruit  trees  at 
Loreto  in  1701.  But  Loreto  was  not  fitted  for  horticulture,  and  in  the 
same  year  an  expedition  in  charge  of  Father  Ugarte,  who  is  called  the 
founder  of  agriculture  in  Lower  California,  crossed  over  the  mountains 
to  a  more  suitable  location  at  the  mission  of  Vigge  Biaundo,  which 
had  been  destroyed  some  time  before  by  hostile  Indians.  Ugarte  re- 
stored the  mission,  made  irrigating  ditches,  and  planted  fruit  trees 
and  vines.  This  effort  was  successful  from  a  horticultural  point  of 
view,  for  in  1707  Ugarte  made  more  wine  than  would  suffice  for 
mission  use,  and  sent  some  to  Mexico  in  exchange  for  other  goods. 
Thus  began  the  export  trade  in  California  wine. 

The  Jesuits  continued  their  establishment  of  missions  in  Lower 
California  until  there  were  fifteen  missions,  at  five  of  which  there  were 
vineyards,  and  presumably  as  many  or  more  which  had  gardens  with 
fruit  trees. 

The  variety  of  fruits  grown,  in  Lower  California  was  small.  They 
had  figs,  oranges,  citrons,  pomegranates,  plantains,  and  some  olives 
and  dates.  There  were  no  North  European  fruits,  with  the  exception 
of  a  few  peaches,  which,  however,  did  not  appear  to  thrive. 

The  Jesuits  were  supplanted  in  Lower  California,  in  1768,  by  the 
Franciscans.  The  Franciscans,  led  by  Junipero  Serra,  at  once  pressed 
northward,  and  entered  the  territory  which  is  now  the  State  of  Cali- 
fornia. Their  first  establishment  was  at  San  Diego,  in  1769.  Thence 
they  proceeded  northward,  braving  many  perils,  and  undergoing  great 
hardships,  establishing  missions  through  the  coast  region  of  the  State. 
Credit  is  given  to  the  secular  head  of  the  expedition  to  San  Diego, 
Don  Joseph  de  Galvez,  representing  the  king  of  Spain,  for  ordering 
the  carrying  of  seeds  of  fruits,  grains,  vegetables,  and  flowers  into  the 
new  territory,  and  from  the  planting  at  San  Diego  the  same  varieties 
were  taken  to  the  twenty  missions  afterwards  established. 

Kinds  of  Fruit  at  the  Missions. — It  is  of  no  little  interest  to 
ascertain  how  great  a  variety  of  fruits  was  grown  in  these  mission 
orchards.  Vancouver,  in  1792,  found  a  fine  orchard  at  Santa  Clara, 
with  apple,  peach,  pear,  apricot,  and  fig  trees,  all  thrifty  and  promising. 

42 


PASSING   OF   THE    MISSION   ORCHARDS  43 

He  also  describes  at  the  mission  of  San  Buena  Ventura  apples,  pears, 
plums,  figs,  oranges,  grapes,  and  peaches  and  pomegranates.  Robinson 
described  the  orchards  connected  with  the  Mission  of  San  Gabriel  as 
very  extensive,  having  among  their  trees  oranges,  citrons,  limes,  apples, 
pears,  peaches,  pomegranates,  and  figs.  There  were  also  grapes  in 
abundance.  Edwin  Bryant  noticed  at  San  Luis  Obispo  Mission  the 
orange,  fig,  palm,  olive,  and  grape.  At  the  Mission  San  Jose  he  found 
an  inclosure  of  fifteen  or  twenty  acres,  the  whole  of  which  was  planted 
with  trees  and  grape-vines.  There  were  six  hundred  pear  trees  and  a 
large  number  of  apple  and  peach  trees,  all  bearing  fruit  in  great  abun- 
dance and  in  full  perfection.  The  quality  of  the  pears  he  found  ex- 
cellent, but  the  apples  and  peaches  indifferent.  E.  S.  Capron,  in  a 
general  enumeration  of  the  fruits  grown  at  the  missions,  includes 
cherries. 

Early  Planting  by  Others  than  the  Padres. — Though  the  earlier 
Spanish  population  had  the  example  of  successful  horticulture  before 
them  for  half  a  century  at  the  missions,  they  did  not  seem  inclined  to 
emulate  the  efforts  of  the  padres  upon  their  own  grounds,  except  in 
occasional  instances.  General  Vallejo  planted  fruit  trees  in  Sonoma 
Valley  as  early  as  1830,  and  of  his  place  it  is  said:  "It  is  an  old  and 
well-cultivated  place,  well  known  in  all  the  northern  portions  of  Cali- 
fornia while  this  State  was  still  Mexican  territory."  Exceptions  there 
were,  also  at  the  south.  The  old  fruit  garden  on  the  Camulos  Rancho, 
in  Ventura  county,  has  become  famous.  Freemont,  writing  of  his 
observations  in  1846,  says  that  among  the  arid,  brush-covered  hills 
south  of  San  Diego  he  found  little  valleys  converted  by  a  single  spring 
into  crowded  gardens,  where  pears,  peaches,  quinces,  pomegranates, 
grapes,  olives,  and  other  fruits  grew  luxuriantly  together. 

Scarcely  had  six  years  elapsed  subsequent  to  the  settlement  of  the 
pueblo  of  San  Jose  on  its  present  site,  before  the  inhabitants  were  en- 
joying the  benefits  of  luxurious  fruits.  Before  1805  more  was  grown 
than  could  be  disposed  of  in  its  natural  state. 

Decline  of  the  Mission  Orchards. — The  decline  of  most  of  the 
mission  orchards  and  gardens  followed  the  secularization  of  the  es- 
tablishments in  1834.  There  were  a  few  exceptions,  where  the  mission 
lands  fell  into  enterprising  Spanish  or  American  hands.  During  the 
years  of  neglect,  the  more  tender  trees  died,  and  the  more  hardy  sur- 
vived. The  pear  and  the  olive  vied  with  the  vine  in  withstanding 
drouth  and  the  trampling  and  browsing  of  the  cattle  that  roamed  un- 
molested through  the  deserted  gardens.  These  pears,  as  will  be  de- 
scribed presently,  were  turned  to  good  account  by  the  early  American 
settlers ;  the  olive  and  the  vine  furnished  cuttings  for  most  of  the 
plantations  made  during  the  first  twenty  years  or  more  of  American 
occupation. 

But  it  seems  that  not  all  the  mission  orchards  were  permitted  to 
fall  into  decay  after  secularization.  In  1846  Bryant  found  at  the 
Mission  San  Jose  two  gardens  inclosed  by  high  adobe  walls.  The 
area  was  from  fifteen  to  twenty  acres,  all  of  which  was  planted  with 
fruit  trees  and  vines.  There  were  about  six  hundred  pear  trees  and 


44  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO   GROW   THEM 

a  large  number  of  apple  aand  peach  trees,  all  bearing  fruit  in  great 
abundance,  the  quality  of  the  pears  being  excellent,  the  apples  and 
neaches  indifferent.  Other  visitors  to  some  of  the  mission  orchards 
between  the  events  of  secularization  and  American  occupation  speak 
of  being  regaled  with  pears  and  milk,  a  dish  which  seemed  to  them 
ambrosial  after  the  weary  journeys  overland  across  the  deserts,  or 
after  months  of  ship  fare. 

Planting  of  Mission  Fruits  by  Early  Settlers. — There  were  quite 
considerable  plantations,  chiefly  of  mission  grapes  and  oranges,  by 
early  settlers  in  the  neighborhood  of  Los  Angeles.  General  Bidwell 
saw  in  Los  Angeles  in  1845  the  largest  vineyard  that  he  had  seen  in 
California,  and  the  vines  were  the  most  thrifty.  Wine  was  also 
abundant — even  the.  Angelica.  Los  Angeles  had  orchards,  also,  mostly 
of  oranges.  The  largest  orange  orchards  at  that  time  were  those  of 
Wolfskill,  Carpenter,  and  Louis  Vigne.  During  recent  years  the 
modern  city  of  Los  Angeles  has  been  built  over  and  beyond  them. 

Among  the  early  planters  of  mission  fruits  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  State  was  Yount,  who  planted  vines  in  Napa  Valley  in  1838,  and 
other  fruits  later.  John  Wolfskill,  of  Winters,  saw  grapes  and  peaches 
at  Yount's  in  1841,  and  J.  M.  Pleasant  took  peach  pits  from  Yount's 
over  into  Pleasant's  valley,  Solano  county  in  1851.  Dr.  Marsh,  on 
his  place  at  the  base  of  Mount  Diablo,  had,  in  1842,  a  mission  grape 
vineyard  more  than  an  acre  in  extent,  and  in  good  bearing.  The  vines 
were  planted  about  1838.  Mr.  Wolfskill  planted  a  few  vines  on  Putah 
Creek  in  1842. 

Pairtial  Revival  of  the  Mission  Fruit  Gardens. — After  the  incom- 
ing of  Americans  in  1849  some  of  the  old  Mission  trees  were  secured 
by  enterprising  men,  and  made  to  renew  their  youth  by  pruning, 
cultivation,  and  irrigation,  that  they  might  minister  to  the  great 
demand  for  fruit  which  sprang  up  among  the  gold  seekers.  The  trees 
richly  reciprocated  the  care  and  attention  given  them,  and  there  still 
exists  at  the  San  Gabriel  Mission  old  pear  trees  grafted  over  with  im- 
proved varieties  by  W.  M.  Stockton  in  1854.  The  first  fruits  offered 
for  sale  in  San  Francisco  markets  were  from  the  pear  trees  of  Santa 
Clara  and  San  Jose  Missions,  arid  from  the  mission  grapevines  of  the 
same  localities,  and  of  Los  Angeles  county.  These  grapes,  packed  in 
sawdust,  came  up  the  coast  by  steamer,  and  were  then  re-shipped  to 
the  mining  camps,  arriving  for  the  most  part  in  good  condition,  and 
were  very  popular.  It  is  recorded  that  one  thousand  five  hundred  tons 
of  these  grapes  were  sent  from  Los  Angeles  county  to  San  Francisco 
and  the  mines  in  1852.  Another  instance  in  which  thrift  followed 
neglect  is  seen  in  the  fact  that,  in  1858,  Don  Andres  Pico,  who  suc- 
ceeded to  possession  of  the  orchard  at  the  San  Fernando  Mission,  did 
a  considerable  business  in  drying  pears  and  other  fruits,  using  the  labor 
of  the  Indians. 

At  the  present  time  vestiges  of  the  old  mission  orchards  still  remain, 
the  pears  and  olives  still  bearing,  and  in  some  cases  the  old  date  palms 
guarding  the  desolate  scenes,  or  standing  as  reminders  of  the  old 
regime,  while  the  new  life  of  California  is  surging  up  around  them. 


SECOND    INTRODUCTION    OF   IMPROVED   FRUITS  45 

RUSSIAN     FRUITS 

The  second  introduction  of  cultivated  fruits  to  California  was  by 
the  Russians.  The  exact  date  of  their  planting  at  Fort  Ross  on  the 
ocean  side  in  Mendocino  county,  is  not  known,  but  is  believed  to  have 
been  as  early  as  1812.  The  survivors  of  the  original  Russian  planting 
look  "very  old  and  mossy,  and  are  not  very  thrifty,  but  still  bear  some 
fruit  every  year."  They  were  planted  too  closely,  and  have  undergone 
periods  of  neglect,  no  doubt,  The  trees  are  apple  for  the  most  part, 
but  there  were  also  cherries,  and  some  of  both  fruits  survive.  The 
trees  are  all  believed  to  have  been  grown  from  seed,  and  if  this  be  true 
some  fortunate  results  were  obtained,  for  there  is  still  grown  in  Green 
Valley,  Sonoma  county,  a  medium-sized,  bell-shaped  apple,  lightly 
striped  with  red,  which  is  called  the  Fort  Ross  or  Russian  apple,  and 
was  probably  propagated  by  grafts  from  the  Fort  Ross  orchard.  Seeds 
were  also  secured  from  this  source  for  propagation  of  apple  trees  in 
early  days  in  that  section  of  the  State. 


CHAPTER     VI 

INTRODUCTION    OF    NEW    VARIETIES 

The  first  cultivated  fruits  of  old  era  came  to  California  with 
the  padres.  The  first  fruits  of  the  new  era  came  with  the  American 
pioneers.  Though  not  a  little  inquiry  has  been  made,  it  is  not  yet 
possible  to  declare  definitely  who  brought  the  first  budded  or  grafted 
trees  upon  California  soil.  It  is  a  tradition  in  the  family  of  Martin 
Lelong,  who  came  to  California  as  a  member  of  Stevenson's  regiment 
in  1846,  that  he  brought  with  him  a  small  lot  of  trees  of  French 
varieties  of  apples  growing  in  a  box,  and  that  they  were  planted  in 
Los  Angeles. 

In  the  fall  of  1849,  W.  H.  Nash  joined  with  R.  L.  Kilburn  in 
ordering  from  a  nursery  in  western  New  York  a  small  box  of  thirty- 
six  fruit  trees,  which  packed  in  moss,  well  survived  the  journey  around 
the  Horn,  arriving  and  being  planted  in  Napa  Valley  in  the  spring  of 
1850.  The  shipment  included  Rhode  Island  Greening,  Roxbury  Russet, 
Winesap,  Red  Romanite,  Esopus  Spitzenburg  apples ;  Bartlett  and 
Seckel  pears,  Black  Tartarian  and  Napoleon  Bigarreau  cherries. 

Before  this  introduction  of  grafted  fruit  trees,  and,  indeed,  for 
several  years  afterwards,  there,  were  many  shipments  of  fruit-tree 
seeds  from  the  eastern  States  to  California.  Mr.  Barnett  planted 
Kentucky  seed  as  early  as  1847  in  Napa  county.  T.  K.  Stewart 
brought  to  California  with  him,  in  1848,  about  two  hundred  pounds  of 
vegetable  and  fruit  seeds,  the  latter  including  peach,  pear  and  apple, 
all  of  which  were  planted  on  the  American  River,  within  the  present 
limits  of  Sacramento,  in  the  spring  of  1849.  At  the  same  time  he 
planted  figs  and  olives,  and,  in  1851,  seeds  of  oranges.  From  all  these 
he  secured  bearing  trees. 

But  these  early  efforts  at  improvement  of  California  fruits  were 
but  faint  forerunners  of  the  zeal  and  enterprise  which  followed  the 
great  invasion  by  gold  seekers.  As  soon  as  the  first  thought — to  get 
gold  directly  from  the  soil— would  admit  the  second — to  get  it  in- 
directly, by  agricultural  and  horticultural  arts — there  came  a  demand 
for  something  better  than  the  wild  fruits  of  the  mountains,  better  and 
more  abundant  than  the  fruits  from  the  mission  orchards.  At  first 
everything  in  the  line  of  fruit-tree  seed  which  could  be  obtained  was 
planted.  Thus  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  mines  soon  began  to  show 
growing  fruit  trees.  But  seedlings  of  any  kind  would  not  satisfy  the 
planters,  and  effort  was  put  forth  in  every  direction  after  grafted  trees 
of  the  best  varieties.  Oregon  had  a  few  years  the  start  of  California 
as  an  inviting  field  for  immigration  and  the  advantage  also  of  winning 
the  attention  of  those  who  went  out,  not  as  gold  seekers,  but  as  agri- 
cultural producers.  Oregon  had  grafted  trees  in  bearing,  and  nursery 
stock  as  well,  about  the  time  the  demand  sprang  up  for  it  in  California. 
Its  introduction  was  then,  however,  of  very  recent  date.  Up  to  1847 

46 


FIRST   INTRODUCTIONS    BY   AMERICANS  47 

the  cultivated  fruit  of  Oregon  consisted  of  seedlings  introduced  by  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company,  in  1824,  and  by  the  early  settlers  from  the 
Mississippi  Valley.  In  that  year  occurred  the  first  considerable,  if  not 
the  very  first,  introduction  of  grafted  fruit  upon  the  Pacific  coast. 
The  story  of  that  venture  has  been  so  often  wrongly  told  that  it  is 
well  to  record  its  interesting  incidents  in  the  words  of  one  quite  near 
to  the  event,  if  not  actually  participating  in  it.  Seth  Lewelling,  of 
Milwaukee,  Oregon,  writes : 

In  1847  my  brother,  Henderson  Lewelling,  crossed  the  plains  from  Henry 
county,  Iowa,  to  Oregon,  bringing  with  him  a  pretty  general  variety  of  grafted 
fruits.  He  fitted  up  a  wagon  for  the  purpose,  selected  small  plants,  and  planted 
them  in  soil  in  the  boxes  and  watered  them  to  keep  them  alive.  He  told  me  that 
in  some  places  he  had  to  carry  the  water  a  mile  up  the  mountains  to  save  his 
trees.  When  he  arrived  in  Oregon,  late  in  the  fall,  he  had  something  over  three 
hundred  plants  alive.  The  same  fall  William  Meek  arrived  in  Oregon  with  a  few 
varieties  of  fruit  trees.  He  and  my  brother  put  their  stock  together,  arid  com- 
menced the  first  nursery  of  grafted  fruits  on  the  Pacific  coast.  It  was  situ- 
ated five  miles  south  of  Portland,  just  below  Milwaukee,  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Willamette  river.  For  want  of  seedling  stock,  they  could  not  increase  their 
nursery  much  until,  in  1850,  my  brother  John  and  I  crossed  the  plains,  bringing 
with  us  some  apple  seed,  which  we  planted  that  winter.  We  also  found  a  gentle- 
man named  Pugh,  in  Washington  county,  Oregon,  who  had  planted  some  apple 
seed  in  the  spring  of  1850,  which  had  grown  well,  and  we  bought  his  stock. 
During  the  winter  of  1850-51  we  put  in  about  twenty  thousand  grafts.  In  March, 
1851,  I  went  to  Sacramento,  taking  with  me  a  box  of  grafts  of  apple,  pear,  peach, 
plum  and  cherry,  and  sold  them  in  Sacramento.  I  believe  I  have  the  honor  of 
being  the  first  to  distribute  grafted  fruit  in  California. 

Other  Early  Introductions. — The  introduction  of  grafted  trees, 
for  sale  by  Mr.  Lewelling  in  the  spring  of  1851,  was  quickly  followed 
by  other  commercial  importations,  and  by  shipments  'by  planters 
for  their  own  use,  so  that  the  plantings  of  1851-52  were  quite  large. 
Still  there  was  great  doubt  as  to  the  success  of  the  trees.  The  late 
G.  G.  Briggs,  after  his  great  melon  profits  of  1851,  went  back  to  New 
York  State  for  his  family,  and,  returning  to  California,  brought  with 
him,  as  he  says,  "with  no  idea  that  they  would  succeed,  but  as  a 
reminder  of  home,"  fifty  peach  and  a  few  apple  and  pear  trees.  To 
his  surprise,  the  trees  grew  well  in  1852,  and  the  next  year  blossomed 
and  bore  some  of  the  best  peaches  he  ever  saw.  The  pears  also  bore 
some  fine  fruit  the  same  year. 

Besides  the  introduction  of  grafted  trees  which  have  been  men- 
tioned, there  were  others  in  1852,  for,  at  a  fair  held  in  San  Francisco 
in  1853,  there  were  several  kinds  of  apples,  grown  by  Isaac  A.  Morgan, 
of  Bolinas,  on  trees  planted  the  previous  year.  Apples  were  also  shown 
from  Napa.  David  Spence,  of  Monterey,  showed  the  first  almonds 
grown  in  California.  During  the  winter  of  1852-53  the  distribution 
of  grafted  trees  must  have  extended  widely  over  the  State.  Five 
dollars  for  a  small  tree  was  frequently  paid  at  the  nursery  of  Meek 
and  Lewelling,  in  Milwaukee,  Oregon,  and  the  trees  were  carried 
overland  into  the  mining  districts  of  California,  as  well  as  brought  to 
San  Francisco  for  distribution  through  the  valleys. 

Fruit  Gardens,  not  Orchards. — It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
much  of  the  pioneer  effort  was  expended  upon  fruit  gardens  rather 


48  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO   GROW   THEM 

than  fruit  orchards.  Two  ideas,  at  least,  led  in  this  direction.  One 
was  the  popular  thought,  which,  however,  was  very  early  found  to  be 
erroneous,  that  frequent  arid  copious  irrigation  was  essential  to  the 
growth  of  fruit  in  this  dry  climate.  Another  was  the  ambition,  which 
was  correct,  both  from  a  horticultural  and  commercial  point  of  view, 
to  secure  the  fruit  just  as  soon  as  possible,  for  the  double  purpose  of 
determining  what  was  adapted  to  the  novel  conditions,  and  to  secure 
the  magnificent  prices  which  fruit  commanded  in  the  market.  For 
these  ends  dwarfing  stocks  naturally  suggested  themselves,  and  were 
employed  to  an  extent  which  seems  wonderful  when  it  is 
remembered  that  now  hardly  a  fruit  tree  in  the  State  is  worked  upon 
a  dwarfing  stock.  Very  early,  say  from  '52  to  '58,  at  San  Jose,  Oak- 
land, Stockton  and  Sacramento,  small  areas,  which  would  now  only  be 
considered  respectable  house  lots,  were  turned  to  great  profit  with 
dwarf  pear  and  apple  trees.  The  place  of  Mr.  Fountain,  near  Oakland, 
was  called,  in  1857,  "The  finest  orchard  of  dwarf  trees  in  the  State."  It 
consisted  of  three  acres  set  with  one  thousand  six  hundred  apple  and 
pear  trees,  all  dwarf  from  root  grafts,  two  years  old,  and  four  feet 
high,  and  most  of  them  in  good  bearing.  He  started  the  branches  from 
the  ground,  pruning  severely,  and  heading  in  during  the  winter.  He 
claimed  that  dwarfing  gave  him  better  and  larger  fruit,  and  from  two 
to  three  years  sooner  than  with  standard  trees.  He  did  not  irrigate, 
but  plowed  frequently,  four  inches  deep,  up  to  the  first  of  June. 

But  though  these  dwarf-tree  gardens  were  formally  declared  "to 
be  the  fashion,"  and  though  the  list  of  stock  of  one  Sacramento 
nurseryman,  in  1858,  included  ninety-five  standard  and  eight  thousand 
and  sixty-eight  dwarf  pear  trees  for  sale,  the  foundations  of  the  greater 
orchards  were  early  laid  upon  the  basis  of  standard  trees.  Thus  the 
Briggs'  orchard,  of  one  thousand  acres  on  the  moist  land  of  the  Yuba, 
was  planted  with  trees  sixteen  feet  apart  each  way,  and  Mr.  Lewelling, 
and  other  earlv  planters  on  the  rich  lands  of  central  Alameda  county, 
adopted  about  the  same  distance. 

Quite  in  contrast,  too,  with  the  prevalence  of  dwarf  trees,  and 
contemporaneous  with  it,  was  the  grand  plan  upon  which  the  pioneer 
of  pioneers,  General  Sutter,  laid  out  his  orchard  on  Hock  Farm,  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  Feather  River,  eight  miles  from,  its  junction  with 
the  Yuba,  of  which  the  following  description  was  written  about  the 
time  the  trees  were  coming  into  bearing: 

Several  acres  were  set  apart  for  an  ornamental  fruit  orchard,  the  trees  and 
shrubs  being  so  arranged  as  to  present  a  unique  landscape  garden,  nearly  every 
article  in  which  is  productive  of  fruit.  The  arrangement  of  the  fruit  trees  is 
peculiar,  a  large  portion  of  them  being  set  on  either  side  of  the  broad  avenues 
opening  through  the  extensive  grounds  in  various  directions,  imparting  to  the 
whole  an  air  of  picturesque  beauty  seldom  seen. 

But  neither  the  narrow  dwarf-tree  garden  plan  nor  the  broad 
landscape-garden  plan  has  survived.  Neither  of  them  harmonized 
with  the  commercial  idea  of  orcharding — large  production  and 
economy  of  cultivation,  and  both  are  now  but  curiosities  ^of  the  early 
horticulture  of  California. 


PIONEER    METHODS    IN    CALIFORNIA  49 

Irrigation  Abandoned. — The  early  abandonment  of  dwarf  trees 
suggests  also  the  early  abandonment  of  irrigation  in  the  valleys  of 
Northern  California — as  early  as  1856.  Facilities  which  had  been 
secured  for  irrigation  of  orchards  were  allowed  to  go  unused,  because 
it  was  thought  better  not  to  use  them.  One  case  is  reported  in  Napa 
county  where  means  to  furnish  the  orchard  with  thirty  thousand 
gallons  of  water  per  day  were  allowed  to  lie  idle.  The  substitution 
of  cultivation  for  water,  of  course,  attended  this  reform.  The  an- 
nouncement of  a  practice,  in  1856,  "to  plow  deep,  dig  wide  and  deep 
holes  for  planting,  and  work  the  ground  from  February  to  July,  allow- 
ing no  grass  or  weeds  to  grow  among  the  trees,"  shows  that  the 
thorough  and  clean  culture,  for  which  California  is  famous,  is  not  a 
recent  idea  in  our  practice.  Even  the  abandonment  of  the  plow,  and 
almost  weekly  use  of  the  cultivator,  was  the  practice  of  some  growers 
in  the  San  Jose  district  before  1860.  In  fact,  the  descriptions  of 
orchard  management  in  that  day  include  nearly  the  whole  variety  of 
methods  which  now  prevail.  Later  experience  has,  however,  shown 
that  irrigation  facilities  are  more  valuable  even  for  deciduous  fruits 
than  was  once  thought  possible.  This  proposition  will  be  discussed 
in  the  chapter  on  irrigation. 

Early  Wisdom  and  Enterprise. — It  is  evident  to  anyone  who 
studies  the  records,  that  California  was  very  fortunate  in  numbering 
among  the  early  settlers  so  many  men  with  horticultural  tastes,  skill, 
and  experience.  The  rapidity  with  which  fruit  trees  were  multiplied, 
and  the  confidence  with  which  these  early  comers  entered  upon  the 
nursery  business,  shows  their  training.  Although  there  were  many 
trees  brought  here  from  the  East  and  from  Europe,  they  constituted 
only  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  plantings  of  the  first  few  years, 
but  the  orchards,  with  the  exception  of  a  very  small  number  of  trees 
introduced  to  furnish  grafting  and  budding  stock,  were  the  product 
of  the  soil.  When  this  is  borne  in  mind,  it  becomes  all  the  more 
wonderful  how  so  much  could  be  done  in  a  new  country,  in  a  distant 
part  of  the  world,  in  so  very  short  a  time.  It  was  an  observation  which 
was  put  upon  record  as  early  as  1856,  that  "some  varieties  of  fruit 
are  much  improved  by  change  to  this  State,  and  some  are  not  bene- 
fited." The  test  seems  to  have  been  that  if  a  variety  was  not  better 
than  at  the  East,  it  should  be  discarded. 

The  First  Oversupply. — The  wonderful  stimulus  given  to  the 
fruit  interest  by  the  results  obtained  in  growth  and  in  marketing, 
soon  induced  larger  plantings  than  the  demand  warranted.  In  1857 
it  was  publicly  stated  that  "there  are  single  farms  in  this  State,  con- 
taining each  over  half  a  million  fruit  trees  in  orchard  and  nursery — 
one  person  owning  enough  trees,  when  fully  matured,  to  produce  as 
much  fruit,  other  than  grapes,  as  will  be  sold  this  year  throughout  our 
State.  The  day  is  not  far  distant  when  fruit  will  be  an  important  crop 
for  raising  and  fattening  swine."  This  was,  to  a  certain  extent,  a 
statement  of  a  croaker,  for  plantations  continued,  rare  varieties  were 
brought  from  the  East,  the  South,  and  from  Europe;  the  growth  of 
some  fruits  continued  to  be  very  profitable  and  the  nursery  business, 


50  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO   GROW   THEM 

confined  to  fewer  hands,  was  profitable  also.  The  idea  that  quality 
rather  than  size  should  be  striven  for,  led  to  more  discrimination  in 
propagation  and  better  treatment  of  trees. 

The  decade  from  1858  to  1868  was  one  of  quiet  in  the  fruit  interest 
of  California.  Many  of  the  too  hastily  and  carelessly  planted  trees 
died  from  lack  of  proper  cultivation  and  pruning,  and  the  borer 
wrought  sad  havoc.  In  1860  and  1861  there  was  serious  depression. 
It  is  recorded  that  peaches  were  worth  but  one  cent  a  pound,  and 
many  were  allowed  to  go  to  waste  as  not  worth  gathering.  The  flood 
of  1862  destroyed  many  trees  along  the  Sacramento  River,  and  replant- 
ing was  slow  until  prices  began  to  improve,  as  they  did  soon  afterward. 
The  rapid  development  of  the  mining  interest  in  Nevada,  and  the 
construction  of  roads  across  the  Sierras,  opened  the  way  for  the  dis- 
position of  much  fruit  growth  in  the  foothills  and  in  the  region  around 
Sacramento. 

The  imports  of  dried  and  canned  fruits  were  large,  and  growers 
were  exhorted  to  take  steps  to  secure  this  trade  for  themselves.  Some- 
thing was  done  in  this  direction,  for  by  1867  the  local  product  of 
canned  fruit  was  equal  to  the  demand.  Drying  did  not  advance  so 
fast;  for  two  years  later  there  were  imports  of  six  thousand  barrels 
of  dried  apples,  while  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  bushels  of  the  fruit 
were  rotting  under  the  trees  in  our  orchards. 

The  decade  under  review  was  also  notable  for  the  first  appearance 
of  cured  raisins  and  prunes  at  the  State  Fair  of  1863.  The  raisins 
were  from  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria  grape,  and  the  report  states  that 
so-called  raisins  exhibited  previous  to  that  time  were  merely  dried 
grapes.  Dr.  J.  Strentzel,  of  Martinez,  was  the  first  exhibitor  of  Muscat 
raisins,  and  he  exhibited  also  dried  grapes  of  four  varieties  to  show 
the  contrast  between  a  raisin  and  a  dried  grape.  J.  R.  Nickerson,  of 
Placer  county,  exhibited  the  dried  prunes,  which  were  of  the  German 
variety. 

Though  this  decade  was  one  of  uncertainty  and  doubt,  there  were 
rich  lessons  of  experience  learned,  and  the  foundations  for  coming 
greatness  were  well  laid.  Many  of  our  leading  lines  of  production 
trace  their  beginnings  to  this  period,  and  their  later  developments  have 
been  beyond  any  anticipations  then  cherished. 

The  New  Era. — Another  era  in  California  may  be  marked  as 
beginning  with  the  year  1869,  because  then  the  first  fresh  fruits  were 
sent  East  over  the  newly-opened  overland  line.  The  first  season's 
shipments  amounted  to  thirty-three  tons  of  pears,  apples,  grapes,  and 
plums;  in  1870  seventy  carloads,  or  about  seven  hundred  tons,  were 
sent. 

The  Eastern  shipment  of  fresh  fruits  began  its  new  era  with  the 
year  1886,  when  the  first  full  train  load  of  fifteen  cars  of  fresh  fruit 
from  deciduous  trees  went  overland.  Shipping  train  loads  of  oranges 
from  Southern  California  began  at  an  earlier  date. 

During  the  present  decade  shipments  of  fruit  and  fruit-products 
have  increased  until  a  very  large  aggregate  in  weight  and  value  has 


CALIFORNIA    FRUIT    SHIPMENTS 


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52 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO   GROW   THEM 


been  attained.  The  volume  of  shipments  beyond  State  lines  is  shown 
by  the  statement  on  the  next  page  compiled  from  the  records  of  the 
California  Development  Board. 

A  full  statement  of  citrus  fruit  production  and  shipment  will  be 
found  in  Chapter  XXXII. 

The  Fruit  Interest  of  1914. — The  fruit  interests  of  California 
now  constitute  the  greatest  single  industry  of  California,  and  the  fruit 
output  of  California  is  far  greater  than  that  of  any  other  State  in  the 
Union.  Notable  progress  has  been  secured  in  planting,  in  the  growth, 
preparation  and  marketing  of  the  product,  in  the  contest  with  injurious 
insects  and  plant  diseases,  and,  in  fact,  in  all  things  which  contribute 
to  success.  It  is  true  that  there  are  problems  still  unsolved,  and  there 
have  been  grievous  losses  to  individuals  who  have  proceeded  upon 
too  great  expectations  or  have  erred  in  location  for  various  fruits. 
Such  mishaps  will  be  less  frequent  in  the  future.  At  present  there  is 
a  disposition  to  proceed  more  cautiously  and  to  profit  by  the  lessons 
which  have  been  learned,  many  of  which  will  be  mentioned  in  their 
proper  places  in  later  chapters. 

Some  dimensions  of  the  present  fruit  interests  may  be  suggested 
by  the  following  statistics  showing  numbers  of  trees  and  vines,  which 
have  been  carefully  compiled  from  reports  of  the  assessors  of  the 
counties  submitted  to  the  State  Board  of  Equalization.  As  the  enumer- 
ations were  made  as  a  basis  of  taxation  they  are  not  likely  to  be 
exaggerated.  Though  imperfect,  they  are  the  best  available. 


Number  and  Acreage  of  Fruit  Trees  and  Vines  in  California,  1912. 


Fruit. 

Bearing. 

Non-bearing. 

Total. 

Acreage. 

Apple   

2,352,811 

1,523,598 

3,876,409 

51,684 

Apricot  

2,877,593 

493,141 

3,370,734  • 

44,944 

Cherry    

505,123 

231,087 

736,210 

8,180 

Pear    

1,398,741 

620,344 

2,019,085 

25,238 

Peach    

8,341,036 

2,104,707 

10,445,744 

04.459 

Nectarine  

58,034 

5,739 

63,773 

637 

Plinu  

1,178,436 

317,960 

1,496,396 

14.964 

Prune   

7,920,799 

1,123,854 

9,044,653 

90.441 

Quince    

20,381 

3,324 

23,705 

220 

Fig    

330,364 

219,511 

549,875 

21,995 

Olive    

1,056,167 

173,431 

1,229,598 

19.951 

Lemon    

1,815,401 

1,471,440 

3,286,841 

43,979 

Orange  , 

9,022,538 

4,146,051 

13,168,589 

146.317 

Almond    

1,384,933 

678,512 

2,063,445 

27.512 

Walnut  

786,082 

839,990 

1,626,072 

40.652 

Grapes,  acres  

263,800 

82,873 

346,673 

Berries,  acres  

12,658 

2,019 

14.677 

Totals  *39,324,897    *14,037,582      53,001,129        1,002,523 

*  Acreage  of  grapes,  acres  and  berries  omitted. 

It  is  interesting  to  estimate  the  total  value  of  the  annual  products 
of  California  trees  and  vines,  using  the  best  data  and  judgment  avail- 
able. 


CALIFORNIA'S  PLACE  IN  FRUIT  GROWING  53 

Rank  of  California  in  the  United  States  in  the  Production  of  Fruits — From 

the  Last  U.  S.  Census. 

Kind  of  fruit.  Rank  among  states.  Value  of  product  1909. 

Almond  First  $       700,304 

Apple  Ninth  2,901,622 

Apricot  First  2,768,921 

Cherry  First  951,624 

Fig  First  260,153 

Grape  First  10,846,812 

Lemon  First  2,976,571 

Olive  First  401,277 

Orange  First  12,951,505 

Peach  First  8,563,427 

Pear  First  1,660,963 

Plum  and  prune  First  5,473,539 

Walnut,  English  First  2,247,193 

Berries  Third  1,789,214 

Total  value*  First  50,704,834 

*Including  minor  fruits  not  listed. 

Thus  it  appears  that  California  leads  the  other  states  in  every  fruit 
except  two.  California  also  leads  in  the  total  value  of  all  fruits  pro- 
duced in  all  states — producing  in  fact  about  one-fourth  of  all  the  fruit 
grown  in  the  United  States. 

Four  crops  have  been  gathered  since  the  census  year,  1909,  and  the 
California  fruit  interests  have  notably  advanced.  Including  this  in- 
crease and  using  the  commercial  value  of  the  fruits  as  they  reach  the 
markets  instead  of  "farm  value"  which  the  census  gives,  a  total  value 
of  these  products  in  1914  is  estimated  to  be  about  one  hundred  millions 
of  dollars. 

INFLUENCE  OF  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRIES  UPON 
CALIFORNIA    DEVELOPMENT 

Enlistment  in  California  fruit  growing  has  proved  exceedingly 
satisfactory  to  tens  of  thousands  of  people  in  the  various  ways  along 
which  they  have  approached  it.  The  fruit  districts  are  full  of  cottage 
homes  sheltering  families  of  those  who  have  begun  with  small  invest- 
ments and  have  made  a  good  livelihood,  and  often  considerably  more, 
from  a  few  acres  of  fruits  grown  largely '  without  expenditure  for 
hired  labor.  The  study  of  the  needs  of  the  tree  or  vine  and  ministering 
to  them  by  personal  effort  has  brought  new  health  and  new  incentive 
to  the  worn  and  weary  who  have  taken  up  outdoor  life  and  activity  in 
California  fruit  growing  with  a  wise  choice  of  location,  land  and  fruits, 
for  obviously  in  all  investments  one  must  be  wise  as  well  as  willing. 

In  large  operations  hundreds  have  notably  succeeded  by  purchasing 
good  land  in  large  tracts  at  low  rates  and  making  ample  investment 
for  its  development  and  improvement.  Some  of  the  most  delightful  of 
our  towns  and  villages  have  arisen  as  a  direct  result  of  such  employment 
of  capital.  Well  established  communities,  well  churched  and  schooled, 
well  provided  for  in  local  trade  and  transportation,  have  followed 
investment  and  devoted  effort  in  colony  enterprises. 


54  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Hundreds,  also,  have  purchased  large  tracts  of  wild  land  and  have 
developed  fine  estates  for  their  own  personal  gratification,  with  thriving 
orchards  of  all  kinds  of  fruits,  rich  pastures  tenanted  with  improved 
livestock,  parks,  gradens  and  buildings  comparable  with  the  estates 
of  the  European  nobility,  except  that  California  conditions  favor  free- 
dom and  variety  in  outdoor  effort  unknown  in  Europe,  and  command 
proportional  interest  and  enthusiasm.  Estates  for  winter  residences  in 
California  are  exceptionally  desirable,  not  only  because  of  natural 
advantages  and  greater  possibilities  of  development,  but  because  of  the 
advanced  standing  of  the  State  financially  and  socially. 

All  of  these  lines  of  effort,  then — home-making  in  a  small  way, 
colony  enterprise  and  private  estate  development — have  yielded  on  the 
whole  great  satisfaction  and  success.  Fruit  growing  has  been  the 
central  idea  in  nearly  all  of  them,  but  it  is  obvious  that  activity  in  any 
productive  line  begets  opportunity  for  other  lines,  and  so  all  branches  of 
agriculture  have  advanced  and  the  diversification  is  highly  desirable. 
Opportunities  in  manufacture,  trade  and  professional  effort  of  all  kinds 
have  been  quickly  seized  and  developed  with  much  originality  and 
success.  Fruit  growing  has  created  them  all  and  has  in  turn  been 
advanced  by  all,  for  every  accumulation  of  capital  promotes  it.  Success- 
ful toilers  in  all  lines  become  planters.  The  ancestral  delight  of  the 
race,  to  sit  beneath  one's  own  vine  or  fig  tree,  is  nowhere  more  enthu- 
siastically manifested  than  in  California,  and  nowhere  else  does  the 
emotion  of  comfort  in  ownership  yield  such  profound  and.  protracted 
satisfaction. 

THE  OUTLOOK  OF  THE  INDUSTRY 

The  outlook  for  California  fruits  and  fruit  products  involves  con- 
siderations of  much  economic  interest.  Though  the  volume  is  already 
large  and  there  may  be  experienced  now  and  then  temporary  dullness 
or  depression  in  this  line  or  that,  the  business  is  on  the  whole  brisk 
and  profitable.  There  is  such  a  wide  range  in  the  fruits  grown  and  the 
products  made  from  them,  and  such  changes  in  local  conditions  in  the 
many  purchasing  States  and  foreign  countries  with  which  Californians 
deal,  that  there  must  be  some  fluctuations  in  the  values  of  some  of 
the  supplies  offered  in  distant  market.  The  result  is  that  first  one  fruit 
and  then  another  one  seems  to  be  more  or  less  profitable.  The  fact, 
however,  that  all  are  increasing  in  volume  and  the  total  traffic  brings 
each  year  more  money  to  the  State,  is  a  demonstration  of  the  standing 
of  the  collective  output.  Each  year  new  markets  are  found,  both  at 
home  and  abroad,  and  the  capacity  of  old  centers  of  distribution  is 
shown  to  be  greater  than  anticipated.  There  is  every  reason  to  expect 
that  the  products  can  be  profitably  multiplied.  There  have  been  secured, 
largely  through  co-operative  efforts  of  growers,  so  many  improvements 
in  handling  and  transportation  that  distant  shipment  has  become  more 
safe  and  profitable  and  distribution  far  wider.  It  is  reasonable  to  be- 
lieve that  further  improvement  in  movement  and  reduction  of  cost 
will  be  realized  and  the  per  capita  consumption  in  the  populous  parts 
of  our  own  country  proportionally  advanced.  In  spite  of  all  that 
wintry  States  can  do  for  local  supplies,  California  can  find  open  mar- 


OUTLOOK    OF    FRUIT    GROWING    IN    CALIFORNIA  55 

kets  before  and  after  the  short  ripening  season  of  the  Eastern  States 
for  her  early  and  late  fruits,  and  can  use  her  own  midseason  fruits  in 
the  drying-  and  canning  industries,  though  it  is  a  fact  that  in  the  height 
of  the  Eastern  fruit  season  a  considerable  quantity  of  California^  fruit 
will  command  the  highest  prices  because  of  its  exceptional  size,  beauty 
and  keeping  qualities.  The  citrus  fruits,  so  long  as  they  are  allowed 
to  remain  under  the  favoring  tariff  which  now  exists,  will  continue  to 
supply  an  American  product  of  exceptional  quality  and  freshness,  while 
prunes,  nuts,  raisins  and  wines  will  not  only  do  this,  but  will  push 
forward  into  the  trade  of  Europe,  as  they  are  now  beginning  to  do  in 
a  most  vigorous  manner.  A  very  significant  report  was  made  by  one 
of  the  United  States  Consuls  in  France  recently  that  our  canned  and 
dried  fruits  were  appearing  on  the  shelves  of  all  the  provision  shops  of 
the  smaller  French  towns  and  were  being  freely  sold  without  reducing 
the  prices  of  the  locally  grown  fruit.  Practically  the  same  thing  could 
be  said  of  points  in  Germany  and  other  European  countries.  The  fact 
is  that  European  countries  can  not  grow  fruit  enough  to  supply  their 
own  people  and  fruit  has  been  largely  a  luxury.  California  dried  fruits 
are  being  welcomed  by  the  great  middle  classes  and  are  likely  to  become 
a  staple  of  their  diet.  This  explains  the  ultimate  disposition  of  the 
large  amounts  now  going  direct  from  California  to  Europe. 

California's  exports  of  high-class  food  supplies  to  European  coun- 
tries are  likely  to  reach  values  like  those  of  the  wheat  and  barley  which 
we  are  now  sending  to  that  part  of  the  world.  The  development  of 
adjacent  territory  on  the  American  continent  and  other  Pacific  countries 
may  shape  the  future  of  California  as  a  fruit  producing  State  in  a  way 
which  can  at  present  only  be  dreamed  about.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  California  has  a  unique  character  from  a  horticultural  point  of 
view.  Not  only  does  the  State  have  a  monopoly  of  semi-tropical  condi- 
tions of  the  United  States  (excepting  small  parts  of  the  Gulf  States 
and  Arizona),  but  California  has  command  of  the  whole  of  northwest 
America  and  the  whole  of  northeast  Asia,  not  only  in  the  supply  of 
semi-tropical  fruits,  but  in  early  ripening  of  hardy  fruits  as  well. 

California  does  not  grow  tropical  fruits,  as  has  already  been  con- 
ceded in  Chapter  I.  They  must  come  from  the  islands  and  the  tropical 
south  coast  countries.  Semi-tropical  fruits  are,  however,  vastly  more 
important  in  commerce  than  tropical,  and  a  region  which  successfully 
combines  northern  orchard  fruits  with  the  whole  semi-tropical  class 
commands  the  fruit  trade  of  all  accessible  populous  regions  which  have 
limited  fruit  capabilities.  There  are  now  four  such  regions  with  the 
kind  of  population  which  makes  for  industrial  advancement — Southern 
Europe,  South  Africa,  parts  of  Australia  and  California.  As  already 
shown,  we  are  competing  successfully  with  South  Europe  in  the  capa- 
cious markets  of  North  Europe.  South  Africa  and  Australia  are  unfor- 
tunate in  lying  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  which  is  mostly  ocean 
wastes,  and  they  are  handicapped  by  tropic  crossing  in  their  northern 
shipments,  although  the  fact  of  opposite  seasons  may  help  them,  and 
also  us,  in  avoiding  competition  of  trade  which  both  desire.  California 
will  soon  be  less  than  half  as  far  by  sea  from  European  and  Atlantic 
coast  ports  as  at  present,  but  California  in  the  future  will  have  less 


56  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO   GROW    THEM 

occasion  for  such  distant  recourses.  Prophets,  far-seeing  in  world 
courses,  declare  that  the  Pacific  ocean  is  to  be  the  arena  for  commerce 
greater  than  the  world  has  yet  seen,  and  the  Pacific  coast  countries 
are  to  contain  the  greater  part  of  the  world's  population.  This  greatest 
quartosphere  with  its  superlative  opportunities  and  activities  will  have 
California  as  its  treasure  house  of  fruits  and  fruit  products.  During 
the  long  winter  the  citrus  fruits  will  afford  tonic  and  refreshment, 
and  before  hardy  fruits  bloom  in  northern  climes  the  same  fruits  will 
appear  from  the  early  ripening  districts  of  California.  In  this  traffic 
California  will  not  only  be  practically  without  a  competitor,  but, 
sitting  beside  the  sea,  there  will  also  be  every  advantage  of  water 
transportation  and  the  sustaining  ocean  temperatures  of  the  fruits  in 
transit.  California  dried  and  canned  fruits  will  render  acceptable  diet 
even  though  the  most  Arctic  stretches  along  which  development  may 
advance  in  North  America  and  North  Asia,  while  a  succession  of  fresh 
fruits  will  flow  to  all  Pacific  ports  throughout  the  year.  California, 
too,  will  be  the  winter  residence  for  all  the  North  Pacific  millionaires 
and  the  haven  of  rest  and  recuperation  for  all  who  are  worn  by  Arctic 
cold  or  tropic  heat  throughout  the  great  circle  of  the  Pacific  ocean. 
Here  the  arts  will  flourish,  education  attain  its  highest  achievements 
and  culture  prevail.  Then  fruit  growing  both  as  a  commercial  enter- 
prise and  as  a  home  delight  will  attain  value,  volume  and  perfection, 
of  which  present  achievements  are  but  a  faint  foreshadowing. 


PART  TWO:  CULTURAL 


CHAPTER  VII 

CLEARING    LAND    FOR   FRUIT 

The  greater  part  of  the  orchard  and  vineyard  area  of  this  State  was 
naturally  almost  clear  for  planting.  The  removal  of  large  trees,  which 
paid  the  cost  of  the  work  in  firewood,  or  the  grubbing  out  of  willows 
on  some  especially  rich  bottom  land,  was  about  the  extent  of  clearing 
which  our  earlier  planters  had  to  undertake,  and  many  of  them  perhaps 
never  had  to  lift  an  axe.  Still  there  has  always  been  some  clearing 
done,  here  and  there,  even  since  the  earliest  days,  especially  upon 
hill  lands,  the  peculiar  value  of  which  for  some  fruits  is  generally 
recognized. 

The  lands  which  need  clearing  are  in  the  main  foothill  slopes  of  the 
Coast  Range  and  the  Sierra  Nevada.  In  the  south  there  is  besides, 
sometimes,  the  debris  of  the  desert  flora  to  clear  away  when  water  is 
secured  and  the  rich  wilderness  is  subdued.  This  work  is,  however, 
so  easily  accomplished  that  it  hardly  rises  to  the  dignity  of  "clearing," 
as  understood  by  the  Eastern  mind. 

It  is  not  possible  in  this  connection  to  enumerate  all  of  the  great 
variety  of  shrubs  and  trees  which  the  settler  lays  low  in  his  clearing. 
The  grand  trees  which  figure  most  largely  in  lumbering  operations  are 
not  met  with  as  a  rule  in  foothill  clearings.  The  trees  which  the 
settler  encounters  are  rather  the  degraded  valley  growths,  which,  though 
assuming  grand  proportions  in  the  valleys,  become  "scrubs"  amid  the 
harsher  environment  of  the  hillsides.  This  is  notably  true  of  the  oaks 
and  some  other  trees. 

Chamisal  and  Chaparral. — Of  true  shrubs  to  be  removed,  it  will 
only  be  possible  to  name  a  few  of  the  most  abunant.  The  common  man- 
zanita  (Arctostaphylos  manzanita)  occurs  on  dry  ridges  everywhere, 
both  on  the  coast  and  at  great  elevations,  sometimes  only  growing  a 
few  inches  from  the  ground,  sometimes  rising  eight  or  ten  feet.  Next 
to  this,  perhaps,  the  two  terms  which  the  land  clearer  has  most  to  use 
are  "chaparral"  and  "chamisal."  To  distinguish  between  them  it  may 
be  said,  however,  that  the  term  chamisal  properly  applies  to  the  shrub 
Adenostoma  fasciculatum  var.  obtusi folium,  which  is  abundant  on 
dry  soils  in  the  Coast  Ranges  and  more  rarely  in  the  foothills  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  often  covering  extensive  areas  with  dense  and  almost 
impenetrable  growth,  producing  an  effect  on  the  landscape  like  that 
of  the  heaths  of  the  Old  World.  Another  species,  A.  sparsifolium,  with 
narrow,  scattered  leaves,  is  sometimes  abundant  on  the  mountains  east 
of  San  Diego. 

By  chaparral  is  generally  meant  shrubs  of  several  species  of 
Ceanothus,  forming  dense  thickets  and  giving  its  name  to  certain  soils 
on  which  it  most  abounds,  both  in  the  Sierra  foothills  and  the  hillsides 
57 


58  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO   GROW    THEM 

of  the  Coast  Range,  where  it  is  known  as  California  lilac.  The  genus 
includes  the  "flat  brushes,"  as  they  are  called,  from  their  trailing  on 
the  ground,  or  low,  horizontal  shoots ;  also  the  "white  thorn"  of  more 
upright  growth. 

Other  Small  Growths. — Shrubs  of  frequent  occurrence  also  are 
the  poison  oak  (Rhus  diversiloba) ,  chiefly  on  the  north  sides  of  hills 
in  all  parts  of  the  State,  but  most  abundant  in  the  Coast  Ranges,  and 
other  species  of  Rhus  which  are  not  poisonous ;  the  hazel  nut  (Corylus 
ro strata),  which  has  been  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  wild  fruits ;  the 
buckthorns,  several  species  of  rhamnus,  well  distributed  on  the  hillsides 
and  mountains  of  the  State. 

In  some  parts  of  the  State  there  are  also  large  areas  of  sagebrush 
or  wormwood  make,  up  of  several  species  of  Artemisia,  sage  or  chia, 
two  species  of  Salvia,  and  the  famous  white  and  black  sages  of  the 
bee-keepers,  which  are  species  of  Audibertia,  occurring  chiefly  on  the 
mountains  of  Southern  California.  Add  to  these  the  spireas,  the 
azaleas,  the  rhododendrons,  the  sweet-scented  shrubs  (Calycanthus), 
etc.,  and  include  nearly  all  the  wild  fruit  trees,  brushes  and  vines  men- 
tioned in  a  previous  chapter,  and  one  will  gain  the  idea  that  though 
California  is  widely  considered  a  bare  State,  the  land  clearer  has  a  host 
of  plants  confronting  him  and  disputing  his  right  to  the  soil. 

Cost  of  Clearing. — The  cost  of  clearing  on  the  foothill  slopes 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Coast  Ranges  is  too  variable  to  admit  of 
estimates  except  such  as  may  be  made  on  the  spot  by  experienced 
persons.  The  cost  varies,  of  course,  according  to  the  density  of  the 
growth  of  trees  and  underbrush,  and  the  rate  of  wages  to  be  paid. 
Though  in  some  cases  higher  cost  is  reached,  probably  as  a  rule  the 
expense  of  clearing  will  be  from  $5.00  to  $30.00  per  acre,  less  whatever 
the  firewood  might  be  worth.  In  exceptional  cases,  where  there  is  a 
large  growth  and  a  good  wood  market  near  by,  the  wood  may  pay 
the  expense  or  more ;  even  the  roots  of  chaparral  sometimes  sell  in  our 
cities  at  $3.00  or  $4.00  per  cord.  It  sometimes  happens  that  charcoal 
can  be  produced  to  advantage ;  in  fact,  there  are  now  orchards  upon 
land  which  was  secured  in  the  first  instance  for  the  charcoal  to  be 
made  upon  it.  Usually,  however,  the  clearing  is  an  item  of  expense 
and  must  be  reduced  as  much  as  possible  by  working  in  the  most 
economical  and  effective  way. 

Though  in  most  cases  of  clearing  by  the  actual  settler  himself  the 
problem  is  merely  one  of  muscle  and  persistence,  some  few  hints  may 
be  given  from  the  experience  of  others  which  may  be  useful.  Spare 
time  during  the  summer  and  fall  can  often  be  used  to  advantage  with 
a  sharp  axe  in  trimming  up  the  smaller  trees,  which  are  large  enough 
to  yield  fencing  material,  and  getting  out  posts  from  the  redwoods 
and  oaks,  and  rails  and  pickets  from  the  pines.  By  thus  using  the 
waste  material  the  settler  can  often  get  out  enough  fencing  material 
to  inclose  his  land  and  thus  save  considerable  expense.  Brush,  too, 
which  can  not  be  made  use  of,  can  be  lopped  off — in  short,  all  the  sharp 
axe  work  can  be  done  in  a  dry  time.  The  actual  clearing,  however, 
should  be  done  in  winter,  when  the  ground  is  wet  and  soft,  and  digging 
is  easy  or  "snaking  out"  is  possible. 


METHODS    OF   REMOVING   TREES  59 

Partial  and  Thorough  Clearings. — Orchards  are  planted  on  both 
partially  and  thoroughly  cleared  land.  By  the  former  practice  clearing 
enough  is  done  to  give  space  for  the  tree  holes,  the  debris  is  burned  up, 
and  the  trees  planted.  In  this  kind  of  work  the  stumps  are  left  to  be 
taken  out  at  a  convenient  season,  the  object  being  to  get  fruit  trees 
to  growing  as  soon  as  possible.  Where  one  is  working  with  little  more 
than  his  own  muscle,  and  has  no  capital,  this  sort  of  planting  is  better, 
perhaps,  than  not  planting  at  all,  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  all 
subsequent  work  will  be  done  at  a  great  disadvantage,  and  as  cultiva- 
tion is  likely  to  be  very  imperfect,  it  would  be  a  question  whether  in 
the  end  anything  would  be  gained  by  such  a  plan.  The  encumbered 
character  of  the  ground  will,  of  course,  prevent  the  use  of  the  horse 
in  cultivation  until  most  of  the  stumps  are  removed.  Aside  from  this 
decaying  stumps  and  roots  in  the  soil  often  kill  the  young  trees ;  espe- 
cially is  this  the  case  with  old  oak  stumps. 

Clearing  land  for  orchard  or  vineyard  is  a  very  different  thing  from 
clearing  for  pasture,  as  is  done  in  the  redwood  region  of  the  northwest 
Coast  Ranges  of  the  State,  where  the  stumps  are  untouched ;  the  trees 
not  taken  by  the  lumberman  are  girdled  and  left  a  prey  to  decay  and 
storms,  and  the  brush  slashed  and  burned  every  few1  years  to  prevent 
it  from  completely  taking  possession  of  the  land.  Clearing  for  fruit 
should  be  thorough,  everything  which  will  interfere  with  good  cultiva- 
tion removed ;  roots  grubbed  so  that  as  little  shooting  up  as  possible 
is  secured ;  the  ground  evened  up  to  obviate  standing  water,  and,  where 
needed,  arrangements  made  for  irrigation  and  drainage,  as  will  be 
considered  later. 

Removal  of  Trees. — The  first  operation  in  clearing  will  be  the 
removal  of  the  trees.  This  can  be  partly  done  in  the  dry  season  if  one 
has  unemployed  time.  In  such  case  the  tree  is  felled  and  worked  up 
into  fire-wood  and  the  stump  left  for  subsequent  treatment  when  t\\^ 
ground  is  moist.  Unless  there  is  idle  time  to  employ,  the  whole  work 
can,  however,  be  better  done  in  the  winter,  for  then  the  top  of  the  tree 
may  be  made  to  help  pull  out  its  own  roots.  This  done  sometimes  by 
digging  out  the  soil  and  cutting  off  the  main  lateral,  roots  below  the 
depth  to  which  the  plow  will  reach.  By  thus  reducing  its  anchorage 
the  tree  will  topple  over,  or  may  be  pulled  over  with  a  team  and  tackle, 
and  it  will  usually  lift  out  its  stump  quite  effectively. 

A  Steam  Puller. — An  arrangement  for  tearing  out  trees  without 
digging  has  been  used  to  some  extent  in  Santa  Cruz  county,  which  is 
said  to  handle  redwood  trees  up  to  four  feet  in  diameter  successfully, 
it  consists  of  a  portable  engine  and  a  "puller,"  which  is  a  windlass 
operated  by  steam,  from  which  a  wire  cable  is  carried  to  the  tree  which 
is  to  be  pulled  down.  A  strong  chain  is  put  around  the  tree  at  a  dis- 
tance above  the  ground  proportioned  to  its  diameter  in  such  a  way  as  to 
give  necessary  leverage.  The  immensely  strong  hook  at  the  end  of 
the  cable  is  attached  to  this  chain  and  the  cable  is  slowly  wound  upon 
the  reel.  The  coil  begins  to  grow  taut,  a  dull  creak  and  strain  are 
heard  as  the  roots  begin  to  be  torn  from  the  earth.  Two  chains  are 
used,  a  second  tree  being  prepared  while  the  first  is  falling,  that  no  time 
may  be  lost.  The  cable  is  detached  from  the  falling  tree,  and  a  horse 


60  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW   TO   GROW    THEM 

draws  it  from  amid  the  debris  of  fallen  foliage  to  the  next  victim. 
The  extraction  of  roots  by  this  method  of  pulling  is  said  to  be  very 
complete,  and  the  earth  is  loosened  to  a  considerable  depth. 

Powerful  traction  engines,  manufactured  for  hauling  combined 
harvesters  and  steam  plows,  have  also  been  very  successfully  used  for 
the  removal  of  large  trees  in  land  clearing. 

Horse-Power  Stump  Pullers. — The  use  of  horse-power  devices 
for  tree  felling  and  stump  extraction  has  increased  considerably  of  late. 
The  one  which  has  achieved  good  results  is  a  local  invention  called  a 
"California  Stump  Puller."  It  is  simply  a  specially  designed  capstan 
worked  by  one  horse,  with  a  wire  cable  five-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter, an  improved  snatch  lock,  chains,  and  a  drafthook  to  unite  the 
cable  with  the  chains.  Power  is  applied  to  the  capstan  with  a  sweep. 
It  is  calculated  that  with  this  device,  properly  adjusted,  one  horse  is 
enabled  to  produce  an  effect  equal  to  the  capacity  of  60  horses  without 
it,  and  that  a  1,200-pound  horse  which  can  move  a  dead  weight  of  one 
and  a  half  tons  for  a  short  distance  can  move  a  dead  weight  of  90  tons 
with  the  devices  employed  in  the  machine:  It  is  so  rapidly  adjustable 
that  on  one  trial  in  Napa  county  eighteen  stumps  were  pulled  in 
eighteen  minutes,  long  roots  coming  clear  out  of  the  ground  with 
each  stump. 

The  Use  of  Powder. — Another  means  for  the  removal  both  of 
stumps  and  of  growing  trees  which  has  come  into  quite  wide  use  during 
the  last  few  years,  is  high  explosives,  which  have  vastly  cheapened  the 
clearing  of  lands,  where  either  large  trees  or  stumps  have  to  be 
removed.  Full  instructions  for  the  use  of  powder  are  furnished  by 
the  agents  in  San  Francisco,  and  they  often  send  an  expert  to  start  the 
work  and  give  instruction  if  there  is  much  to  be  done.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  the  cost  of  handling  trees  and  stumps  with  explosives 
is  less  than  one-fifth  that  by  hand  grubbing,  and  the  ratio  of  saving 
increases  as  the  trees  are  larger,  as  powder  is  cheaper  than  muscle. 

Removing  Shrubs  and  Brush. — In  the  case  of  removing  shrubs 
of  a  somewhat  tall  growth,  the  top  is  made  to  help  out  the  roots.  This 
is  done  either  with  a  good  strong  rope  or  a  chain.  To  do  this  requires 
two  men  and  a  pair  of  horses,  and  two  chains,  each  ten  or  twelve  feet 
long.  A  chain  should  be  placed  around  the  bush  some  distance  above 
the  ground,  to  give  leverage.  If  the  bush  is  not  removed  at  the  first 
pull,  start  the  horses  in  the  opposite  direction.  While  the  driver  is 
unfastening  the  chain  from  the  chapparral,  the  second  man  can  place 
the  other  chain  around  another  bush,  and  the  one  who  gets  through 
his  work  first  should  at  once  assist  the  other.  In  this  way  the  horses 
are  kept  in  constant  employment,  and  neither  of  the  men  need  lose  a 
moment's  time.  This  work  should  be  done  when  the  ground  is  thor- 
oughly wet. 

Another  rig  to  snake  brush  and  small  trees  is  contrived  in  this  way : 
Use  single  and  double  block  or  shives  with  1-in.  diameter  rope.  On 
the  block  you  pull  from  (the  double  block)  use  two  10- ft.  chains  with 
ring  in  one  end  and  hook  on  other.  Secure  this  to  a  good  anchor 
bush  or  to  three  or  five  of  them,  enough  to  hold.  Fasten  them  right 


THE   USE   OF   CLEARING   PRODUCTS  61 

down  close  to  the  ground  so  there  is  no  leverage  on  them.  As  soon  as 
you  have  pulled  all  you  can  reach  in  a  circle  around  the  anchor  trees, 
take  one  anchor  chain  off,  or  start  with  one  anchor  chain,  then  hook 
on  other,  take  in  big  circle  on  single  block  end.  One  to  four  chains  can 
be  used ;  take  two  half  hitches  as  high  as  possible,  make  first  chain 
taut;  2nd  chain  2  ft.  slack;  3rd  chain  3  ft.  slack,  and  so  on — so  your 
horses  are  pulling  one  bush  at  a  time.  Chains  do  not  tie  in  hard  knots 
when  horses  are  pulling  on  them,  as  ropes  do. 

A  Vine  Puller. — What  is  called  a  "vine  puller,"  because  it  is 
used  to  clear  off  old  vineyard,  is  also  available  for  shrub  pulling.  Use 
two  wagan  wheels,  long  pole  4x6x12  pine  with  large  strong  iron  hook 
on  one  end.  Bolt  the  hook  on,  allow  the  end  with  the  hook  on  to  project 
over  the  axle  18  in.  Bolt  the  pole  down  to  axle.  This  gives  you  great 
leverage.  Roll  right  along  on  the  short  end  over  the  axle.  Use  a  good 
five-eighths  chain.  Take  double  half-hitch  around  bush ;  raise  the  pole 
into  air,  take  a  short  tie  on  the  bush;  start  the  horse  and  out  comes 
the  bush. 

Roller  and  Plow. — Where  manzanita  grows  upright,  as  on  hills 
north  of  the  bay,  the  same  methods  of  extraction  can  be  employed  with 
it,  first  slashing  off  enough  to  allow  adjusting  the  rope  or  chain  a 
few  feet  above  the  ground.  Where  it  grows  lower,  as,  for  example,  on 
the  hills  of  Santa  Clara,  the  manzanita  brush  is  gone  over  with  a 
roller  so  as  to  break  it  down,  and  then  the  land  is  burned  over.  The 
roller  should  be  rigged  with  a  tiller  (header  fashion)  so  that  the  horses 
can  push  the  roller  and  walk  over  the  flattened  brush.  The  only  object 
of  the  rolling  is  to  smash  the  brush  down  so  that  it  will  burn  readily. 
When  the  brush  is  got  rid  of  in  this  way,  the  plow  is  trusted  to  get 
rid  of  the  roots.  The  plow  should  be  of  the  pattern  known  as  "prairie 
breaker,"  without  coulter.  Horses  should  be  shod  with  a  plate  of  sheet 
iron  between  the  shoe  and  hoof  to  prevent  snagging,  and  not  less 
than  four  of  them  used.  Much  of  the  Santa  Clara  county  vine  belt 
was  cleared  in  that  way.  Of  course  this  method  only  answers  for  the 
lighter-rooted  growths;  tough-rooted  chaparral,  oak,  holly,  etc.,  must 
be  grubbed  out,  unless  the  roots  are  snaked  out  by  the  tops,  as  has 
been  described. 

Marketable  Products  of  Clearing. — Whether  any  money  can  be 
made  from  the  results  of  clearing  depends  altogether  upon  local  mar- 
kets for  wood  and  charcoal,  and  the  cost  of  transportation  to  them. 
From  clearings  near  large  towns  enough  can  be  sometimes  had  to  pay 
for  the  work  and  hauling,  and  along  railways  wood  can  often  be 
shipped  with  profit.  This  can  only  be  learned  by  local  inquiries. 

Charcoal  Burning. — Charcoal  can  usually  be  sold  to  advantage, 
and  wood  can  sometimes  be  profitably  disposed  of  in  this  way  when  it 
cannot  be  marketed  for  fuel.  A  considerable  acreage  of  unprofitable 
fruit  trees  has  been  disposed  of  in  this  way  recently.  Charcoal  is  made 
from  most  kinds  of  wood,  and  sometimes  stumps  and  large  roots  are 
charred.  A  simple  process  of  charcoal  burning  is  given  by  an  expe- 
rienced burner,  as  follows : 

To  burn  a  pit  of  charcoal,  the  prime  necessity  is  to  perform  the  process  of 
combustion  with  the  least  possible  contact  with  air.     Select  a  suitable  place  not 


62  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS!    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

too  far  from  the  dwelling,  because  the  operation  must  be  watched  from  time  to 
time  by  night  as  well  as  by  day.  It  is  not  necessary  to  dig  much  of  a  "pit"  in 
the  ground.  Choose  hard  limbs  of  pine,  spruce  or  whatever  wood  i£  most  avail- 
able of  that  kind.  Dry,  dead  limbs,  if  not  decayed,  take  for  choice.  Set  them  up 
wigwam  fashion,  close  together,  fitting  them  as  well  as  they  will  allow,  the  apex 
forming  the  chimney.  Be  careful  to  keep  the  chimney  free,  because  the  fire 
should  be  there  applied  to  brisk  "kindling"  as  far  down  as  possible.  Build  round 
and  round,  taking  the  precaution  to  lay  three  or  four  straight  pieces,  three  or 
four  inches  in  diameter,  along  the  ground  from  the  outside  to  the  center.  These 
may  have  to  be  withdrawn  to  promote  the  draught. 

The  wood  all  being  in  place  it  is  now  required  to  cover  it  thoroughly.  In  the 
absence  of  turf  or  sods,  it  must  be  thatched  with  leafy  green  boughs,  or  anything 
that  will  prevent  the  earth  or  dirt  that  is  now  heaped  on  from  running  through. 
Pack  this  soil  covering  carefully,  exclude  air  as  far  as  possible,  except  when  the 
port-holes  referred  to  near  the  ground  are  needed.  The  direction  of  the  wind 
will  determine  which  ones  are  to  be  opened.  When  the  fire — after  a  few  hours, 
more  or  less,  according  to  the  materials — has  got  a  good  hold,  close  also  the 
chimney.  Visit  the  pit  regularly  night  and  day;  lessen  or  increase  the  draught 
as  may  seem  needed ;  and  in  a  week  or  ten  days  the  two  or  three  cords  of  wood 
should  be  turned  into  good  hard  coal.  When  uncovered,  water  or  dirt  should  be 
thrown  upon  coal  that  is  too  lively  when  spread  out  on  the  ground. 

Cutting  to  Kill  Brush. — Just  when  to  cut  to  kill  depends  upon 
the  character  of  the  growth  and  of  the  season.  One  conclusion  seems 
to  be  that  with  deciduous  growths  the  best  time  to  cut  is  when  they 
have  just  made  their  most  vigorous  growth,  and  this  is  in  the  summer 
— but  the  month  to  be  chosen  for  the  work  will  depend  upon  the  loca- 
tion, though  August  is  generally  selected  as  the  best  time. 

In  the  case  of  evergreens,  the  cutting  should  be  just  before  the  cold- 
est weather,  in  which  they  are  the  nearest  dormant.  Evergreens, 
however,  differ  much  in  tenacity  of  life,  for  while  most  kinds  are  easily 
killed,  the  California  redwood  will  endure  almost  any  abuse  with  the 
axe  or  fire  and  still  spring  up  repeatedly  and  persistently  for  years. 

The  Use  of  Sheep  and  Goats  on  Sprouts. — On  sprouting  brush, 
there  is,  perhaps,  no  cheaper  or  more  effective  means  of  repression  than 
sheep  and  goats.  They  are  used  after  the  top  growth  is  cleared  away 
instead  of  grubbing,  if  one  can  wait,  for  by  the  persistent  cutting  down 
of  growth,  many  small  stumps  and  roots  will  decay  enough  in  a  year 
or  two  to  be  plowed  out  with  a  strong  team  and  plow. 

Burning  of  the  Debris. — However  the  trees  and  underbrush  may 
be  wrenched  from  the  soil,  fire  is  the  final  cleaner.  Where  trees  are 
to  be  worked  up  into  fire-wood,  it  should  be  done  as  soon  as  they  are 
felled,  for  the  work  is  much  less  than  after  they  become  dry  and  hard. 
If  it  is  not  designed  to  break  the  land  the  first  winter,  the  wood  is  left 
to  season  and  it  becomes  lighter  and  easier  to  handle.  The  brush  and 
roots,  if  no  use  is  to  be  made  of  them,  can  be  left  to  lie  on  the  clearing 
to  dry  out  during  the  following  summer,  and  after  the  first  rains  of 
the  following  fall  the  whole  area  can  be  burned  over.  Such  stumps 
as  do  not  burn  with  the  brush  must  be  gathered  in  piles  and  re-fired. 
Burning  before  the  first  rain  should  not  be  attempted,  unless  it  be  in 
exceptional  situations,  because  of  the  danger  of  communicating  fire 
to  the  surrounding  country,  which  is  a  standing  danger  in  our  dry 
climate.  Under  the  present  law  it  becomes  necessary  to  secure  permis- 


GRADING  LAND  AFTER  CLEARING  63 

sion  from  the  State  Forester  at  Sacramento  before  starting  field  fires 
in  the  dry  season.    After  the  rain,  clean  up  the  ground  perfectly. 

First  Crop  on  a  Clearing. — It  is  the  opinion  of  some  cleurers 
in  the  redwood  region  that  the  soil  is  not  fit  for  fruit  trees  the  first 
year  after  the  original  growth  is  removed,  and  they  grow  a  field  crop 
the  first  year.  They  claim  that  peas  are  the  best  corrective  of  "red- 
wood poisoning,"  and  fortunately  in  the  upper  redwood  district  they 
have  a  climate  well  suited  to  the  pea.  Whether  their  theory  is  right 
or  not,  their  practice  is  of  advantage,  because  they  get  a  better  cultiva- 
tion and  aeration  of  the  soil,  and  kill  out  much  of  the  sprouting  from 
the  old  roots,  which  is  usually  quite  persistent  in  the  moister  parts  of 
the  State. 

Surface  Leveling  and  Draining. — There  is  often  occasion  to  clear 
the  land  of  stone  and  rocks.  The  latter  should  be  blasted  out  of  the 
way  so  that  the  land  may  be  clear  for  the  plow  and  cultivator.  Once 
in  a  while  one  will  come  upon  a  stone  wall  inclosing  an  orchard  in  this 
State,  as  trim  and  true  a  wall  as  the  most  thrifty  New  England  farmer 
can  boast,  but  walls  are  not  common.  Our  valley  orchard  lands  are, 
as  a  rule,  naturally  as  free  from  stone  as  they  are  from  underbrush, 
but  on  the  hills  it  is  different.  Probably  the  best  wav  to  dispose  of 
much  of  the  stone  is  to  dig  trenches  in  the  natural  water  runs,  put  in 
stone,  cover  with  small  brush,  and  then  with  soil  deep  enough  so 
the  plow  will  not  reach  the  brush.  This  disposes  of  the  stone  for  all 
time,  and  at  the  same  time  helps  to  drain  the  soil.  Concerning  other 
treatment  of  the  land  after  the  rubbish  is  removed,  P.  W.  Butler 
writes  as  follows: 

When  water  runs  are  wide,  lateral  ditches  should  be  cut  extending  entirely 
through  the  moist  areas.  If  during  the  rainy  season  a  sun  is  likely  to  have  more 
water  than  can  be  conveyed  properly  through  a  covered  trench,  it  should  be  left 
open  and  graded,  so  that  a  team  can  cross  it,  and  for  fifteen  feet  on  each  side 
sow  to  alfalfa,  which  will  take  the  place  of  unsightly  weeds,  that  would  otherwise 
grow  at  the  point  that  cannot  be  cultivated. 

To  distribute  the  work  more  evenly  through  the  first  year  buildings  can  be 
erected,  a  well  dug,  and  the  trenches  done  in  the  dry  season,  while  all  the  grub- 
bing, leveling,  plowing  and  planting  must  be  done  the  following  season,  as  soon 
as  the  ground  is  sufficiently  moistened.  All  depressions  where  water  would  stand 
should  be  filled,  and  all  flat  places  should  be  graded  until  water  will  readily  flow 
off,  and  not  be  retained  so  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  as  to  cause  it  to 
become  soured.  This  leveling  can  be  best  done  by  one  man  and  a  pair  of  horses. 
Plow  the  adjacent  elevated  land  and  scrape  into  the  places  to  be  filled.  The  land 
is  now  ready  for  plowing,  and  should  be  done  thoroughly,  subsoiling  to  as  great 
a  depth  as  the  removal  of  the  stumps  will  allow.  It  is  now  well  to  go  over  the 
ground  again  with  the  scraper  and  level  all  the  most  elevated  points  so  they  can 
be  readily  reached  by  water  in  irrigating.  Then  cross-plow  as  deeply  as  possible 
without  again  subsoiling,  harrow  and  drag,  and  the  ground  will  be  ready  to  plant. 

Mr.  Butler  writes  with  reference  to  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  where  irrigation  must  be  practiced.  Where  irrigation  is  not 
used,  leveling,  or  rather  grading,  may  be  unnecessary,  but  it  is  often 
quite  desirable  that  there  may  be  no  depressions  to  retain  surplus  water. 
The  life  of  the  trees  and  ease  of  cultivation  may  demand  this  unless 
the  soil  should  be  light  and  deep  enough  to  allow  free  drainage. 


CHAPTER   VIII 
NURSERY    OPERATIONS 

California  nursery  stock  is  unrivaled  in  growth,  health  and  vigor. 
This  is  the  verdict  of  all  the  visiting  horticulturists,  and  has  been  for- 
mally declared  by  the  victories  of  California  tree  growers  at  the  World's 
Fairs  held  in  this  country,  where  the  highest  premiums  were  awarded 
to  Calif ornians  in  nearly  all  classes  in  which  they  exhibited  since  1885. 

The  quality  of  the  trees  which  can  be  purchased  at  our  nurseries, 
and  the  very  reasonable  rates  at  which  they  are  sold,  make  it  little 
worth  while  for  the  orchard  planter  to  try  to  grow  his  own  trees.  In 
fact,  the  investment  called  for  to  purchase  a  good  assortment  of  well- 
grown  trees  will  be  one  of  the  best  which  the  orchard  planter  can 
make.  The  professional  grower,  if  he  is  honest  and  enterprising,  can 
give  the  purchaser  the  advantage  of  his  experience  and  skill  in  the 
choice  of  stocks  suited  to  his  soil,  varieties  of  fruit  adapted  to  his 
situation,  and  be  of  assistance  to  him  in  other  ways  connected  with  his 
enterprise ;  and  such  helps  to  an  inexperienced  planter  or  to  a  newcomer 
are  very  valuable.  There  may  be,  however,  some  reader  who  is  distant 
from  established  nurseries,  or  possessed  of  limited  means,  who  may 
like  to  use  his  spare  time  in  growing  his  own  trees,  and  to  such  sugges- 
tions are  offered.  There  will,  however,  be  very  much  which  can  be 
learned  only  by  actual  experience. 

In  the  selection  of  a  location  for  a  commercial  nursery  there  are 
matters  involved  which  it  is  not  proposed  to  discuss.  Attention  will 
be  paid  rather  to  matters  connected  with  what  may  be  called  a  farm 
nursery.  The  first  point  will  be  the  selection  of  a  small  piece  of  ground, 
which  offers  proper  soil,  exposure,  and,  in  some  parts  of  the  State, 
facilities  for  irrigation. 

Proper  Soil  for  Nursery. — The  soil  should  be  a  mellow  loam, 
easy  of  cultivation  and  not  disposed  to  crust  and  crack.  In  all  respects 
what  one  would  choose  as  a  rich,  kind  garden  soil  will  answer  well 
for  the  nursery.  The  soil  should  be  moist,  but  thoroughly  drained, 
either  naturally  or  artificially,  for  time  and  labor  will  be  largely  wasted 
on  a  water-logged  soil.  In  this  respect  a  soil  which  might  yield  fair 
crops  of  some  shallow-rooted  vegetables  would  not  always  be  suitable 
for  young  trees,  which,  to  do  well,  must  have  favorable  conditions  to 
send  the  roots  to  considerable  depth.  Good  spots  are  often  found  in 
the  rich  loam  along  the  banks  of  creeks,  as  in  such  situations  one  finds 
generally  a  deep  alluvium,  well  drained  by  the  creek.  But  such  situa- 
tions, if  liable  to  overflow,  should  be  rejected  because  standing  water 
is  not  good  for  trees,  and  because  the  soil  will  be  apt  to  be  soaked  with 
water  and  inaccessible  just  at  the  time  when  the  trees  should  be  lifted 
for  transplanting  to  orchard. 

It  is  not  always  possible  to  find  an  ideal  nursery  spot  on  every 
ranch,  but  still  trees  may  be  well  grown  on  less  favorable  places  if 

64 


PREPARATION    OF    SOIL    FOR    NURSERY  65 

attention  is  given  to  correcting  natural  defects.  For  example,  if  the 
soil  be  naturally  heavy,  it  may  be  improved  somewhat  by  repeated 
plowing  and  cultivation,  during  the  year  before  starting  the  trees.  If 
it  be  an  adobe,  its  mechanical  condition  may  be  greatly  improved  by  the 
application  of  a  top  dressing  of  lime  at  the  rate  of  six  hundred  to  one 
thousand  pounds  of  lime  to  the  acre.  For  this  purpose  "lime  waste," 
which  contains  both  lime  and  wood  ashes,  can  be  had  cheaply  at  the 
kilns.  Old  plaster  which  may  have  been  left  from  house  repairs  is 
excellent.  Even  builders'  lime  would  not  be  very  expensive,  for  but 
little  would  be  required  for  so  small  a  plot  of  land  as  a  farm  nursery 
would  need  to  cover.  The  lime  will  increase  the  amount  of  plant  food 
in  a  heavy  soil  as  well  as  render  it  more  friable.  Another  way  in  which 
a  small  area  of  heavy  soil  may  be  improved  is  by  the  addition  of  sand. 
A  few  loads  of  sand,  if  it  can  be  had  near  by,  will  remove  the  tendency 
to  crack,  and  will  act  as  mulch  to  prevent  evaporation  of  moisture.  If 
the  soil  be  very  loose  and  subject  to  too  rapid  drying. out,  the  remedy 
will  be  moderate  irrigation  during  the  summer,  but  it  should  cease 
early  enough  to  allow  the  young  trees  to  ripen  their  wood  before  the 
frosts  of  autumn.  Mulches  of  various  light,  fine  materials,  rotted  straw 
and  the  like,  may  be  used  to  advantage  among  the  young  seedlings  in 
preventing  drying  out  of  the  soil,  if  the  plot  is  to  be  hand-worked,  but 
such  materials  are  apt  to  be  in  the  way  of  neat,  thorough  work  with 
the  horse.  A  mulch  of  sand,  if  available,  is  not  open  to  this  objection 

In  choosing  soil  for  a  nursery,  a  piece  of  land  which  has  been  in 
cultivation  for  garden  or  field  crops  is  to  be  preferred  over  a  newly- 
cleared  piece.  It  is  often  the  case  that  soil  from  which  old  stumps  or 
shoots  have  recently  been  removed  has  become  soured  from  the  process 
of  decay  in  the  dead  wood.  Although  the  deposits  of  humus  from 
decay  of  woody  fiber  tends  to  enrich  the  soil,  afterwards  certain 
acids  are  formed  if  the  land  lies  without  cultivation.  These  are  not 
favorable  to  the  growth  of  young  roots,  and  a  crop  to  which  as  much 
time  is  given  as  a  crop  of  young  trees,  should  not  be  placed  upon  it. 
This  evil  quality  in  the  soil  is  removed  by  cultivation  and  aeration,  or 
may  be  corrected  by  the  application  of  lime.  This  state  of  soil  is  most 
complained  of  in  connection  with  old  stumps  and  roots  of  oak  trees. 

Situation  and  Exposure. — Warmth  in  the  soil  is  necessary  to  a 
good  growth,  and  a  good  year's  growth  is  essential  to  the  production 
of  a  satisfactory  tree.  Drainage  contributes  notably  to  the  warmth 
of  the  soil.  Exposure  is  also  of  importance.  Plenty  of  sunshine  and 
protection  from  cold  winds  are  to  be  secured.  Sometimes  a  little  eleva- 
tion is  desirable.  It  would  be  a  serious  mistake  to  seek  moist,  low  land 
if  the  piece  lies  at  the  bottom  of  a  little  valley  or  depression  where  the 
cold  air  settles  during  the  night  and  frosts  are  frequent.  In  such  cases 
choose  higher  ground.  Of  course,  in  broad,  open  valleys  there  is  not 
this  objection,  for  such  seasonable  frosts  as  may  be  expected  there  are 
not  injurious  to  deciduous  nursery  stock.  The  greatest  nurseries  in 
the  State  are  in  the  open  valleys,  not  on  the  lowest  ground,  however,  in 
all  cases,  but  on  what  would  be  called  good,  rich  valley  land.  There 
are,  however,  situations  in  the  thermal  belts  in  which  the  temperature 
does  not  fall  low  enough  to  check  growth  of  deciduous  trees  and  cause 


66  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

the  leaves  to  drop.    In  such  cases  it  has  been  found  desirable  to  select 
lower  and  colder  ground  for  the  nursery  of  deciduous  trees. 

Preparation  for  Nursery  Ground. — The  best  preparation  tor 
nursery  ground  is  the  growth,  the  previous  season,  of  a  cultivated  or 
hoed  crop.  This  will  secure  frequent  working  of  the  soil,  thorough 
pulverization  of  the  clods,  etc.  The  produce  of  the  hoed  crop  should 
thus  pay  the  cost  of  putting  the  land  in  good  condition,  at  least.  Where 
the  retention  of  moisture  is  an  object,  as  it  really  is  in  some  parts  of 
the  State  where  the  annual  rainfall  is  sometimes  small  and  no  facilities 
for  irrigation  provided,  it  will  perhaps  pay  better  in  the  end  to  keep 
the  land  in  bare  fallow  during  the  previous  summer ;  but  there  must  be 
frequent  and  thorough  cultivation,  keeping  the  surface  always  mellow, 
more  moisture  will  be  lost  by  evaporation  than  a  hoed  crop  would 
require  for  its  growth.  Properly  cultivated  fallow  soil  will  have  a  moist- 
ure within  a  few  inches  of  the  surface,  while  unworked  soil  adjoining 
will  be  baked  hard  and  dry  to  a  depth  of  several  feet.  During  the 
winter  immediately  preceding  planting,  the  green  stuff  should  be 
allowed  to  grow  for  a  time,  but  should  be  plowed  under  before  it  gets 
high  enough  to  interfere  with  perfect  turning  of  smooth  furrows. 
The  decay  of  this  green  crop  is  of  advantage  to  the  soil.  Another  plow- 
ing in  the  spring,  and  a  thorough  harrowing,  will  leave  the  ground  in 
good  condition  to  receive  the  pits  or  root  grafts,  as  the  case  may  be. 
In  this  plowing  for  nursery  there  should  be  deep  work  done  and  sub- 
soiling,  as  will  be  more  fully  set  forth  under  the  head  of  preparing  land 
for  orchard,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred. 

Growth  of  Seedlings  for  the  Nursery. — The  two  chief  ways  of 
producing  fruit  trees  are,  from  seedlings  grown  on  the  spot ;  second, 
from  buds  and  root  grafts  upon  stock  imported  from  the  East  or  from 
abroad.  First,  as  to  the  growth  of  seedlings: 

It  is  usual  to  take  seeds  from  sources  where  they  can  be  collected 
with  the  least  trouble.  Apple  seeds  are  washed  out  from  the  pomace 
of  the  cider  press;  apples  and  pears  from  the  coring  and  peelings  of 
canneries  and  drying  establishments ;  pits  of  the  stone  fruits  are  derived 
from  the  same  source.  Supplies  can  usually  be  purchased  from  such 
establishments  at  a  moderate  cost.  The  trouble  is  that  from  such 
supplies  one  is  apt  to  get  seeds  and  pits  from  all  varieties,  possessing 
different  degrees  of  health  and  vigor.  There  is  just  as  much  to  be 
gained  from  selecting  the  seed  from  which  to  grow  good  strong  stocks 
for  fruit  trees  as  there  is  in  selecting  good  garden  or  field  seed.  One 
can  generally  get  good  peach  pits,  for  it  is  easy  to  have  the  order  filled . 
when  the  cannery  is  running  on  strong-growing  yellow  varieties,  for 
these  are  believed  to  be  most  vigorous,  and  yet  some  claim  much  prefer- 
ence for  pits  from  vigorous  seedling  trees,  and  made  extra  efforts 
to  secure  them.  Wherever  it  is  possible,  and  if  one  is  only  to 
produce  a  small  lot  of  trees,  it  is  practicable  to  select  from  the  fruit 
the  seeds  for  planting.  Not  only  is  there  great  difference  in  the  strength 
of  different  varieties,  but  individual  trees  vary  greatly.  If  one  is  taking 
seeds  from  an  old  orchard  to  start  his  nursery  with,  he  can  take  pains 
to  get  his  seed  from  his  strongest  trees,  and  thus  secure  also  that  which 
is  probably  best  adapted  to  his  locality. 


APPLE,    PEAR   AND    CHERRY    SEEDLINGS  67 

Apple  and  Pear  Seedlings. — For  a  small  lot  of  apple  and  pear 
trees  the  seed  can  be  best  sown  in  boxes.  Select  plump  pips  and 
keep  in  moist  sand,  from  the  time  they  are  taken  from  the  fruit  until 
sowing.  Fill  the  boxes,  which  should  be  three  or  four  inches  deep,  with 
good  garden  mold,  cover  the  seed  about  half  an  inch,  and  then  cover 
the  soil  lightly  with  chaff  or  fine  straw  to  prevent  the  surface  from 
drying  out.  Be  sure  that  the  boxes  have  cracks  or  holes  in  the  bottom 
for  drainage,  and  the  whole  is  kept  moist,  but  not  wet.  When  the  seed- 
lings have  grown  to  the  height  of  three  inches  they  can  be  set  out  in 
the  nursery  rows  as  one  would  set  out  cabbage  plants. 

Cherry  Seedlings. — There  are  different  ways  of  handling  pits  of 
stone  fruits  to  prepare  them  for  seeting  out  in  the  open  ground,  which 
will  be  described.  The  cherry  is  grown  from  pits  of  two  wild  varieties ; 
one  is  commonly  called  the  "Black  Mazzard."  It  is  the  common  wild 
cherry  of  the  East,  and  is  the  original  type  of  what  are  known  as  the 
Heart  and  Bigarreau  types  of  cherries.  The  other  is  the  "Mahaleb,"  a 
European  wild  species,  which  is  used  in  the  East,  where  it  thrives 
better  than  the  Mazzard,  as  it  is  hardier  stock.  In  this  State  the 
Mahaleb  does  not  seem  to  have  much  dwarfing  effect,  as  trees  on  that 
stock  in  this  State  over  twenty-five  years  old  are  twenty-five  inches  in 
diameter  of  trunk.  The  Mahaleb,  however,  ripens  its  wood  earlier,  and 
for  this  reason  may  be  valuable  in  the  colder  parts  of  the  State.  It  is 
also  freer  from  root  trouble  by  extremes  of  wetness  and  drouth  in  the 
soil,  and  is  largely  used  on  low  lands.  The  Mazzard  is,  however,  chiefly 
used  in  California.  Cherry  stones  are  sometimes  taken  from  the  fully- 
ripened  fruit,  dried  for  two  or  three  days,  the  stones  cracked  carefully 
and  planted  at  once  in  good  soil  and  kept  properly  moist.  They  will 
germinate  soon  and  make  a  growth  of  a  foot  or  so  the  first  season. 
Such  stocks  are  taken  up  for  grafting  in  the  winter  and  set  out  in  nur- 
sery row  the  next  spring.  A  better  way  of  treating  cherry  is  that  given 
by  W.  W.  Smith  of  Vacaville ; 

The  fruit  of  the  Mazzard  should  be  allowed  to  get  perfectly  ripe  on  the  tree, 
then  gathered  and  let  lie  in  a  heap  for  three  or  four  days,  so  that  they  may  be 
partially  or  wholly  freed  from  the  pulp  by  washing  them  in  water.  They  should 
then  be  spread  out  in  the  shade  and  stirred  frequently  for  about  twenty-four 
hours.  This  will  give  the  outside  of  the  pit  time  to  dry  sufficiently  to  prevent 
molding,  while  the  kernel  itself  will  remain  fresh  and  green.  They  should  then 
be  placed  in  moist  (not  wet)  sand  and  kept,  so  until  the  rains  set  in  in  the  fall, 
when  they  can  be  planted  in  drills,  in  good,  rich,  mellow  soil  prepared  the  previ- 
ous spring  and  kept  clean  of  weeds  through  the  summer,  ready  for  the  purpose. 
They  should  never  be  allowed  to  get  perfectly  dry;  and  the  reason  for  it  is  that 
we  have  but  little  or  no  freezing  and  thawing  weather  in  this  country  to  cause 
the  pits  to  open;  but  if  they  are  kept  constantly  moist  it  answers  the  same  pur- 
pose as  freezing.  The  seeds  of  the  Mahaleb  cherry  will  sprout  with  less  diffi- 
culty, but  the  same  rules  for  keeping  the  Mazzards  will  apply  to  them. 

Other  stock  for  the  cherry  will  be  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  that 
fruit. 

Citrus  Fruits. — The  propagation  of  citrus  fruits  will  be  described 
in  detail  in  Chapters  XXXII,  XXXIII,  and  XXXIV. 

The  Larger  Stone  Fruits. — In  handling  pits  of  the  larg'er  stone 
fruits,  apricot,  peach,  plum,  etc.,  the  chief  requisite  is  to  prevent 


68  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

drying  and  great  hardening  of  the  pit.  Some  plant  in  the  fall  and 
trust  to  natural  conditions  to  start  the  seedling  in  the  spring,  but  this 
interferes  with  the  cultivation  of  the  ground,  and  leaves  the  seedling 
to  grow  in  soil  which  has  perhaps  been  puddled  by  heavy  winter 
rains.  There  must  also  be  much  hand  work  done  to  clear  the  rows 
from  weeds.  It  is  much  better  to  keep  the  pits  from  drying  by  covering 
with  sand  moderately  moist,  hasten  the  sprouting  by  appropriate  treat- 
ment toward  spring,  and  then  plant  out  in  thoroughly  prepared  soil, 
and  they  will  make  a  satisfactory  growth.  The  following  method, 
by  D.  J.  Parmele,  of  Vacaville,  has  given  good  results: 

Keep  the  pits  out  of  the  sun  until  the  rains  commence  in  the  fall,  then  put 
them  into  a  box  about  a  foot  deep  with  openings  at  the  bottom  for  drainage,  and 
scatter  sand  or  fine  earth  through  them,  putting  about  two  inches  on  top,  and 
place  them  under  the  eaves  of  a  building  on  the  south  side,  where  they  will  get 
well  soaked  every  time  it  rains.  If  there  should  be  a  long  dry  spell  during  the 
winter,  water  them  a  little.  About  March  they  will  open  and  sprout.  Then  take 
a  plow  and  open  a  deep  furrow  in  loose,  mellow  ground,  and,  with  a  hoe,  pull 
about  two-thirds  of  the  dirt  back  into  the  furrow,  breaking  the  clods,  and  mak- 
ing it  fine,  the  same  as  you  would  if  you  expected  to  plant  onion  seed  there. 
Drop  the  sprouted  pits  in  straight  line,  and  cover  two  inches.  On  account  of  the 
extra  work  in  preparing  the  ground,  the  trees  will  be  large  enough  to  bud  in  July. 

Another  way  is  to  spread  out  the  pits  on  a  smooth  piece  of  ground 
and  cover  with  sacks,  and  over  these  a  layer  of  straw  three  or  four 
inches  thick  to  retain  moisture.  The  pits  may  be  planted  out  as  soon 
as  they  crack  open,  although  no  harm  will  be  done  if  they  are  allowed 
to  lie  until  the  sprouts  are  well  out. 

Another  method  which  has  been  especially  recommended  for 
treatment  for  almonds  is  the  following:  Lay  boards  upon  the  ground 
and  cover  them  with  an  inch  of  sand ;  spread  on  this  a  layer  of  almonds 
and  then  another  inch  of  sand,  and  so  on.  Keep  the  pile  wet,  and  in 
three  weeks  of  warm  weather  they  will  burst  open.  Plant  in  drills 
one  inch  deep  and  put  over  them  a  light  coat  of  rotten  straw. 

If  from  any  cause  the  pits  have  become  quite  dry,  they  should  be 
soaked  in  water  two  or  three  days  before  planting. 

Nut  Tree  Seedlings. — In  growing  nut-tree  seedlings,  much  the 
same  methods  are  followed  as  with  pits  of  stone  fruits.  There  are 
methods  described  in  detail  by  California  growers  which  should  be 
given.  As  has  been  said,  the  nuts  may  be  planted  at  any  time  after 
ripening,  in  the  milder  parts  of  the  State,  if  the  grower  will  undertake 
the  greater  care  and  cultivation.  On  some  light  soils  where  the  rainfall 
is  not  excessive,  this  is  not  much  trouble.  Felix  Gillet,  of  Nevada 
City,  gives  this  as  his  method : 

The  nuts  may  be  planted  as  soon  as  gathered,  though  in  Nevada  City  it  is 
too  cold  to  plant  them  in  the  fall,  for  the  frost  in  winter  would  surely  lift  the 
nuts  right  out  of  the  ground.  For  keeping  and  sprouting  walnuts,  I  throw  into 
the  bottom  of  a  box  one  inch  deep  of  sand,  then  a  layer  of  nuts  y  put  in  another 
inch  of  sand,  and  another  layer  of  nuts,  and  so  on  to  one  or  two  inches  from  the 
top.  Then  water  well  with  a  sprinkler  and  water  again  during  the  winter  when- 
ever the  sand  gets  too  dry.  The  sand  has  to  be  pretty  well  saturated  with  water, 
especially  from  the  first  of  January  down  to  planting  time,  which  is  in  February, 
March  or  April,  according  to  localities.  The  latter  part  of  March  or  first  week 
in  Aoril  is  best  for  Nevada  City.  The  nuts  are  planted  in  drills  and  covered 
to  a  depth  of  two  to  three  inches. 


NUT   TREE    SEEDLINGS  69 

In  propagating  chestnuts  it  is  always  better  to  select  for  seed  the  largest, 
finest  and  healthiest  nuts ;  in  the  fall  or  beginning  of  winter  the  nuts  have  to  be 
planted  in  a  box  of  damp  sand,  by  layers,  the  box  being  kept  in  a  cellar.  The 
nuts  may  be  stored  in  a  hole  in  the  open  ground,  a  layer  of  chestnut  leaves  being 
first  thrown  in  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  on  top  of  that  a  layer  of  nuts,  then  another 
layer  of  leaves,  and  so  on  to  the  top,  which  has  to  be  properly  covered  with  two 
or  three  inches  of  earth  so  as  to  prevent  the  fros.t  injuring  the  nuts.  In  February 
or  March,  according  to  location,  the  nuts  are  taken  out  and  planted  in  drills  to  a 
depth  of  three  to  four  inches ;  less  for  smaller  seed  like  American  chestnuts. 

In  growing  seedlings  of  English  walnuts,  Mr.  J.  Luther  Bowers, 
of  Santa  Clara,  has  shown  that  water-soaking  of  nuts  may  make  it 
unnecessary  to  undertake  storage  in  damp  sand,  if  the  nuts  are  of  the 
last  crop.  He  describes  the  method  as  follows : 

The  nuts  should  be  large  and  thin  shelled  and  should  be  of  last  year's  crop. 
To  ascertain  this,  break  a  few  and  split  the  kernel  open  at  the  germ  end,  or  the 
point  where  the  root  starts.  If  the  meat  of  the  kernel  shows  a  clear  color  they 
are  of  last  year's  crop,  but  if  the  flesh  shows  any  discoloration  they  are  old  and 
will  not  germinate.  I  have  often  got  hold  of  a  lot  that  were  mixed,  old  and  new 
together.  Never  risk  a  lot  of  this  kind,  for  failure  will  follow.  After  the  nuts 
have  been  selected  place  them  in  some  kind  of  a  tin  vessel ;  a  five-gallon  oil  can, 
with  the  top  removed,  is  just  the  thing.  Then  cover  them  with  hot  water  at  not 
over  110  degrees  F.  Let  them  remain  in  this  water  for  24  hours 
and  plant  at  once,  keeping  them  in  the  water  all  the  time.  Do  not  let  them 
become  the  least  bit  dry,  and  be  sure  the  soil  is  moist,  and  put  every  nut  in  with 
the  sharp  point  exactly  straight  down.  The  root  starts  from  this  point  and  will 
go  straight  down,  and  if  not  molested  will  the  first  year  be  about  three  times 
the  length  of  the  top ;  that  is,  if  the  top  grows  one  foot,  the  straight  tap  root 
will  be  three  feet  or  more  long,  and  will  be  from  three-fourths  to  an  inch  thick 
where  it  grew  out  of  the  nut,  tapering  both  up  and  down. 

Tribble  Brothers,  of  Elk  Grove,  give  the  following  as  their  practice 
with  native  black  walnuts : 

Gather  the  nuts  as  soon  as  most  of  them  have  dropped  from  the  trees,  and 
put  them  in  a  trench.  Cover  with  leaves,  and  on  the  leaves  put  a  thin  layer  of 
earth,  leaving  them  until  sprouted  and  ready  to  plant  in  rows.  When  ready  to 
plant,  assort  the  nuts  according  to  the  growth  of  the  sprouts,  and  as  we  find 
the  longest  sprouts  make  the  most  rapid-growing  trees,  and  by  selecting  we 
can  get  even  growth  in  the  nursery  rows.  In  our  soil  we  plant  the  nuts  about 
five  inches  deep. 

Imported  Seedlings. — A  very  large  proportion  of  some  kinds  of 
the  cherry,  pear  and  apple  trees  produced  in  this  State  are  worked 
upon  imported  seedling  stocks.  These  stocks  are  cheap,  convenient 
to  handle,  and  are  therefore  popular.  It  is  easy  enough  to  grow 
peach,  almond,  apricot,  and  Myrobalan  seedlings,  but  small  seeds,  like 
apples  and  pear,  often  do  not  show  up  well  in  the  spring,  especially 
if  the  soil  is  of  a  kind  that  crusts  over  with\  rain  and  sunshine.  There- 
fore our  nurserymen  import  these  seedlings  in  the  winter,  plant  them 
out,  as  has  already  been  described,  and  bud  in  the  following  summer, 
grafting  the  next  spring  where  the  buds  fail.  If  the  seedlings  are 
large  when  received,  they  are  often  root-grafted  at  once,  and  then  one 
summer  in  the  nursery  gives  a  tree  suitable  for  planting  out. 
These  stocks  are  of  better/  budding  size  during  their  first  summer  than 
California  seedlings,  which  are  apt  to  overgrow. 

Myrobalan  plum  seedlings  were  formerly  imported  to  a  large  ex- 
tent, but  are  now  chiefly  home-grown,  and  seedlings  are  used  instead 


70  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

of  cuttings,  which  formerly  were  employed  largely.  This  stock  has 
secured  great  favor  for  plums  and  prunes,  and  in  some  situations,  for 
the  apricot,  as  it  is  hardier  against  extremes  of  drouth  and  moisture. 
Prof.  Newton  B.  Pierce,  of  Santa  Ana,  has  discovered  in  California 
upon  imported  seedlings  a  serious  root-fungus  which  kills  all  kinds 
of  orchard  trees  in  Europe,  and  he  advises  the  use  of  home-grown 
seedlings  to  escape  this  danger. 

Fruit  Trees  from  Cuttings. — It  is  feasible  to  grow  a  number  of 
kinds  of  fruit  trees  from  cuttings,  but  it  is  not  desirable  in  many  cases 
to  do  it.  Trees  grown  from  a  graft  or  bud  in  a  seedling  root  are 
much  better.  The  root  system  of  a  seedling  is  naturally  stronger  and 
more  symmetrical.  The  roots  from  a  cutting  start  out  at  the  bottom 
and  spread  out  horizontally  and  irregularly.  This  style  of  a  root 
system  is  expressively  named  "duck-foot  roots,"  and  they  do  not  give 
the  tree  a  deep,  strong  hold  on  the  soil.  Trees  can,  however,  be  multi- 
plied very  fast  from  cuttings.  Notable  instances  of  this  are  the  Myro- 
balan  plum  and  the  Leconte  pear.  Cuttings  of  deciduous  trees  should 
be  taken  from  well-matured  wood  of  the  previous  season's  growth, 
and  planted  in  rows  and  in  well-prepared  soil,  as  has  already  been  de- 
scribed for  the  sowing  of  fruit  tree  seeds.  The  cuttings  should  be 
taken  before  the  sap  begins  running  in  the  winter.  A  cutting  about 
ten  inches  long,  four-fifths  of  its  length  buried  in  the  ground,  will 
answer.  Be  sure  that  the  ground  is  firmed  well  at  the  base  of  the 
cutting,  but  keep  the  surface  loose.  Small  wood  is  better*  than  large, 
though,  of  course,  the  extreme  ends  of  twigs  should  be  rejected  usually. 
Cultivation  of  cuttings  is  the  same  as  that  of  seedlings,  and  budding, 
when  the  cuttings  are  to  be  used  as  stocks,  is  also  governed  by  the  same 
rules. 

The  orange  and  lemon  can  be  grown  from  cuttings,  but  the  work 
is  done  during  the  summer  while  the  ground  is  warm.  Cut  from  wood 
one  or  two  years  old;  set  in  the  open  ground  with  partial  shade  and 
give  plenty  of  water  (dry  ground  is  death  to  their  tender  roots),  but 
be  sure  that  there  is  free  escape  for  surplus  water.  Cuttings  started 
in  the  warm  weather  and  given  partial  shade  and  plenty  of  irrigation 
are  very  apt  to  succeed.  This  method  of  growing  these  fruits  is  not, 
however,  in  wide  use  or  favor. 

The  propagation  of  the  grape,  olive  and  fig  from  cuttings  will  be 
considered  in  the  chapters  on  those  fruits. 

Planting  Out  in  Nursery. — For  planting  out  in  nursery,  the 
term  "spring"  is  given  as  the  proper  time,  but  in  California  it  must  be 
remembered  that  spring  is  not  any  definite  division  of  the  year. 
"Spring  weather"  comes  from  the  first  of  February  to  the  first  of  May, 
according  to  the  latitude  or  elevation  or  exposure  resulting  from  local 
topography.  Cherries  may  be  ripe  in  Vaca  Valley  before  fruit  trees 
put  out  leaves  in  Modoc  county ;  and  between  these  extremes  there 
are  advents  of  spring  in  other  places  according  to  the  situation.  These 
facts  are  more  fully  set  forth  in  the  chapter  on  climate.  Spring  must 
be  detected  in  the  behavior  of  vegetation  and  not  by  the  calendar. 
When  the  tree  buds  swell  and  the  leaves  appear,  spring  has  come  for 


IRRIGATION    IN    THE    NURSERY  71 

that  locality.  But  whether  one  can  plant  his  nursery  then  or  not  will 
depend  upon  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  condition  of  the  rainfall 
for  that  season.  This  varies  much  from  year  to  year.  As  a  rule, 
however,  in  most  parts  where  fruit  is  grown  at  present  in  large  quanti- 
ties, the  heavy  cold  rains  will  be  over  by  the  first  of  February,  and  then 
nursery  operations  can  commence  if  the  soil  is  in  good  condition.  If 
not,  the  planter  must  wait  until  the  soil  is  dry  enough  to  work  nicely. 
There  will,  of  course,  be  heavy  rains  after  the  first  of  February;  but 
they  will  only  necessitate  cultivation  to  loosen  the  soil,  if  the  nursery 
ground  is  well  situated  for  drainage,  and  if  it  is  not  it  should  not  be 
used  for  this  purpose. 

Supposing  the  ground  has  been  deeply  plowed  and  thoroughly 
harrowed,  as  has  been  already  described,  the  laying  out  of  the  ground 
is  the  next  operation.  Everything  should  be  done  with  a  view  to  the 
use  of  the  horse  in  cultivation.  The  rows  should  be  laid  out  as  straight 
as  possible.  Some  use  a  plow  furrow;  some  an  arrangement  like  a 
corn-marker,  with  two  cultivator  teeth  set  four  feet  apart ;  some  stretch 
a  line,  to  get  the  pits  or  root  grafts  as  true  to  it  as  possible,  and  some 
trust  to  the  furrow  for  straightness.  No  rule  can  be  laid  down  for 
means  to  be  employed;  the  result  must  depend  upon  the  eye  and  skill 
of  the  individual.  Some  people  can  hardly  shoot  a  straight  line  with  a 
gun.  Each  must  do  the  best  he  can  in  this  respect. 

There  is  a  difference  in  practice  as  to  distance  between  the  rows  in 
nursery.  The  usual  distance  is  four  feet,  but  others  claim  that  it  is 
better  to  make  the  rows  six  feet  apart,  especially  where  no  irrigation 
is  practised,  as  this  gives  the  young  trees  more  room,  and  if  the  ground 
is  kept  thoroughly  cultivated,  as  it  should  be,  it  gives  the  roots  a 
greater  supply  of  moisture  to  draw  upon.  In  growing  a  small  lot  of 
trees,  where  there  is  plenty  of  land,  it  is,  of  course,  desirable  to  give 
them  every  advantage  in  the  way  of  facilities  for  growth,  but  on  the 
other  hand,  an  overgrown  tree  is  not  desirable.  Thrift 'and  strength 
must  be  sought  rather  than  size. 

At  the  ends  of  the  rows  spaces  of  about  twelve  feet  should  be  left 
as  turning-ground  for  the  horse  when  cultivating,  and  as  a  roadway. 
The  length  of  nursery  rows  depends  upon  the  taste  of  Hhe  grower. 
It  is  convenient  to  have  alleys  wide  enough  for  a  horse  and  cart  at 
intervals  of  one  hundred1  to  three  hundred  feet,  but  in  small  nurseries 
the  head-lands  would  probably  give  all  the  access  required. 

The  depth  for  planting  seeds  and  pits  must  be  regulated  by  the  size 
of  the  seed  and  the  character  of  the  soil,  as  is  always  laid  down  by 
the  authorities,  and  in  this  State  another  condition  must  be  made,  and 
that  is  the  climate  or  weather  conditions  prevailing  in  the  locality. 
Where  the  rainfall  is  generally  light  and  the  soil  loose,  seed  must  be 
planted  deeper  than  where  good  spring  showers  are  to  be  expected. 
In  fine  soils  seeds  must  be  planted  shallower  than  ini  coarse,  even  with 
the  same  rainfall.  Judgment  and  experience  must  dictate  in  this  matter, 
and  if  a  man  has  no  experience,  he  is  pretty  apt  to  get  it. 

During  the  spring  months  the  cultivator  must  be  used  as  often  as 
may  be  required  to  keep  the  weeds  from  getting -too  high,  or  the  soil 
from  becoming  too  densely  packed  by  heavy  rains,  but  the  ground  should 


72  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

never  be  worked  when  too  wet.     It  requires  some  watchfulness  and 
promptitude  to  use  the  cultivator  just  at  the  right  time. 

Nursery  Irrigation. — In  parts  of  the  State  where  the  rainfall  is 
adequate,  cultivation  thorough,  the  soil  sufficiently  retentive,  and 
atmospheric  conditions  favorable,  the  seedling  will  make  its  growth 
without  irrigation,  and  many  nurseries  are  on  ground  not  provided  at 
all  with  irrigation  facilities.  In  other  parts  of  the  State  irrigation  is 
necessary.  Water  should  be  applied  sparingly,  and  yet  enough  to  keep 
the  seedlings  in  healthy  growing  condition.  This  is  shown  by  the 
leaves,  which  should  not  droop  or  curl.  Excessive  irrigation  should 
be  guarded  against,  because  a  soft,  excessive  growth  is  very  undesir- 
able. Water  is  a  good  thing,  and  in  some  cases  a  very  necessary 
thing,  but  the  use  of  it  should  be  wisely  regulated.  At  budding  it  is 
necessary  that  the  sap  should  be  free  and  the  bark  slip  easily.  To 
foster  this  condition  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to  give  a  watering  a  few 
days  before  budding  commences.  Water  should  be  applied  by  run- 
ning it  through  shallow  furrows  between  the  rows,  and  the  cultivator 
should  follow  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry  enough  to  work  freely. 


CHAPTER  IX^ 
BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING 


If  the  nursery  ground  has  been  well  worked  and  the  seed  properly 
handled,  the  growth  of  the  seedling  will  be  strong  and  rapid.  If  an 
early  start  was  had  and  other  conditions  favorable,  some  kinds  will 
be  ready  for  budding  in  June,  and  the  production  of  what  are  called 
"June  buds,"  as  will  be  described  presently.  In  ordinary  practice, 
however,  budding  will  come  later,  and  the  budding  season  extends 
from  July  to  October.  The  weight  of  the  budding  of  deciduous  trees 
is  generally  done  in  August  and  September. 

BUDDING 

The  process  of  budding,  as  employed  on  all  the  common  fruit  trees, 
is  very  simple.  It  consists  in  lifting  the  bark  and  inserting  a  bud  from 
another  tree  in  such  a  way  that  the  inner  bark  of  the  bud  shall  come 
in  contact  with  the  layer  of  growing  wood  in  the  stock,  and  then  it 
will  be  quickly  knit  to  it  by  the  new  cell-growth  if  the  bark  is  closed 
around  the  inserted  bud  closely  enough  to  prevent  the  air  from  drying 
the  two  surfaces  at  the  point  of  contact.  In  the  engraving  1  is  the 
cutting  or  "bud  stick"  from  the  tree  of  the  kind  into  which  it  is  de- 
sired to  transform  the  seedling.  This  cutting  is  usually  made  from  the 
growth  of  the  present  season,  which  has  well-formed  buds  at  the  axils 
of  the  leaves,  although  in  some  cases  older  dormant  buds  may  be  used, 
as  will  appear  in  the  discussion  of  the  different  fruits.  If  buds  are 
desired  to  mature  early,  pinch  off  the  ends  of  the  growing  shoots  from 
which  they  are  to  be  taken.  Suckers  and  so-called  "water-sprouts" 
should  not  be  used,  but  rather  well-formed  wood  from  the  branches 
of  the  tree.  It  is  requisite  that  the  buds  be  taken  from  a  vigorous 
healthy  tree  of  the  variety  desired.  But  sticks  can  be  carried  or  sent 
considerable  distances  if  packed  in  damp  moss  or  other  material  to 
prevent  drying,  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  enclose  too  much  water 
or  decay  will  be  promoted.  Fresh  shoots  in  tight  tin  boxes  without 
wet  packing  are  safer  and  carry  very  long  distances.  Sealing  the  ends 
with  grafting  wax  is  also  a  good  precaution  against  drying  out. 

Budding  knives  can  be  bought  at  all  seed  stores  and  cutlery  estab- 
lishments. They  have  a  thin,  round-ended  blade  at  one  end  of  the 
handle,  and  at  the  other  end  the  bone  is  thinned  down,  or  a  bone  blade 
inserted.  The  former  is  for  cutting  and  the  latter  for  lifting  the  bark 
of  the  stock  into  which  the  bud  is  to  be  placed.  Armed  with  a  bud 
stick  and  such  a  knife,  the  "budder"  starts  in  upon  a  row  of  seedlings. 
Bending  the  seedling  over  a  little  and  holding  it  between  his  left  arm 
and  his  left  leg,  he  reaches  down  for  a  smooth  place  on  the  bark  as  near 
the  ground  as  convenient  to  work,  and  makes  a  horizontal  cut,  and 
from  that  a  perpendicular  cut  downwards  toward  the  roots,  as  shown 


74 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


1     A  stick  of  bud  wood.  2     Cutting  the  bud.  3    Vertical  incision 


4    Transverse  incision.        5     Inserting  the  bud.  6     Inserted  bud  ready 

for  tying. 


7     Waxed  cloth  ready 
for  twisting. 


8     Waxed  cloth  tightly    9     Bud  staked  and  tied, 
twisted. 


DETAILS    OF    BUDDING  75 

at  3,  in  the  engraving-,  with  the  bark  slightly  lifted  and  ready  for  the 
insertion  of  the  bud.  Next  he  cuts  from  his  bud  stick  a  bud,  as  shown 
at  2.  This  carries  with  it,  on  the  back,  a  small  portion  of  the  wood  of 
the  bud  stick  as  well  as  the  bud  and  bark.  It  was  once  claimed  that 
this  wood  should  be  carefully  dug  out,  but  in  budding  most  kinds  of 
trees  it  is  not  necessary;  in  fact,  it  may  be  better  to  leave  it  in;  such 
at  any  rate  is  the  general  practice.  The  point  of  the  bud  is  now  in- 
serted at  the  opening  at  the  top  of  the  slit  in  the  bark  of  the  stock  arida 
pushed  down  into  place,  as  shown  in  figure  5.  To  handle  the  bud* 
the  part  of  the  leaf  stem  which  is  left  on  is  of  material  assistance. 
Nothing  remains  now  but  to  apply  the  ligature  which  is  to  hold  down 
the  bark  around  the  bud. 

There  are  various  ways  of  tying  in  the  bud.  Any  way  will  do 
which  holds  down  the  bark  closely,  but  not  too  tightly.  Different 
materials  are  also  used,  soft  cotton  twine,  stocking  yarn,  strips  of 
cotton  cloth,  candle  wicking,  etc.  The  last-named  is  perhaps  the  best 
material,  on  all  accounts,  although  strips  of  cheap  calico  bear  evenly 
upon  the  bark  and  do  very  good  work.  The  use  of  twine  is  speedy, 
but  the  strands  bearing  upon  a  narrow  surface,  and  not  being  elastic, 
they  are  apt  to  do  injury  by  cutting  into  the  bark  unless  carefully 
watched  and  loosened.  The  fiber  from  basswood  bark  was  formerly 
largely  used,  but  has  given  place  to  the  other  materials  named,  which 
are  more  handily  obtained.  The  buds  must  be  examined  about  a  week 
or  ten  days  after  the  insertion,  and  the  ligature  loosened,  for  other- 
wise it  will  cut  into  the  rapidly-growing  stock.  Sometimes  trees  are 
badly  injured  by  neglect  in  this  particular. 

In  making  June  buds,  where  immediate  growth  of  the  bud  is  de- 
sired, some  growers  make  a  hard  not  with  the  cord  around  the  stock, 
above  the  bud,  and  then  use  the  loose  ends  to  tie  the  bud.  When  the 
binding  around  the  bud  is  loosened,  the  hard  knot  remains  on  the 
stock,  girdles  it,  and  forces  the  sap,  into  the  bud.  Thin  wire,  known  to 
nurserymen  as  "label  wire,"  is  also  used  for  this  purpose. 

In  going  through  the  nursery  row,  all  seedlings,  which  are  large 
enough  are  budded  at  once.  In  going  through  the  row  again  to  look 
to  the  bands,  if  the  bud  is  seen  to  be  fresh  looking,  it  is  considered  to 
have  "taken."  In  stocks  where  the  first  bud  has  dried  up,  another  is 
inserted  lower  down.  Sometimes  seedlings  which  were  too  small  to 
hold  a  bud  at  the  first  working  over  are  given  a  bud  later  in  the 
season,  or  left  for  taking  up  for  root  grafting  in  the  winter. 

In  nursery  practice  the  budder  does  not 'stop  to  tie  his  buds,  but  is 
followed  in  the  row  by  another  man,  who  carries  the  tying  material, 
and  does  this  part  of  the  work.  I 

The  common  method  of  budding  thus  described  is  used  on  all 
common  orchard  fruits.  Special  styles  of  budding  for  '.special  fruits 
will  be  described  in  the  chapters  treating  of  those  fruits. 

Usually  the  budded  trees  are  allowed  to  stand  t in  the  nursery  row 
with  no  other  treatment  that  year  than  the  insertion  and  care  of  the 
bud,  the  latter  remaining  dormant  until  the  -next  spring.  Then,  as 
soon  as  the  sap  begins  to  swell  the  buds  on  the  stock,  the  top  is  cut  off 
down  to  about  two  ; inches  above  the  bud,  and  all  growth  is  kept  off 


76  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

except  that  of  the  inserted  bud.  When  that  has  grown  out  about 
twelve  inches,  the  stub  is  cut  off  to  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  or 
less  from  the  bud,  and  the  wood  is  quickly  grown  over  by  the  bark.  As 
there  arq  apt  to  be  dormant  buds  on  the  stock  below  the  inserted  bud, 
the  trees  have  to  be  examined  from  time  to  time,  and  all  such  suckers 
removed.  This  is  the  common  practice  with  budded  trees.  Excep- 
tions will  be  noticed  presently  in  connection  with  definitions  of  different 
kinds  of  trees  know  to  the  trade. 

Spring  Budding. — What  has  been  said  in  reference  to  budding 
applies  to  the  use  of  dormant  buds.  It  is  also  possible  to  work  with 
what  is  called  a  "pushing  bud."  This  process,  as  described  by  a  dis- 
tinguished French  authority,  consists  of  retarding  the  growth  of  the 
buds  on  the  scions  by  burying  them  in  the  ground  until  the  sap  is  start- 
ing well  in  the  stock  in  the  spring,  and  then  putting  them  in,  trim- 
ming off  the  top  of  the  stock  so  as  to  force  the  bud  into  growth.  In 
this  way  the  grower  of  a  rare  variety  may  secure  trees  for  planting 
out  the  following  winter,  or  he  may  secure  a  stock  of  buds  for  fall 
budding,  and  thus  multiply  his  stock  of  a  desirable  variety  very  rapidly. 
A  modification  of  this  method  consists  in  taking  buds  in  the  spring 
when  they  have  grown  out  even  half  an  inch,  and  inserting  them  by 
the  usual  method  of  lifting  the  bark,  when  the  sap  is  flowing  well  in 
the  stock.  Then  cut  off  about  halfi  the  stock,  so  as  not  to  give  the  bud 
too  much  sap  at  first,  and  afterward,  when  it  is  seen  to  have  taken  well, 
the  balance  of  the  stock  is  cut  off  near  the  bud.  This  method  gives  a 
tree  the  first  season  and  saves  a  year  over  dormant  budding.  Shade 
and  protection  from  dry  wind  are  desirable. 

GRAFTING 

The  next  process  of  propagation  to  be  considered  is  that  by  grafting. 
Its  success,  as  with  budding,  consists  in  bringing  the  growing  wood 
(inner  bark  or  alburnum)  of  the  scion  into  contact  with  the  same  layer 
of  the  stock.  It  can  be  applied  to  any  part  of  the  tree,  from  the  top- 
most branch  to  the  lowest  root,  as  is  the  case  when  new  trees  are  made 
from  scions  and  root  fragments.  Thus  grafting  pertains  both  to  the 
production  of  young  trees  for  planting  out  and  to  the  transformation 
of  old  trees  bearing  worthless  fruit  into  producers  of  choice  varieties. 

Grafting  for  the  production  of  young  trees  is  first  in  order.  Instead 
of  budding  the  seedling  during  the  first  summer  of  its  growth,  it  may 
be  allowed  to  complete  its  season's  growth,  and  drop  its  leaves.  When 
thus  dormant  the  young  trees  are  taken  from  the  ground,  the  roots 
rinsed  off  with  water  if  the  ground  is  wet  and  sticky,  or  merely  shaken 
free  from  clinging  earth  if  in  a  dry  time.  Enough  trees  are  dug  at 
once  to  graft  at  a  sitting.  The  grafting  can  be  done  at  the  work  bench 
in  the  tool-house  or  barn,  and  if  one  is  pressed  with  other  daylight 
work,  it  may  be  done  by  lamplight  at  the  kitchen  table,  if  the  house- 
wife can  be  conciliated  for  the  muss  it  will  make. 

Care  of  Scions. — The  scions  should  be  previously  selected,  and 
whether  taken  from  trees  on  the  place  or  brought  from  near  or  distant 
sources  away  from  the  farm,  should  have  been  placed  as  soon  as  pro- 


GRAFTING    METHODS    ILLUSTRATED 


77 


Saddle  Graft.  Wedge  Graft. 


Whip  Graft.          Bad  and  Good  Whip  Graft. 


Side  Graft. 


78  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS  I    HOW   TO   GROW   THEM 

cured  in  moist  earth  on  the  north  side  of  the  house  or  other  building, 
where  they  will  keep  cool  and  damp  until  one  is  ready  to  use  them. 
At  the  East  and  other  parts  of  this  State  where  the  ground  is  apt  to 
freeze,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  scions  in  the  cellar  with  their  butts 
covered  with  moist  sand,  but  over  most  of  the  area  of  the  State 
nothing  more  is  needed  than  to  put  down  in  the  earth  at  the  base  of 
a  tree  or  on  the  north  side  of  a  building,  with,  perhaps  a  box  or  barrel 
inverted  over  them  to  keep  out  mice  and  other  intruders.  Care  must 
be  taken  not  to  let  them  dry  up.  If  it  is  desirable  for  any  reason  to 
keep  scions  dormant  long  into  the  spring  or  summer,  of  course  storage 
in  a  cool  cellar  is  better,  for  in  the  open  ground  the  scions  will  burst 
into  leaf  after  a  warm  spell  of  spring  weather. 

In  selecting  wood  for  scions,  as  for  bud  sticks,  never  take  water 
shoots  or  suckers  that  start  from  the  body  of  the  tree  and  push  up 
through  the  older  branches,  but  always  give  the  preference  to  sound, 
fully-matured  wood,  at  the  ends  of  the  lower  or  nearly  horizontal 
branches.  Careful  experiments  have  shown  that  trees  grown  from 
such  scions  are  more  likely  to  take  on  a  low,  spreading  habit  than 
those  from  the  central  or  upper  branches.  The  scions  should  be  tied 
in  bundles  with  a  stout  cord;  and  a  piece  of  a  shingle,  with  the  name 
of  the  variety  written  plainly  and  deeply  thereon,  should  be  tied  in 
with  each  bundle. 

Grafting  Wax. — In  grafting,  a  good  grafting  wax  is  requisite. 
The  ingredients  are  mixed  in  different  proportions  by  different 
growers.  A  few  recipes  which  are  known  to  give  good  results  are 
as  follows: 

Two  and  one-fourth  Ibs.  resin ;  2  Ibs.  beeswax,  1/4  of  a  Ib.  tallow. 

One  Ib.  mutton  tallow;  2  Ibs.  beeswax;  4  Ibs.  resin. 

Two  Ibs.  resin ;  2  Ibs.  beeswax ;  J4  Ib-  tallow,  and  a  little  linseed  oil. 

Two  Ibs.  resin ;  1  Ib.  beeswax,  1  quart  linseed  oil ;  4  tablespoonfuls  turpentine. 

One  Ib.  beeswax;  5  Ibs.  resin;  1  pint  linseed  oil;  1  oz.  lampblack. 

One  Ib.  beeswax;  5  Ibs.  resin;  1  pint  linseed  oil;  1  pint  flour  —  the  flour 
stirred  in  after  the  other  ingredients  have  boiled  together  and  cooled  some- 
what. 

All  these  mixtures  are  made  with  the  aid  of  gentle  heat,  and  during 
grafting  the  wax  must  be  kept  warm  enough  to  apply  easily  with  a 
small  brush.  To  do  this  the  wax  dish  may  be  kept  on  a  hot  brick,  to  be 
changed  for  a  fresh  one  as  it  cools,  or,  better  still,  is  to  heat  the  wax 
in  an  old  fruit  can  or  something  of  that  kind,  inside  another,  which  is 
partly  full  of  warm  water.  A  more  capacious  heater  can  be  made  by 
removing  the  top  of  a  five-gallon  oil  can  and  making  a  hole  for  draft 
on  one  side  near  the  bottom.  A  slow  fire  can  be  kept  going  to  heat  the 
wax  pot  which  is  suspended  from  a  rod  across  the  top.  A  wire  handle 
makes  this  outfit  portable.  The  wax  should  not  be  so  hot  as  to  run 
too  easily,  but  just  right  to  spread  well. 

Grafting  is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  use  of  strips  of  waxed  cloth 
or  waxed  paper,  the  latter  being  quite  good  enough  for  grafts,  which 
are  low  enough  to  be  protected  by  a  ground  covering;  also  for  root 
grafts.  This  waxed  paper  is  made  by  spreading  a  thin  coat  of  wax, 
with  a  brush,  upon  tough,  thin  wrapping  paper,  cutting  up  the  paper, 
when  cold,  with  a  sharp  knife,  on  a  board,  into  strips  about  an  inch 


MANY    KINDS    OF    GRAFTING    WAX  79 

wide.  Waxed  cloth  is  made  by  dipping  cheap  cotton  cloth  into  hot 
wax,  pulling  the  pieces  between  the  edges  of  two  boards  to  take  out  as 
much  wax  as  possible,  and  when  the  cloth  is  cold,  tearing  it  up  into 
half-inch  strips  for  small  grafts  or  wider  strips  for  larger  grafts.  When 
grafting  is  going  on  indoors,  these  strips  hanging  near  the  stove  are 
kept  in  good,  soft  condition  for  use. 

There  are  grafting  preparations  which  do  not  require  heating,  but 
remain  in  a  semi-fluid  state,  and  then  become  very  hard  by  contact  with 
the  air.  The  following  is  a  popular  French  preparation: 

Melt  one  pound  of  resin  over  a  gentle  fire.  Add  to  it  one  once  of  beef  tal- 
low, and  stir  it  well.  Take  it  from  the  fire,  let  it  cool  down  a  little,  and  then 
mix  it  with  a  tablespoonful  of  spirits  of  turpentine,  and  after  that  add  about 
seven  ounces  of  very  strong  alcohol.  The  alcohol  cools  it  down  so  rapidly  that 
it  will  be  necessary  to  put  it  once  more  on  the  fire,  stirring  it  constantly.  Great 
care  is  necessary  to  avoid  igniting  the  alcohol. 

This  wax  is  easily  prepared,  and  when  well  corked  will  keep  for  six 
months.  It  is  put  on  the  wounded  part  of  the  tree,  very  thin,  and  soon 
becomes  as  hard  as  stone.  Thus  it  is  valuable  not  only  for  grafting, 
but  for  covering  the  scars  caused  by  removing  limbs  in  pruning.  It  is, 
however,  rather  an  amateur's  recourse,  as  it  is  rather  expensive  for 
large  commercial  operations. 

As  a  substitute  for  all  the  old  grafting-waxes,  asphaltum,  "Grade 
D,"  has  recently  been  widely  and  successfully  used.  It  is  kept  a  little 
warm  to  spread  well.  Resin  may  be  melted  in  one  part  to  four. 

Cleft  Grafting. — Where  various-sized  stocks  are  to  be  used,  as 
will  be  the  case  with  a  bunch  of  home-grown  seedlings,  different  styles 
of  grafting  must  be  used.  Where  the  stock  is  much  larger  than  the 
scion,  as  is  apt  to  be  the  case  with  California  seedlings,  the  cleft  graft 
will  be  simplest.  Cut  off  the  top  smoothly  above  the  root  crown  and 
then  split  the  top  of  the  stock,  as  shown  in  the  engraving.  Then  pre- 
pare the  scion  by  whittling  it  to  wedge-shape  at  the  lower  end.  Open 
the  slit  in  the  stock  with  a  little  wedge  and  insert  the  scion  so  that  its 
inner  bark  matches  with  the  inner  bark  of  the  stock,  something  as  shown 
in  the  second  figure.  It  does  not  matter  whether  the  outside  of  the  scion 
is  flush  with  the  outside  of  the  stock  or  not ;  the  vital  point  is  to  get  the 
growing  layers,  just  inside  the  barks,  in  contact  with  each  other,  and,  to 
be  sure  of  this  it  may  be  well  to  give  the  scion  a  slight  diagonal  pitch, 
for  if  the  barks  cross  each  other,  this  desirable  contact  is  sure  to  be 
made.  It  is  well  to  make  the  side  of  the  wedge  of  the  scion  which  goes 
nearer  to  the  center  of  the  stock  a  little  thinner  than  the  outside. 

A  scion  for  a  root  graft  is  cut  longer  than  for  use  in  the  top  of  the 
tree,  for  in  planting,  the  point  of  grafting  is  placed  a  little  way  under- 
ground. Such  scions  are  usually  cut  wtih  four  or  five  buds.  After 
the  scion  is  in  place,  it  only  remains  to  wrap  it  closely  with  a  piece  of 
waxed  cloth  or  paper,  in  such  a  way  that  all  the  cut  surfaces  are 
covered,  extending  the  wrapper  a  little  below  the  split  in  the  root. 
Paint  over  the  wrapper  with  warm  wax  put  on  with  a  brush,  put  a  little 
on  the  top  of  the  scion,  and  the  graft  is  complete. 

Side  Grafting. — Another  method  which  prevents  splitting  the 
stock  is  the  side  graft,  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure.  It  consists 


80  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

in  bending  the  stock  to  one  side  and  cutting  in  diagonally  with  a  thin- 
bladed,  sharp  knife,  a  little  more  than  half  way  through  the  stock. 
Into  this  open  cut  insert  the  scion  so  that  the  inner  barks  touch ;  then 
allowing  the  stock  to  straighten  up,  holds  the  scion  firmly.  Covering 
with  a  wax  band  drawn  tight  makes  a  good  job,  and  such  grafts  make 
as  good  growth  as  the  buds  set  the  previous  summer.  This  method 
can  be  used  with  stems  or  branches  up  to  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  is 
essentially  the  same,  as  will  be  mentioned  later,  as  a  side  graft  for 
working  over  old  trees.  In  this  style  of  grafting,  a  stub  of  three  inches 
or  more  may  be  left  above  the  graft,  and  to  this  the  graft  can  be  tied  to 
prevent  blowing  out  if  it  makes  a  strong  growth.  Afterward  the  stub 
is  cut  back  with  a  sloping  cut  and  waxed  or  painted  to  prevent  checking. 
Whip  Grafting  in  the  Stem. — Grafting  above  the  root  or  in  the 
stem  of  the  stock  when  stock  and  scion  are  about  the  same  size,  is 
done  by  tongue  or  whip  grafting.  The  accompanying  sketch  shows  a 
whip  graft  in  the  stem  of  the  stock.  Grafts  up  to  an  inch  in  diameter 
can  be  made  in  this  way,  but  it  is  generally  used  for  smaller  wood. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  secure  proper  contacts  of  the  inner  barks  at 
least  on  one  side  of  the  stock.  After  pushing  the  parts  together,  a 
wax  band  holds  them  firmly  in  place,  or  the  joint  may  be  simply  tied 
and  painted  over  with  wax. 

A  Root  Graft. — When  the  root  stock  and  the  scion  are  about  the 
same  size,  the  tongue  graft  is  also  used,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  In 
making  this  both  the  stock  and  scion  are  given  a  sloping  cut  of  about 
the  same  length,  and  a  secondary  cut  made  in  each.  When  the  two 
are  put  together  the  wood  "tongues  in,"  or  interlocks  as  shown  in  the 
engraving.  The  object  of  this  is  to  make  more  points  of  contact  for 
the  inner  barks  of  root  and  scion,  and  at  the  same  time  to  interlock 
the  two  more  firmly.  In  putting  the  two  together,  if  the  stock  is 
slightly  larger  than  the  scion,  be  sure  to  put  the  scion  so  that  the  inner 
bark  contact  is  made,  and  this  will  bring  the  scion  a  little  to  one  side 
of  the  center.  Bind  with  the  wax  band,  and  paint  with  wax  as  in  the 
case  of  the  former  graft. 

In  large  nursery  practice  expert  grafters  have  come  of  late  years 
to  make  this  root  graft  without  wax,  merely  tying  in  the  graft.  For 
amateur  work  at  home  it  is  much  safer  to  use  the  wax. 

Grafting  in  the  root,  where  the  root  is  much  larger  than  the  scion, 
may  be  done  without  splitting  the  root  by  cutting  or  sawing  out  a 
triangular  piece  on  the  side  of  the  root,  cutting  the  scion  to  fit  and 
trusting  to  a  strong  band  to  hold  it  in  place.  This  graft  is  illustrated 
in  the  chapter  on  propagating  the  grape.  It  also  works  well  with  root 
grafting  the  walnut,  and  is  used  by  some  in  ordinary  top  grafting  on 
other  trees. 

Planting  out  Root  Grafts. — This  root  grafting  can  be  done  in 
the  winter  before  it  is  time  to  plant  out,  and  the  grafts  can  be  made 
a  few  at  a  time,  as  convenient.  The  grafts,  then,  as  fast  as  prepared, 
should  be  bedded  in  moist  sand  in  the  cellar,  and  will  make  their  con- 
tact firm,  and  even  start  to  growing  a  little.  In  planting  out  in  the 
nursery  rows  be  sure  the  earth  is  firmed  well  around  the  root,  otherwise 
many  will  be  lost.  Plant  ten  or  twelve  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  Keep 


CLASSES    OF    NURSERY    STOCK  81 

the  weeds  down  and  the  soil  well  cultivated  and  loose  on  the  surface, 
and  the  first  season's  growth  will  give  a  tree  fit  for  planting  out  in 
orchard  in  the  coming  winter.  For  irrigation  the  rules  already  given 
for  the  growth  of  seedlings  for  budding  will  apply. 

PRUNING   TREES    IN    NURSERY 

As  for  other  treatment  of  the  trees  (either  from  bud  or  root  graft) 
in  nursery  during  the  first  year,  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion 
and  practice.  If  the  young  tree  will  be  content  to  make  a  straight 
switch  with  good  buds  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  but  no  laterals  thrown 
out,  it  will  be  in  the  best  possible  shape  for  planting  in  the  orchard, 
and  gives  the  planter  a  chance  to  make  the  head  at  whatever  height 
suits  him,  and  to  secure  uniformity  through  the  orchard.  All  trees  will 
not,  however,  be  content  with  this  growth,  but  will  push  out  laterals 
all  along  the  stem.  Even  in  this  case  some  let  the  whole  growth  go 
for  the  planter  to  treat  as  he  thinks  best.  Another  plan  is  to  go  over 
the  nursery  when  the  young  stock  is  about  two  feet  high  and  pinch 
back  the  laterals  part  way,  but  retaining  the  leaves  nearest  the  stem 
to  shade  the  stem.  This  pinching  back  is  done  from  the  ground  up  to 
a  height  of  one  to  one  and  a  half  feet,  and  above  that  the  growth  is 
left  to  take  its  natural  course,  to  be  cut  as  desired  when  the  head  of 
the  tree  is  formed.  Pinching  back  develops  buds  near  the  stem  and 
gives  the  planter  a  better  chance  to  head  the  tree  lower  if  he  likes. 
Another  practice  which  prevails  to  some  extent,  is  to  pinch  off  the 
terminal  bud  when  the  young  tree  has  reached  a  height  of  about  two 
and  a  half  or  three  feet  in  the  nursery.  This  soon  forces  a  growth 
of  lateral  branches,  which  are  in  turn  pinched  after  they  have  grown 
out  a  couple  of  feet.  The  result  is  the  formation  of  a  head  on  a 
nursery  tree  the  first  year,  and  when  such  trees  are  planted  in  orchard 
they  are  merely  cut  back  on  the  laterals,  leaving  the  head  as  formed 
in  the  nursery.  Such  trees  are  difficult  to  handle  in  packing,  and  take 
much  room  in  shipment.  There  may,  however,  be  an  advantage  in 
such  practice  for  the  home  grower  if  he  is  situated  in  parts  of  the 
State  where  the  greatest  season's  growth  is  attained.  Orchard  planters 
generally,  however,  prefer  a  June'  bud  or  a  yearling  of  moderate 
growth,  without  laterals. 

CLASSES    OF    NURSERY    STOCKS 

The  several  classes  of  stock  which  are  to  be  had  from  nurseries 
are  as  follows : 

Root  Grafts. — These  are  seedling  roots,  or  pieces  of  them,  on 
which  scions  of  the  desired  variety  have  been  grafted  on  the  bench 
and  the  junction  healed  over  in  the  cellar.  No  growth  has  yet  started 
in  the  scion.  If  the  tree  planter  wishes  this  kind  of  stock,  he  should 
plant  it  out  in  nursery  row  in  the  spring  and  remove  the  trees  to 
orchard  the  following  winter. 

June  Buds. — For  multiplying  varieties  very  fast,  buds  are  kept 
dormant  in  a  cool  place;  or,  by  pinching  off  the  top  shoots  of  the 
current  year  are  forced  to  mature  buds  very  early.  These  buds  are  put 

• 


82  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

into  seedling  stocks  as  early  in  the  season  as  it  is  possible  to  get  new 
buds  developed.  This  can  be  hastened  by  pinching  tips  of  new  shoots 
from  which  they  are  to  be  taken,  which  forces  development  of  lateral 
buds.  After  budding,  the  top  of  the  stock  is  girdled  with  knife  or  cord, 
or  partly  cut  away,  and  growth  is  forced  on  the  bud  so  as  to  give  a 
small  tree  at  the  end  of  the  first  summer.  This  method  of  propagation 
is  growing  in  popularity  in  this  State,  especially  in  the  foothill  districts, 
where  small  trees  are  preferred  for  transplanting. 

Dormant  Buds. — Trees  are  sold  in  dormant  bud  when  they  are 
lifted  from  the  nursery  and  sent  out  before  any  growth  has  started 
on  the  inserted  bud.  The  bud  should  be  seen  to  be  the  color  of  healthy 
bark.  Such  trees  should  only  be  used  when  yearlings  are  not  to  be 
had  and  gain  in  time  is  very  important.  Care  must  be  constantly 
taken  that  growth  starts  from  the  right  bud,  and  that  it  be  protected 
from  breaking  off  by  wind  or  animals.  A  considerable  percentage  of 
loss  is  usual,  and  extra  dormant  buds  should  be  planted  in  nursery 
rows  to  fill  vacancies. 

Yearling  Trees. — These  are  trees  which  have  made  one  season's 
growth  from  the  bud  or  graft.  Two-year-olds  have  made  two  sea- 
sons' growth,  and  so  on.  The  proper  way  to  count  the  life  of  a  tree 
is  from  the  starting  of  growth  in  the  bud  or  graft,  for  this  point  is 
really  the  birth  of  the  tree. 

WORKING   OVER   OLD    TREES 

Another  opSHttion  which  may  be  properly  considered  as  a  branch 
of  propagation  is  the  working  over  of  old  trees.  There  is  much  of 
this  being  done  every  year  in  this  State.  The  old  seedling  fruits  in  the 
older  settled  parts  of  the  State  are  being  made  to  bear  improved 
varieties;  trees  of  varieties  illy  adapted  to  prevailing  conditions  are 
changed  into  strong  growing  and  productive  sorts ;  trees  are  changed 
from  one  fruit  to  another,  when  affinity  permits.  This  will  be  men- 
tioned in  the  discussion  of  the  different  fruits.  Still  another  reason 
for  working  over  is  to  secure  more  valuable  and  marketable  varieties. 
Sometimes  a  mixed  orchard  is  made  to  bear  a  straight  line  of  one 
sort  which  is  in  demand,  or  when  the  grower  finds  he  has  too  many 
trees  of  a  single  kind,  which  give  him  more  fruit  than  he  can  con- 
veniently handle  when  it  all  ripens  at  one  time,  he  works  in  other 
varieties  so  as  to  get  a  succession  of  varieties  adapted  to  his  purpose, 
and  thus  secures  a  longer  working  season  in  which  to  dispose  of  them. 
This  is  especially  the  case  in  large  orchards  of  apricots,  peaches,  and 
plums,  when  the  grower  depends  upon  drying  his  crop.  Information 
concerning  the  successive  ripening  of  varieties  can  be  gained  from  the 
special  chapters  on  the  different  fruits.  For  all  of  these  reasons,  and 
others  which  need  not  be  enumerated,  the  work  of  the  propagator  is 
continually  going  on  even  in  our  large  bearing  orchards.  As  with 
young  trees,  so  with  old,  transforming  the  character  of  the  tree  is 
done  both  by  budding  and  grafting. 

Budding  Old  Trees. — One  way  to  prepare  an  old  tree  for  bud- 
ding is  to  cut  back  the  branches  severely  during  the  latter  part  of  the 


GRAFTING  OVER  BEARING  TREES  83 

winter,  which  has  the  effect  of  forcing  out  new  shoots  around  the  head 
of  the  tree,  and  in  these  the  buds  of  the  desired  variety  are  set  in  the 
summer,  just  as  is  done  in  budding  nursery  stock,  except  that  the 
budding  should  be  done  rather  earlier  because  the  sap  does  not  run  as 
late.  When  the  shoots  are  budded,  those  being  selected  which  are 
situated  so  as  to  give  the  best  symmetry  to  the  new  head,  the  shoots 
not  budded  are  broken  a  foot  or  so  from  where  they  emerge  from  the 
old  wood,  and  are  allowed  to  hang  until  pruning  time.  At  the  winter 
pruning  the  budding  branches  are  topped  off  a  little  above  the  bud, 
and  when  the  new  shoot  starts  it  is  often  loosely  tied  to  the  stub  of 
the  old  branch  to  prevent  breaking  out  in  the  wind.  When  it  gets 
strength,  the  stub  is  cut  away  smoothly  to  allow  the  wound  to  heal  over. 

Another  way  is  to  insert  the  buds  in  the  old  bark  at  points  where 
it  is  desirable  to  have  the  new  branches  start.  This  is  sometimes  done 
by  lifting  the  bark,  as  in  ordinary  budding,  and  slipping  the  bud  under, 
sometimes  by  what  is  called  shield  or  plate  budding,  which  consists 
in  removing  a  piece  of  the  old  bark  entirely  and  putting  in  its  place 
a  piece  of  bark  of  the  desired  variety,  having  upon  it  a  dormant  bud. 
With  plate  budding  it  is  necessary  to  be  careful  to  have  the  inserted 
bark  just  the  size  of  the  bared  spot,  and  to  wrap  it  more  closely  than 
when  the  bud  is  slipped  under  the  bark  of  the  stock.  In  all  cases  in 
budding  old  trees,  care  must  be  taken  to  get  fully-matured  buds,  and 
it  is  well  to  take  them  from  large  shoots,  which  have  a  thicker  and 
firmer  bark  than  may  be  used  in  budding  nursery  stock.  It  is  also 
desirable  to  be  very  sure  that  the  buds  are  taken  not  only  from  a  tree 
of  the  desired  variety,  but  from  a  healthy,  vigorous  tree  of  that  variety. 

In  selecting  buds,  also,  one  must  be  sure  that  he  gets  leaf  buds, 
and  not  fruit  buds  only.  In  taking  buds  from  some  kinds  of  bearing 
trees,  of  course,  he  may  sometimes,  to  get  well-ripened  buds,  be 
obliged  to  take  both  fruit  and  leaf  buds  together.  This  will  work 
well  if  care  is  taken  not  to  rub  off  the  leaf  bud.  It  is  rather  easier, 
however,  to  work  with  buds  from  young  trees  not  yet  in  bearing  if 
one  can  be  sure  that  these  trees  are  of  the  desired  variety. 

Grafting  Old  Trees. — Old  trees  are  also  renewed  by  grafting. 
This  is  most  generally  done  by  the  old  process  of  "top  grafting." 
The  main  stem  or  the  larger  branches  are  cut  square  off,  and  the  scions, 
usually  two,  but  four  or  more  if  in  the  trunk,  are  shaped  and  set 
into  clefts  in  the  stock  as  shown  in  the  engraving.  It  is  better  to  use 
limbs  above  the  main  fork,  or  head  of  the  tree,  than  to  graft  in  the 
trunk,  if  the  old  trees  are  of  good  size.  The  following  description, 
which  the  writer  borrows  in  part  from  some  unknown  source,  will 
serve  to  guide  novices  in  the  matter : 

The  outfit  necessary  for  doing  the  work  consists  of  a  small,  fine  saw,  a 
regular  grafting  knife,  or  a  pocket-knife  with  a  long,  straight  sharp  blade,  wax, 
light  mallet,  and  a  hard-wood  narrow  wedge.  After  selecting  the  limb  to  be 
grafted,  saw  it  off — your  own  judgment  will  guide  you  as  to  best  point,  but 
before  the  saw  gets  quite  through  the  limb,  cut  the  bark  on  the  under  side  of 
the  limb  to  prevent  the  liability  of  peeling  down. 

Next  split  the  stub  with  knife  and  mallet  and  insert  the  wedge  in  the  center 
of  the  cleft  to  hold  it  open.  It  is  usual  to  cut  the  scion  with  two  buds,  but 
sometimes  better  results  are  had  by  using  scions  with  but  a  single  bud.  Whittle 


84  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO   GROW    THEM 

the  scion  wedge  shape,  so  that  it  fits  nicely  down  into  the  cleft.  To  do  this, 
hold  it  in  the  left  hand  with  the  bud  at  the  ball  of  the  thumb,  then  cut  the  side 
toward  you;  as  will  be  natural,  turn  it  over,  and  cut  the  opposite  side  in  the 
same  way,  making  the  wedge  a  very  little  thinner  on  the  edge  opposite  the  bud 
than  the  other.  This  will  insure  a  firm  pressure  at  the  points  where  the  bark 
of  scion  and  stock  meet. 

When  set,  the  bud  of  the  scion  will  be  on  line  with  the  outer  long  portion  of 
the  graft.  The  point  to  be  closely  observed  in  adjustment  is  to  have  the  inner 
or  sap  bark  of  the  scion  connected  with  the  same  of  the  stock.  If  a  trifle  too 
far  in,  or  too  far  out,  the  work  will  be  a  failure.  Some  people  set  the  graft 
a  little  out  at  the  top  and  a  little  in  at  the  bottom,  so  as  to  be  sure  of  a  con- 
nection at  the  crossing  point,  but  there  will  be  firmer  hold  if  there  is  a  union 
the  whole  length.  Our  rule  has  been  to  have  the  wood  of  the  scion  come  exactly 
parallel  with  the  surface  of  the  stock,  and  we  seldom  fail  in  getting  firm  adhesions 
and  solid  limbs  after  years  of  growth. 

After  the  scions  are  set,  and  two  should  be  put  into  one  limb  if  large,  care- 
fully withdraw  the  wedge  and  apply  the  wax,  so  that  every  part  of  the  wood  and 
bark  cut  and  split  is  well  coated.  In  doing  this  use  extreme  care  not  to  move 
the  scions  at  all  from  their  sittings.  If  the  pinch  of  the  stock  is  seen  to  be 
severe,  a  small  wedge  may  be  left  in  the  center  to  save  the  scions  from  crushing. 
If  there  is  a  large  cleft,  it  may  be  filled  with  damp  clay  before  waxing  over. 

Most  grafting  over  of  old  trees  is  done  by  this  method,  using  one 
or  another  of  the  wax  preparations  described  upon  a  preceding  page. 
If  the  cut  surface  of  the  stock  and  the  split  is  thoroughly  waxed  over 
as  low  as  the  bark  is  split,  there  is  usually  little  trouble  with  the  growth 
of  the  scion  and  the  healing  over  of  the  stock.  In  the  warmer  valleys 
in  the  interior,  the  sun  is  often  hot  enough  to  melt  the  wax  and  cause 
it  to  run  and  bare  the  wood  surfaces.  This  is  prevented  by  dusting 
the  wax  thoroughly  with  brick  dust  well  powdered;  but,  by  a  little 
experimenting  with  the  recipes  already  given,  one  can  secure  a  wax 
which  will  stand  any  heat  likely  to  be  encountered. 

For  grafting  over  trees  by  working  upon  the  limbs,  the  neatest 
and  surest  work  can  be  done  by  methods  of  grafting  which  do  not 
require  the  splitting  of  the  stock.  There  are  various  ways  of  doing 
this.  One  method  is  shown  in  the  engraving  on  the  next  page,  and 
consists  in  cutting  the  scion  as  shown,  and  inserting  it  beneath  the 
raised  bark  and  then  binding  well  with  waxed  bands,  the  preparation 
of  which  has  already  been  described. 

Another  method  is  an  application  of  what  the  French  call  oblique 
side  grafting.  It  consists  of  making  an  oblique  cut  downward  through 
the  bark  of  the  stock  and  for  a  distance  into  the  wood,  using  a  chisel 
and  mallet  or  even  a  strong  knife.  A  saw  and  knife  are  also  used  for 
making  this  cut,  as  will  be  described  in  the  chapter  on  the  peach.  A 
small  form  of  side  graft  has  already  been  shown  earlier  in  this  chapter. 
In  it  the  scion  is  held  in  with  a  wax  band.  Some  growers  remove 
the  top  of  the  stock  with  a  sloping  cut  about  half  an  inch  above  the 
scion,  as  shown  in  the  engraving,  and  wrap  the  waxed  band  well 
around  and  over  all  the  exposed  surfaces.  Others  do  not  remove  the 
whole  of  the  limb  until  the  scion  has  started  well  into  growth,  and 
then  they  cut  down  and  pare  the  stock  and  cover  with  a  band  or  with 
a  wax  that  will  not  run  in  the  sun. 

Several  ingenious  devices  have  been  patented  by  Californians  for 
securing  uniformity  in  the  incision  in  the  stock  and  in  shaping  the 
scion,  but  it  is  so  easy  to  succeed  with  ordinary  tools  that  such  inven- 


OPPORTUNITIES    FOR   GRAFTING    IN    CALIFORNIA  85 

tions  have  never  come  into  wide  use.  Machines  for  the  bench  grafting 
of  vines  have,  however,  been  successfully  employed  to  a  certain  extent, 
but  are  not  generally  used. 

TIMES    FOR    GRAFTING   IN    CALIFORNIA 

There  is  nothing  particularly  new  about  the  methods  or  means 
employed  for  grafting  deciduous  fruit  trees  in  California,  but  the  time 
at  which  the  operation  can  be  successfully  done,  and  the  condition  of 
the  scion,  are  different  from  those  held  to  be  necessary  in  other  cli- 
mates. It  is  not  at  all  requisite  that  the  scions  should  be  carefully 
stored  away  to  keep  them  in  a  dormant  condition,  nor  that  the  grafter 
should  haste  to  do  his  work  in  just  such  a  state  of  sap-flow  in  the  spring 
time.  It  was  early  discovered  that  grafting  could  be  successfully  done 
with  growing  scions,  and  that  scions  could  be  cut  from  one  tree  and 
set  in  another  nearly  at  any  time  the  grafter  desired.  Grafting  is 
therefore  possible  much  later  in  the  season  than  is  prescribed  elsewhere, 
and  it  is  also  possible  to  begin  earlier.  In  one  of  the  largest  apple 
and  pear  orchards  in  the  State  it  is  common  to  graft  in  December. 
The  absence  of  freezing  weather  saves  the  graft  from  injury.  As  our 
trees  start  their  flow  of  sap  early,  and  often  when  the  ground  is  too 
wet  for  comfortable  orchard  work,  it  is  the  practice  of  many  to  get 
their  grafting  and  pruning  done  before  the  heavy  midwinter  rains 
begin.  The  practice  of  most  growers  is,  however,  to  conform  some- 
what nearly  to  traditional  methods,  to  do  most  of  the  grafting  in  the 
spring  months,  and  to  use  dormant  scions,  the  growth  of  which  is 
retarded  by  heeling  them  in  on  the  north  side  of  a  building,  or  keeping 
them  in  sand  in  the  cellar,  as  the  grower  chooses.  Of  course  it  should 
be  understood  that  there  are  parts  of  the  State  where  the  winter  condi- 
tions are  more  nearly  like  those  at  the  East,  and  practice  has  to  conform 
to  them. 

As  to  whether  it  is  better  to  remove  the  whole  top  of  the  tree  and 
graft  all  the  limbs  in  one  year,  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion.  The 
prevailing  practice  is  to  graft  over  part  of  the  limbs  one  year  and  the 
balance  the  following  year;  or  else  to  leave  part  of  the  top  to  shade 
the  bark  and  take  part  of  the  sap  flow  until  the  grafts  start  out  well, 
and  then  cut  it  away.  When  a  large  amount  of  grafting  is  to  be  done, 
the  limbs  may  be  cut  off  during  the  weeks  preceding  grafting.  In  this 
case,  the  cut  should  be  made  a  foot  or  two  above  the  grafting  point 
and  a  second  cut  be  made  at  this  point,  when  ready  to  put  in  the  scions. 

Whenever  old  bark  is  exposed  by  cutting  back  for  grafting,  thorough 
protection  against  sunburn  must  be  provided.  The  simplest  way  to  do 
this  is  to  cover  the  exposed  bark  with  good  whitewash.  By  using  thirty 
pounds  of  lime,  four  pounds  tallow,  and  five  pounds  of  salt  with  enough 
water  to  make  it  flow  well,  a  tenacious  whitewash  can  be  secured. 

What  has  been  said  thus  far  relates  especially  to  the  working  over 
of  old  trees  of  common  deciduous  fruits.  Though  much  the  same 
method  will  succeed  with  some  of  the  semi-tropical  fruits  and  with  nut 
trees,  the  discussion  of  their  propagation  and  grafting  over  will  be 
deferred  to  the  chapters  devoted  to  them,  and  this  will  also  give  oppor- 
tunity to  describe  methods  especially  adapted  to  these  fruits. 


CHAPTER  X 
PREPARATION  FOR  ORCHARD  PLANTING 

The  two  essentials  in  preparing  land  for  trees  or  vines  are  deep  and 
thorough  cultivation,  and  provision  for  drainage,  unless  the  situation 
is  naturally  well  drained.  Drainage  will  be  considered  in  connection 
with  irrigation  in  another  chapter.  In  this  place,  however,  by  way  of 
emphasis,  it  may  be  remarked  that  high  land  is  not  necessarily  well 
drained,  although  the  general  feature  of  the  surface  may  be  an  incline, 
nor  is  low  land  necessarily  wet,  although  the  surface  may  be  apparently 
level.  For  horticultural  purposes  the  drainage  of  the  land  must  be 
considered  on  the  hillside  as  well  as  in  the  valley,  for  reasons  which 
will  be  more  fully  set  forth  in  the  chapter  on  drainage. 

The  preparation  of  land  for  fruit  planting  should  begin  with  grad- 
ing. In  irrigated  orchards  this  is  essential  for  the  equal  distribution 
of  water.  Even  where  irrigation  is  not  anticipated,  it  is  of  decided 
advantage  to  smooth  down  hummocks  and  fill  sags  which  are  likely  to 
collect  water  in  the  rainy  season.  As  has  been  shown  in  Chapter  III, 
this  can  be  done  on  most  California  soils  without  danger  of  uncovering 
a  sterile  subsoil.  Some  intimation  of  the  method  of  grading  is  given 
at  the  close  of  Chapter  VII.  In  preparation  for  the  irrigated  orchard, 
and  irrigation  is  now  widely  employed  even  in  regions  where  formerly 
rainfall  was  the  sole  reliance,  it  is  important  that  accurate  grading 
should  be  done  and  the  use  of  the  surveyor's  level  and  grade  stakes 
will  be  found  very  desirable.  All  moving  of  soil  should  precede  the 
general  plowing. 

For  the  planting  of  orchard  or  vineyard  the  land  must  be  put  in  as 
good  tilth  as  possible,  and  extra  expenditure  to  secure  this  will  be 
amply  repaid  in  the  after-growth  of  the  trees  and  vines.  If  practicable, 
it  will  be  all  the  better  to  have  the  process  of  preparation  begin  a  year 
before  the  trees  or  vines  are  to  be  set.  This  is  true  either  with  newly- 
cleared  land,  as  has  been  described,  or  with  old  grain  or  pasture  land 
which  is  to  be  used,  leaving  the  surface  rough  during  the  winter, 
facilitates  the  access  of  air  to  the  lower  layers  of  the  soil,  and  in  a 
certain  sense  may  be  said  to  sweeten  and  enliven  it.  Following  in  the 
furrow  with  a  subsoil  plow  is  very  desirable,  either  at  the  first  plowing 
or  later.  Such  treatment  of  old  grain  land  breaks  up  the  old  hardpan,* 
which  has  probably  been  formed  by  years  of  shallow  culture.  The 
preparation  should  continue  during  the  following  summer,  and  can 
often  be  made  both  thorough  and  profitable  by  the  growth  of  a  summer 
"hoed  crop,"  the  culture  of  which  will  kill  out  many  weeds  and  secure 
good  pulverization  of  the  soil.  If  no  summer  crop  is  grown,  the  land 
should  be  kept  in  cultivation  by  plowing  the  weeds  under  as  long  as 
the  surface  soil  retains  moisture  enough  to  start  them.  A  special 
advantage  of  such  summer-fallow  in  regions  where  the  rainfall  is  apt 

*In  this  connection  the  term  means  "plow-sole."  Treatment  of  true  hardpan  will  be 
described  in  the  next  chapter. 

86 


PREPARATIONS    FOR   PLANTING  87 

to  be  short  is  that  a  prevention  of  evaporation,  the  trees  or  vines  set 
the  following  winter  will  have  a  good  part  of  the  rainfall  of  two  seasons 
to  grow  with,  and  the  result  will  often  be  very  noticeable.  If  there 
are  supplies  of  manure  available,  as  is  often  found  in  old  corrals  on 
our  grain  or  stock  farms,  it  is  better  to  gather  and  apply  this  the  winter 
before  the  planting  of  the  trees.  If  this  is  not  done,  it  should  be  left 
until  after  the  trees  are  planted,  and  then  be  spread  upon  the  surface 
during  the  winter,  and  plowed  it  after  it  has  been  in  part  leached  into 
the  soil  by  the  rains.  Application  should  be  made  evenly  all  over  the 
surface,  and  not  massed  around  the  roots  of  the  trees,  unless  it  is  to  be 
applied  as  a  mulch  to  the  surface  after  the  spring  cultivation  is  over,  as 
will  be  considered  later. 

If  it  is  thought  desirable  to  plant  the  land  immediately  after  break- 
ing up,  put  in  the  plows  as  early  in  the  fall  as  it  is  possible  to  do  deep 
work,  that  is,  to  plow  to  a  depth  of  ten  or  twelve  inches,  or  more. 
Harrow  thoroughly.  If  it  is  still  early,  cross-plow.  Thorough  and 
deep  breaking  up  as  soon  as  practicable  to  plow  in  the  fall,  and  follow- 
ing in  the  furrow  with  the  subsoil  plow,  working  to  a  depth  of  fourteen 
inches  or  more,  is  a  good  preparation  for  fruit  planting.  For  this  kind 
of  work  good  teams  are  needed  and  the  plow  should  be  sharp  and 
bright.  If  the  work  is  hard  for  the  team,;'  set  the  plow  so  as  to  take 
less  land,  but  do  not  sacrifice  the  depth.  Harrow  again  thoroughly, 
and  the  land  is  ready  for  the  trees  or  vines. 

Avoiding  Dead  Furrows. — Unless  dead  furrows  can  be  used  to 
advantage  for  surface  drainage  in  case  of  heavy  rain-storms,  it  will 
be  of  decided  convenience  in  laying  off  to  have  the  field  free  from 
them.  This  can,  of  course,  be  secured  by  beginning  the  final  plowing 
at  a  line  in  the  center  of  the  field,  turning  all  furrows  inwards.  In  this 
case,  too,  if  a  right-hand  plow  is  used,  the  team  will  always  turn  on 
unplowed  land,  and  thus  avoid  trampling  upon  and  packing  the  loose 
soil.  The  slight  ridge  in  the  center  of  the  field  formed  by  the  first 
two  furrows  can  be  easily  leveled  by  a  couple  of  back  furrows,  and 
when  properly  harrowed  the  field  will  be  found  smooth  as  a  floor  for 
staking  out  for  planting. 


LAYING   OUT    FOR    PLANTING    IN    SQUARES 

It  is  very  desirable,  both  for  convenience  in  cultivation  and  for  the 
beauty  of  the  orchard,  that  the  trees  should  stand  in  straight  lines, 
and  care  should  be  taken  to  attain  that  end.  Most  orchards  and  vine- 
yards in  this  State  are  laid  out  in  squares;  that  is,  the  rows  of  trees 
or  vines  are  all  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  as  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying sketch.  This  is  the  simplest  arrangement;  and  by  some  of 
our  largest  planters  is  held  to  be  the  best.  It  is  true  that  the  trees  are 
not  equidistant  from  each  other  in  all  directions,  and  that,  theoretically 
at  least,  there  is  a  portion  of  the  ground  unused — supposing  that  the 
roots  occupy  a  circle,  as  do  the  branches.  Practically,  however,  it  may 
be  doubted  whether  the  hungry  roots  of  well-grown  trees  or  vines  leave 
any  portion  of  the  soil  unvisited. 


88  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

There  are  also  forms  of  double  squares  and  alternating  squares 
available  for  planting  at  long  distances,  with  growths  between,  which 
are  ultimately  to  be  cut  out,  or  for  vines  between  fruit  trees.  Such 
mixed  planting  is,  however,  but  little  practiced  in  California. 

VARIOUS    WAYS    OF    MARKING    FOR    SQUARES 

Marking  With  a  Plow. — This  method  was  used  in  laying  off 
some  large  orchards  in  the  Sacramento  Valley.  A  common  two-horse 
turning  plow  is  rigged  with  a  "marker" — a  light  wooden  bar  extending 
at  right  angles  from  the  beam,  the  bar  being  as  long  as  the  desired 
distance  between  the  rows  of  trees.  On  the  end  of  this  bar  a  crosspiece 
is  fastened  perpendicularly,  so  that  it  scratches  along  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  The  line  of  the  first  furrow  has  to  be  designated  by  a  flag 
stake,  to  which  the  plowman  proceeds.  When  this  is  done,  the  team 
is  turned  and  sent  back  along  the  next  row,  the  location  of  which  has 
been  fixed  by  the  marker,  and  so  on  for  the  length  of  the  field,  the 
marker  being  turned  each  time  to  indicate  the  next  furrow.  Following 
the  same  course  the  other  way  of  the  field  leaves  the  trees  to  be  planted 
at  the  intersection  of  the  furrows. 

Measure  and  Sight. — Another  method  which  is  quite  commonly 
used  and  answers  a  good  purpose  in  small  plantings  is  the  combination 
of  measure  and  sight.  The  sighting  stakes  are  usually  plasterers'  laths 
pointed  at  one  end  and  whitewashed  to  make  them  more  visible  to  the 
eye.  In  the  use  of  these  it  is  necessary  to  measure  the  distances  and 
locate  the  laths  to  mark  the  ends  of  the  rows  all  around  the  field.  Then 
locate  a  line  of  laths  across  the  field  each  wayf  through  the  center,  these 
laths  occupying  places  which  the  trees  of  these  two  central  rows  will 
fill.  After  these  are  in  place,  measurement  can  be*  dispensed  with,  and 
the  job  can  be  finished  by  sighting  through.  The  man  on  the  ends  of 
the  rows  has  three  laths  to  sight  by  in  each  row,  and  the  stake  driver 
places  the  stakes  as  directed  by  the  sighter.  Good  location  can  be  done 
this  way  if  a  man  has  a  good  eye  and  patience  enough. 

Marking  Off  With  a  Wire.— A  measuring  wire  or  chain  is,  per- 
haps, the  best  means  for  getting  accurate  location  of  trees  or  vines. 
It  is  used  either  for  setting  in  squares  or  in  other  arrangement,  as  will 
be  described  presently.  Measuring  wires  are  made  of  annealed  steel 
wire  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  length  varies  ac- 
cording to  the  wishes  of  the  user.  If  it  is  desired  to  lay  off  the  planta- 
tion in  blocks  of  one  acre,  the  wire  should  be  two  hundred  and  eight 
feet  nine  inches  long,  for  that  is  approximately  the  length  of  one  side 
of  a  square  inclosing  an  acre  of  ground.  But  some  use  a  wire  as  long 
as  three  hundred  feet,  when  the  acre  measure  is  of  no  consequence ;  and 
others,  in  smaller  plantings,  make  the  wire  just  the  length  of  the  piece 
they  have  in  hand.  At  each  end  of  the  wire  is  fixed  a  strong  iron  ring 
about  one  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter,  to  be  slipped  over  stakes ;  some 
use  a  larger  ring,  say  three  inches  in  diameter,  because  it  is  easier  to 
handle  in  pulling  taut.  Along  this  wire,  patches  of  solder  are  placed 
exactly  at  the  distances  desired  between  the  rows  of  trees  or  vines,  and 
to  these  places  pieces  of  red  cloth  are  sometimes  fastened  so  that  the 
points  may  be  easily  seen.  Another  style  of  measuring  wire  is  made  of 


LAYING-OUT   METHODS  ILLUSTRATED 


89 


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Trees  planted  on  the  square  system.          The  Triangular  or  alternate  system. 


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The  Hexagonal  or  Septuple  system. 


The  Quincunx  system. 


90  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO   GROW    THEM 

small  wire  cable  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  made  of  several 
strands  of  small  wire.  It  is  more  flexible  and  less  likely  to  become 
kinked  than  the  large  wire,  and  can  be  easily  marked  off  to  represent 
the  distances,  at  which  rows  of  different  kinds  of  trees  should  be  placed, 
by  separating  the  strands  a  little  at  the  desired  points  and  inserting  a 
little  piece  of  red  cloth,  pressing  the  wires  together  again  and  tying 
firmly  with  a  waxed  thread  to  prevent  slipping.  In  this  way  the  same 
wire  can  be  easily  arranged  for  planting  vines  or  for  the  trees  requiring 
the  greatest  distance  between  the  rows.  Another  advantage  of  the 
cable  is  that  any  stretching  can  be  taken  up  by  retwisting,  which  can  not 
be  done  with  the  stretching  of  a  single  wire.  Another  good  style  of 
planting  wire  is  made  of  2,  4  or  6- foot  links  of  No.  12  steel  wire  (in- 
cluding the  diameters  or  the  small  rings  turned  at  each  end  of  the  link 
pieces).  As  all  planting  will  probably  be  at  multiple  distances  of  these 
link-lengths,  the  cloth  tags  can  be  changed  and  the  chain  thus  be  marked 
for  any  desired  distances. 

Finding  a  True  Corner. — To  use  the  measuring1  wire  for  laying 
out  trees  on  the  square,  it  is  necessary  first  to  get  one  corner  true,  and 
then  a  field  of  any  size  can  be  marked  out  accurately.  Select  the  side  of 
the  field  which  is  to  serve  as  the  base  of  the  square  and  stretch  the  wire 
along  that,  say  fifteen  feet  from  the  fence,  which  will  give  room  enough 
to  turn  with  the  team  in  cultivation  or  to  drive  along  in  picking-time. 
When  the  wire  is  thus  stretched  parallel  with  the  boundary  of  the 
field,  place  a  stake  at  each  of  the  distance  tags  on  the  wire,  and  these 
stakes  will  represent  the  first  row  of  trees  or  vines.  To  find  a  square 
corner,  begin  at  the  starting  point  and  measure  off  sixty  feet  long 
this  row  with  a  tape  line,  and  put  a  temporary  stake,  then  from  the 
starting  point  measure  off  eighty  feet  as  nearly  at  a  right  angle  with 
the  first  line  as  can  be  judged  with  the  eye,  and  run  diagonally  from 
this  point  the  temporary  sixty-foot  stake.  If  the  distance  between 
these  stakes  is  one  hundred  feet,  then  the  corner  is  a  right  angle. 
Now,  having  the  outside  lines  started  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  one 
can  proceed  with  the  measuring  wire  and  lay  off  as  large  an  area  as  he 
desires,  if  care  is  taken  to  have  each  line  drawn  parallel  with  the  last, 
and  all  stakes  accurately  placed  with  the  tags  on  the  wire — providing 
the  land  is  nearly  level  or  on  a  uniform  grade.  In  locating  trees  over 
uneven  ground,  the  measurements  will  have  to  be  made  from  tree  to 
tree,  with  the  tape  line  held  as  nearly  to  a  level  as  possible. 

Rows  on  Hillsides. — Laying  off  orchard  or  vineyard  on  hillside 
too  steep  to  plow  both  ways,  there  is  advantage  sometimes  in  placing 
the  rows  up  and  down  the  hill  nearly  twice  as  far  apart  as  the  rows 
along  the  face  of  the  hill :  In  planting  trees  thus  the  advantage  to 
be  gained  is  by  enabling  you  to  keep  the  team  well  up  the  hill ;  thereby 
you  are  able  to  plow  or  cultivate  the  trees  close  on  the  lower  side  of 
the  rows.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  cultivating  the  upper  side  of  the 
rows,  for  the  plow  or  harrow  is  always  below  the  team.  If  trees  are 
planted  as  recommended,  the  team  can  be  guided  up  the  hill  a  little 
between  the  rows,  then  allowed  to  drop  downhill  one  step,  and  thus 
one  can  cultivate  the  trees  close  on  the  lower  side.  The  same  rule  will 
apply  to  vines. 


LAYING   OUT   THE   ORCHARD  91 

QUINCUNX    PLANTING 

There  is  much  confusion  in  the  use  of  this  term  in  this  State.  It 
is,  in  fact,  made  to  cover  almost  every  kind  of  arrangement  which  is 
not  on  the  square.  Webster  defines  the  term  to  mean  "the  arrangement 
of  things,  especially  of  trees,  by  five  in  a  square,  one  being  placed  in 
the  middle  of  a  square."  Trees  set  in  quincunx  would  stand  as  shown 
in  the  accompanying  diagram.  To  locate  them  in  this  form  it  is  only 
necessary  to  proceed  as  already  described  for  planting  in  squares,  by 
fixing  upon  the  base  line  and  locating  two  side  lines  to  it  at  right 
angles.  Place  the  stakes  on  these  two  lines  just  half  the  distance 
desired  between  the  trees,  and  have  the  measuring  wire  long  enough 
to  reach  across  from  one  line  to  the  other.  Near  one  end  of  the  wire 
place  another  mark  just  half  way  between  the  end  and  the  first  tree 
mark;  that  is,  if  the  trees  are  to  be  twenty- four  feet  apart  in  the 
squares,  this  additional  mark  should  be  twelve  feet  from  the  end  of 
the  wire.  Now  set  the  first  row  with  the  end  of  the  wire  at  the  corner 
stake,  and  set  stakes  at  each  twenty-four  foot  mark. 

Proceed  now  to  the  first  half-way  stake,  and  instead  of  putting  the 
end  of  the  wire  at  this  stake,  put  the  twelve-foot  mark  there.  Put 
stakes  now  at  each  twenty-four  foot  mark  again  to  locate  the  trees 
in  that  row.  In  the  next  row  put  the  end  of  the  wire  at  the  first  stake 
and  proceed  as  in  the  first  row*  Thereafter  using  the  end  of  the  wire 
and  the  twelve-foot  marks  alternately,  the  stakes  will  be  set  in  quincunx 
all  over  the  field.  If  the  midway  stakes  are  now  pulled  out  along  the 
two  side  lines,  the  remaining  stakes  show  where  the  trees  are  to  be 
placed.  This  way  of  planting  locates  about  78  per  cent  more  trees 
upon  any  given  area,  but  it  brings  the  trees  at  irregular  distances 
from  each  other,  and  except  in  furnishing  a  way  to  arrange  an  orchard 
with  permanent  and  temporary  trees,  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any 
advantage  in  it. 

PLANTING    IN    EQUILATERAL   TRIANGLES 

This  is  the  arrangement  generally  implied  when  the  term  "quin- 
cunx" is  wrongly  employed.  By  it  the  trees  are  all  equally  distant  from 
each  other,  and  thus  the  ground  divided  as  equally  as  possible.  The 
arrangement  admits  1 5  per  cent  more  trees  to  the  acre  than  the  setting 
in  squares,  and  the  ground  can  be  worked  in  three  different  directions. 
This  arrangement  also  gives  better  facilities  for  irrigation.  Objections 
are  urged  to  it,  however,  in  that  it  does  not  admit  of  thinning  trees 
by  removal  of  alternate  rows,  as  is  sometimes  desirable,  and  that  one 
has  to  take  a  zigzag  course  in  driving  through  the  orchard. 

Hexagonal  planting  places  the  trees  as  shown  in  the  accompanying 
sketch. 

It  is  termed  hexagonal  because,  as  the  figure  consists  of  six  trees 
inclosing  a  seventh,  a  line  drawn  through  the  encompassing  trees 
make  a  hexagon.  It  is  also  called  septuple  planting,  because  seven 
trees  enter  into  its  figure. 

An  orchard  can  be  laid  out  in  hexagonals  by  using  the  measuring 
wire  as  described  for  quincunx  planting  with  the  distance  and  half- 


92 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


distance  marks,  except  that  the  guide  stakes  in  the  side  rows  must  be 
placed  at  different  distances  apart.  The  following  table,  showing  the 
distance  for  side  stakes  to  reach  desired  distance  between  the  trees,  and 
the  method  of  calculating  the  number  of  trees  to  the  acre  by  the  square 
and  hexagonal  or  sextuple  arrangement : 

Trees  set  Septuple  Check-stakes  should  be 

10  feet  apart 8  feet  8  inches. 

12  feet  apart 10  feet  4  2-5  inches. 

14  feet  apart 12  feet  7/s  inches. 

16  feet  apart 13  feet  10%  inches. 

18  feet  apart 15  feet  7  inches. 

20  feet  apart 17  feet  4  inches. 

21  feet  apart 18  feet  2l/2  inches. 

22  feet  apart 19  feet  %  inches. 

24  feet  apart 20  feet  9l/2  inches. 

After  the  field  is  staked,  each  alternate  stake  in  the  check  rows  should  be 
removed.  The  following  table  will  show  the  number  of  trees  to  the  acre  by 
the  square  and  septuple  system: 

Square  Septule 

10  feet  apart 435 500 

12  feet  apart 302 347 

14  feet  apart 222 255 

16  feet  apart. 170 195 

18  feet  apart 134 154 

20  feet  apart 109 125 

21  feet  apart 99 114 

22  feet  apart 90 103 

24  feet  apart 75 86 

For  any  distance  not  given  in  the  above  table,  calculate  the  number  of  trees 
to  the  acre  by  the  square  system,  and  add  fifteen  per  cent.  This  will  give  the 
number  if  planted  septuple. 

Laying  Out  Hexagonals  With  a  Triangle. — It  is  possible  to  lay 
out  an  orchard  in  hexagonal  form  by  working  from  stake  to  stake  with 
an  equilateral  triangle  of  dimensions  equaling  the  distance  required 
between  the  trees. 


One  corner  of  triangle — all  being  made  alike. 


LAYING   OUT    WITH    TRIANGLE  93 

Take  three  strips  of  one-by-two-inch  dry  pine  or  redwood,  and  as  long  as 
you  wish  the  distance  between  the  trees.  Cut  the  strips  the  same  length,  and 
fasten  the  corners  of  the  triangle  firmly  together  by  nailing  two  pieces  of  pine 
board  six  by  six  inches. 

If  the  long  strips  are  set  u«  edgewise,  the  triangle  will  be  much  stiffer  and 
better  to  carry.  Through  the  corner  boards  bore  an  inch  hole,  making  sure  that 
the  three  sides  of  the  triangle  measure  exactly  the  same.  If  they  do,  the 
triangle  must  necessarily  be  perfect  Then  brace  it  a  little  by  nailing  a  lath 
across  each  corner,  and  it  is  readv  for  use. 

Now  split  out  some  three-quarter-inch  pins,  one  foot  long,  from  good,  straight- 
grained  redwood.  Make  one  hundred  pins  for  each  acre  you  have  to  lay  off. 

Three  persons  must  now  carry  the  triangle,  beginning  on  one  side  of  the  field, 
say  eight  feet  from  the  fence,  and  guided  the  first  time  through  by  a  line  of 
stakes.  Carry  the  triangle  with  its  side  to  the  line  of  guide  stakes  and  its  point 
in.  The  head  man  and  the  inside  man  will  stick  pins,  while  the  rear  man  will 
slip  his  corner  each  time  upon  the  pin  set  by  the  head  man. 

After  the  first  time  across,  the  man  at  the  inside  point  of  the  triangle  alone 
will  set  pins,  while  the  other  two  fit  their  corners  upon  the  pins  in  the  last  row 
set.  Thus  one  row  of  pins  only  is  set  each  time  you  go  across  the  field. 

If  the  triangle  is  exact,  and  the  first  row  of  pins  is  set  perfectly  straight,  and 
the  pins  are  always  set  perpendicularly,  everything  will  now  work  like  a  charm 
and  the  job  will  be  perfect;  and  it  is  so  simple  and  easy  that  a  man  .and  two 
small  boys  can  lay  off  from  five  to  ten  acres  in  one  day.  Remember  that  no 
guide  stakes  are  used  anywhere  after  the  first  time  through. 

The  Triangle  on  Hillside. — The  use  of  the  triangle  requires  a 
little  nicety  in  ''leveling  up"  where  the  piece  is  hilly.  By  using  a 
plumb-line  at  two  corners  of  the  triangle,  the  third  corner  resting  on 
one  of  the  stakes,  leveling  the  triangle  and  bringing  one  of  the  plumb- 
lines  over  another  stake  already  set,  the  position  of  the  other  line  would 
determine  the  position  of  the  next  stake.  This  method  has  worked 
fairly  well,  even  in  places  where  the  slope  was  sufficient  to  give  a  fall 
of  six  feet  between  the  trees,  which  were  set  twenty  feet  apart. 

Locating  in  Triangles  With  a  Chain. — Instead  of  a  wooden 
triangle,  a  chain  has  been  used  in  this  way: 

First  stretch  a  chain  along  one  side  of  the  ground,  setting  by  it  the  first  row 
of  stakes.  This  forms  the  base  line.  Have  a  piece  of  chain  just  twice  the  length 
of  the  established  distance  between  trees,  with  ample  rings  on  the  ends  and  a 
joint  in  the  middle.  Put  one  of  the  rings  over  the  first  stake  and  the  other 
over  the  second  stake.  Then  take  the  joint  in  the  middle  of  the  chain  and 
stretch  it  out  reasonably  tight.  The  wire  forms  a  letter  V,  at  the  focus  of  which 
stick  a  stake.  The  point  is  indicated  with  precision  by  the  joint  in  the  middle 
of  the  chain.  Then  take  the  ring  off  the  first  stake  and  put  it  over  the  third 
stake,  leaving  the  one  on  the  second  stake  where  it  is.  Tighten  the  chain  again, 
and  another  point  is  fixed.  Thus  continue  all  the  base  line,  shifting  the  rings 
alternately,  turning  over  the  chain  as  one  turns  a  pair  of  draughtsman's  compasses 
in  his  hand  when  spacing  off  a  line.  The  second  row  of  stakes  being  set,  set  the. 
third  row,  and  so  on  through  the  ground. 

The  suggestions  given  in  this  chapter  should  indicate  ways  enough 
to  lay  off  orchard  and  vineyard  ground  to  answer  all  needs,  though 
there  are  other  good  ways  not  mentioned.  It  is  hoped  that  the  instruc- 
tions will  not  be  regarded  as  to  explicit.  They  are  intended  for  the 
guidance  of  the  inexperienced  planter,  and  will  naturally  seem  laden 
with  detail  to  those  who  have  become  familiar  with  the  operations  by 
repeated  practice. 


CHAPTER  XI 

PLANTING  THE  TREES 

After  the  field  has  been  graded,  thoroughly  tilled  and  carefully  laid 
off  as  has  been  described,  the  next  step  is  digging  the  holes  for  the 
trees.  "How  large  shall  the  holes  be?"  He  was  a  wise  fruit  grower 
who,  when  asked  this  question,  replied,  "As  large  as  the  field."  That 
is  to  say,  it  is  much  better  to  work  the  whole  ground  over  deeply  than 
to  trust  to  deep  holes  and  shallow  working  elsewhere.  Where  this 
is  done,  the  tree  holes  need  only  be  large  enough  and  deep  enough  to 
receive  the  roots  without  folding  them  in  or  cramping  them  up.  In  a 
loose,  deep  soil,  however,  one  can  dig  extra  deep  and  broad  holes  if  he 
desires,  and  will  be  repaid  by  extra  growth  of  the  tree ;  but  in  a  close, 
tenacious  soil  a  deep  hole  is  not  only  undesirable,  but  often  positively 
a  danger  to  the  tree  unless  drainage  of  the  holes  is  provided  artificially. 
Such  holes  hold  water  like  a  tub,  and  the  loosening  of  the  soil  deeply 
facilitates  its  gathering  in  the  hole.  Many  have  found  their  trees  in 
such  places  dwindling  and- dying  because  their  roots  were  soaking  in 
water. 

Planting  on  Some  Shallow  Soils. — As  a  rule,  trees  should  have 
a  deep  soil,  and  for  these  deep,  free  loams,  California  is  famous,  but 
there  are  situations  where  very  satisfactory  growth  and  production  can 
be  had,  even  when  the  hardpan  is  near  the  surface  and  the  soil  would 
be  called  shallow.  In  such  places  it  is  the  character  of  the  subsoil  ~4 
which  warrants  the  tree  and  vine  planter  in  making  use  of  them.  Some- 
times the  hardpan  is  so  thin  and  near  the  surface  that  it  can  be  broken 
through  with  a  pick  in  digging  the  tree  hole.  Otherwise  boring  is  done. 
It  is  about  forty  years  since  Mr.  James  Rutter,  of  Florin  (on  the  "bed- 
rock" lands  near  Sacramento),  first  noticed  that  there  were  vines  here 
and  there  which  grew  exceptionally  well  and  bore  large  crops  of  fine 
fruit.  He  found  by  investigation  that  under  these  vines  there  were 
crevices  in  the  bedrock,  and  from  this  he  took  the  hint  to  bore  through 
this  hardpan  in  the  bottom  of  the  hole  where  he  placed  the  tree,  and  in 
this  way  he  gained  access  for  the  roots  to  the  subsoil  and  egress  for 
the  water  through  the  permeable  substratum.  He  bored  a  hole  two 
inches  in  diameter  into  or  through  the  bedrock  and  rammed  well  into  it 
one  and  a  half  pounds  of  black  blasting  powder.  After  exploding  this, 
he  sometimes  bored  a  three-inch  hole  about  four  feet  below  the  blast.  In- 
stead of  blasting  in  the  whole  where  the  tree  is  to  be  planted,  some  bore 
and  blast  in  the  hardpan  midway  between  the  rows,  placing  the  holes 
at  "quincunx"  with  the  trees.  The  shattering  of  the  hardpan  between 
the  trees  is  said  to  be  practicable  after  the  trees  are  growing,  and  may 
in  certain  soils  relieve  trees  which  are  suffering  for  lack  of  drainage. 
A  half-pound  cartridge  of  dynamite  has  been  successfully  used  for 
subsoil  blasting,  and  some  have  reported  in  favor  of  exploding  a  quarter- 
pound  cartridge  quite  near  to  a  tree  suffering  from  standing  water, 
putting  in  the  charge  during  the  dry  season. 

94 


BLASTING    HOLES    FOR   TREES  95 

There  are  many  situations  where  such  practice  would  be  beneficial, 
and  in  some  cases  mere  digging  or  boring  through  the  impervious 
stratum  avails  much.  There  are  spots  where  "lava  crusts"  overlie 
gravel,  and  trees  have  been  well  grown  by  cutting  holes  through  the  lava 
to  the  gravel,  filling  with  good  soil  and  planting  the  trees  in  these  holes. 
Their  roots  penetrate  to  the  gravel  stratum  and  obtain  abundant  moist- 
ure and  nutriment.  In  certain  situations  where  a  shallow  layer  of  soil 
overlies  a  heavy  clay,  trees  have  been  blown  over,  but  when  a  cut  has 
been  made  through  the  clay,  the  trees  have  rooted  deeply  and  have 
withstood  the  winds. 

Shooting  Holes  for  Trees. — Even  where  there  are  continuous 
depths  of  dense  strata,  and  not  shallow  hardpan  underlaid  by  free 
soils,  trees  can  often  be  successfully  grown  by  the  use  of  high  explosives. 
In  his  book  on  "Soils,"  Professor  Hilgard  gives  these  suggestions : 

A  permanent  loosening  of  dense  sub-strata  is  best  accomplished  by  moderate 
charges  (J/£  to  $4  Ib.)  of  No.  2  dynamite  at  a  sufficient  depth  (3  to  5  ft.). 
The  shattering  effect  of  the  explosure  will  be  sensible  to  a  depth  of  eight  feet  or 
more,  and  will  fissure  the  clay  or  hardpan  to  a  corresponding  extent  sidewise. 
If  properlv  proportioned  the  charge  will  hardly  disturb  the  surface ;  or  will  throw 
out  sufficient  earth  to  plant  the  tree  without  further  digging.  Where  labor  is 
high  priced  this  proves  the  cheapest  as  well  as  the  best  way  to  prepare  such 
ground  for  tree  planting,  and  it  has  often  been  found  that  in  course  of  time  the 
loosening  begun  by  the  powder  has  extended  through  the  mass  of  the  land  so  as 
to  permit  the  roots  to  utilize  it  fully  and  even  to  permit,  in  after  years,  of  the 
planting  of  field  crops  where  formerly  they  would  not  succeed. 

Upon  the  basis  of  these  pioneer  demonstrations,  California  claims 
priority  in  the  now  widely  prevalent  "dynamite  farming."  The  most 
minute  descriptions  of  approved  methods  are  now  available  in  the  pub- 
ILations  of  the  powder  manufacturers  and  their  traveling  demonstra- 
tors give  field  instructions  in  materials  and  appliances  to  those  who 
ask  for  them. 

It  is  still  a  question,  however,  how  for  commercial  plantings  of 
trees  and  vines  on  such  defective  soils  should  be  undertaken  while  there 
is  plenty  of  good,  deep  land  to  be  had. 

Digging  the  Holes. — Holes  for  tree  planting  may  be  dug  at  a 
leisure  time  after  the  laying  off  of  the  field,  even  though  it  is  not 
designed  to  plant  the  trees  immediately,  but  our  largest  planters  do 
not  approve  the  practice.  In  such  cases  the  sides  of  the  holes  should 
always  be  freshly  pared  off  before  the  trees  are  put  in,  because  the 
rain  and  sunshine  are  apt  to  cement  the  sides.  In  digging  holes  the 
surface  earth  should  always  be  thrown  to  one  side  and  the  lower 
soil  on  another.  The  object  of  this  is  to  have  the  top  soil  to  place 
in  direct  contact  with  the  roots  when  the  tree  is  planted,  the  lower 
soil  being  used  to  fill  up  the  hole  with. 

TREE  SETTERS 

No  matter  how  carefully  the  stakes  are  placed  in  laying  off  the 
orchard,  the  trees  will  not  easily  come  in  line  unless  some  handy  de- 
vice is  used  for  bringing  the  stem  just  in  the  place  occupied  by  the 
stake  which  was  thrown  out  in  digging.  These  devices  are  called 


96  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS  I    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

"tree-setters,"  and  there  are  a  number  of  designs.  Two  are  given, 
either  of  which  will  give  good  results.  Take  a  piece  of  board  one 
inch  thick,  four  inches  wide,  and  five  feet  long;  bore  an  inch  hole  in 
the  center,  and  one  at  each  end  at  equal  distance  from  the  center; 
then  cut  a  piece  from  one  side  of  the  board,  marked  by  a  square,  the 
corner  resting  in  the  middle  of  the  center  hole.  Make  two  stakes, 
each  one  foot  long,  that  will  easily  pass  through  the  end  holes.  Place 
the  center  of  this  board  against  the  stake,  where  the  tree  is  to  be 


o 


Bar  for  Tree  Setting 

planted;  push  the  stakes  into  the  ground  through  the  holes  in  the 
ends,  then  lift  the  board  from  position  and  proceed  to  dig  the  hole. 
When  dug,  replace  the  board  over  the  end  stakes  in  its  former  position, 
then  plant  the  tree  with  its  trunk  resting  against  the  center  notch  in 
the  board,  and  you  have  it  in  just  the  right  place. 

Another  setter  is  in  the  form  of  a  triangle:  Take  three  pieces  of 
plain  one-inch  stuff  three  to  four  inches  wide  and  four  feet  long, 
and  nail  them  together,  forming  a  three-cornered  frame,  letting  the 
ends  project  sufficiently  to  form  a  corner,  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 
Next  make  a  couple  of  smooth,  hard  stakes,  well  sharpened,  and 
about  a  foot  or  sixteen  inches  in  length.  When  you  are  ready  to  set 
your  trees,  place  the  frame  flat  upon  the  ground  with  one  corner 
firmly  and  fairly  against  the  stake  which  marks  the  place  where  the 


\> 


Triangular   tree   setter. 

tree  is  to  stand.  Now  in  the  other  two  corners  stick  the  stakes  al- 
ready prepared  for  the  purpose.  This  done,  pull  up  the  stake  against 
which  the  frame  was  first  placed  —  the  one  indicating  a  place  for  a 
tree  —  remove  the  frame,  being  careful  in  doing  so  not  to  move  the 
other  two  stakes,  which  must  be  left  to  be  used  while  setting  the 
tree.  After  the  hole  is  dug  and  everything  ready  for  setting  the  tree, 
again  place  the  frame  against  the  two  standing  stakes,  let  the  tree 
drop  into  the  other  corner,  which  will  help  support  it  while  the  dirt 


CHOOSING   TREES    FOR    PLANTING  97 

is  being  placed  about  the  roots ;  and  this  will  bring  the  tree  exactly 
where  the  stake  was  originally.  If  the  stakes  are  properly  put  in  line, 
so  will  bej  the  trees. 

These  setters  are  described  as  they  are  used  when  the  hole  is  dug 
and  the  tree  set  at  the  same  time.  Such  is  the  ordinary  practice  in 
planting.  If  one  wishes  to  dig  the  holes  beforehand,  it  is  necessary 
to  furnish  more  stakes,  as  two  have  to  be  left  beside  each  hole  to  mark 
the  position  of  the  setter  when  the  planting  is  done.  Besides  its  use 
in  bringing  a  tree  into  line,  the  tree  setter  enables  one  to  judge  of 
the  depth  of  setting  as  compared  with  the  surface  of  the  surrounding 
ground.  It  is  not  easy  to  determine  this  with  the  eye  if  the  hole  be  a 
large  one.  Where  the  measuring  wire  is  used  to  set  the  stakes,  it 
is  sometimes  stretched  across  again  after  the  holes  are  dug,  the  tags 
on  the  wire  thus  indicating  the  places  for  the  trees  of  the  whole  row. 
The  trouble  with  this  practice  is  the  bother  >of  having  the  wire  in  the 
way  while  rilling  and  tramping  the  earth  around  the  roots. 


SELECTING   TREES 

In  the  purchase  of  trees  it  is  well  to  patronize  nurserymen  in  your 
own  district,  providing  they  are  honest  and  intelligent  men,  who  keep 
themselves  informed  as  they  should  about  their  business.  The  advice 
of  such  a  local  nurseryman  is  often  of  great  value  to  the  newcomer, 
for  he  will  know  by  his  experience  and  observation  much  about  the 
adaptations  of  fruits  and  varieties  thereof  to  the  region.  If,  for  any 
reason,  local  nurseries  do  not  meet  your  needs,  seek  some  well-estab- 
lished nursery  at  a  distance.  It  is  much  safer  to  deal  directly  with 
the  grower  of  the  trees  than  to  patronize  traveling  agents.  Where, 
however,  these  agents  are  the  accredited  representatives  of  well-known 
establishments,  they  may  save  the  planter  time  and  trouble  by  taking 
his  order  for  him.  So-called  "tree-peddlers,"  who  are  jobbers  in 
trees  and  in  too  many  cases  send  you  refuse  trees  which  they  pick  up 
cheap  wherever  they  can,  and  label  them  to  suit,  without  respect  to 
truth  or  honesty,  should  be  resolutely  avoided,  no  matter  what  in- 
ducements or  blandishments  they  may  offer. 

The  California  legislature  of  1907  passed  a  law  making  it  unlaw- 
ful to  sell  fruit  trees  representing  them  to  be  a  certain  kind  and 
afterwards  to  deliver  trees  of  a  different  kind.  To  do  this  is  a  mis- 
demeanor punishable  by  fine  and  imprisonment.  Action  may  be  begun 
at  any  time  within  seven  years  after  the  date  of  delivery  .of  such  trees.* 

It  is  desirable,  if  possible,  to  visit  the  nursery  and  see  the  stock 
which  is  to  be  furnished.  The  trees  should  have  a  good  healthy  look, 
with  clean  bark,  and  of  size  enough  to  indicate  a  good,  free  growth. 
The  matter  of  size  is  not  the  only  point  to  consider,  for  size  of  the 
top  is  not  so  desirable  as  well-matured  wood  and  plenty  of  roots. 
Stunted  trees  are  not,  as  a  rule,  worth  planting.  There  are  cases, 
however,  in  which,  by  extra  cultivation  in  good  soil,  fine  trees  have 
been  grown  even  from  "culls"  from  the  nursery.  The  best  rule  is  to 

*Statutes    and   amendments   to   the    Codes,    1907;    chapter    229. 


98  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

select  trees  of  good  medium  size,  straight  and  healthy.  During  the 
digging  season,  ask  to  see  samples  of  the  roots  as  well  as  the  tops, 
and  do  not  purchase  trees  unless  the  roots  are  healthy  looking  and  free 
from  knots  or  excrescences.  Gnarly  and  knotty  roots  in  the  young 
tree  are  a  sure  sign  of  insect  pests  or  of  unhealthy  growth,  and  plant- 
ing such  trees  has  occasioned  immense  loss.  Many  have  been  led 
into  purchasing  poor  trees  because  they  may  be  had  cheap.  A  tree 
selected  merely  because  it  is  cheap  may  prove  the  most  expensive 
thing  a  man  can  put  in  the  ground. 

Guarding  Against  Insects. — The  top  of  the  tree  should  be  care- 
fully examined  to  discover  scale  insects  if  there  be  any.  For  this 
purpose  a  hand-magnifier  should  be  used.  Such  a  glass  should  always 
be  in  the  fruit  grower's  pocket.  One  can  be  bought  at  any  optician's 
for  a  dollar  or  two,  which  will  fold  into  its  case  so  as  to  be  carried 
without  scratching.  Our  nurserymen,  by  forsaking  old  infested  loca- 
tions and  obtaining  new  ground,  now  sell  much  cleaner  trees  than 
they  did  years  ago.  But  still  it  is  well  to  be  always  on  the  watch  for 
pests.  Disinfection  of  nursery  stock  is  now  officially  provided.  De- 
tails of  treatment  will  be  given  in  the  chapter  on  injurious  insects. 

TAKING   TREES    FROM    THE    NURSERY 

Trees  should  be  carefully  taken  from  the  nursery  rows,  so  as  to 
obtain  a  good  amount  of  small  branching  roots.  In  lifting  from  the 
home  nursery,  digging  with  well-sharpened  spades,  which  will  sever 
the  long  roots  cleanly,  is  perhaps  the  best  method.  In  the  large 
nurseries  tree  diggers  are  generally  used.  They  have  two  revolving 
coulters  which  cut  through  the  surface  soil  each  side  of  the  trees,  and 
a  sharp,  curved  blade,  which  is  drawn  through  the  ground  under  the 
trees,  loosening  the  soil  and  severing  the  long  roots  cleanly.  The 
tree  is  then  easily  lifted,  and  has  generally  a  much  better  root  system 
than  by  the  old  style  of  "plowing  out,"  which  broke  off  so  many  of 
the  small  roots  and  lacerated  the  larger  ones.  Whether  the  tap  root 
should  be  retained  or  not  is  not  worth  discussing  on  theoretical 
grounds.  As  a  matter  of  fact  and  practice,  the  tap  root  cuts  no  figure 
at  all  in  California  orchard  planting,  although  the  discussion  of  the 
question  was  formerly  very  warm  in  this  State,  and  is  still  occasion- 
ally heard.  It  is  important,  however,  that  the  planter  should  have 
as  many  small  lateral  roots  as  he  can  get.  The  small  fibrous  roots 
are  usually  of  little  account,  as  they  seldom  survive  transplanting, 
and  it  is  better  to  clip  them  away,  if  the  time  can  be  afforded,  as  they 
often  prevent  the  proper  close  contact  of  the  soil  with  the  larger  roots. 
Cutting  back  all  roots  to  short  stubs  at  the  base  of  the  stem  has  suc- 
ceeded in  some  instances  in  California  on  moist  lowlands,  but  longer 
roots  are  far  safer  in  the  deep  drying  of  the  surface  layer  which  is  to 
be  expected  in  this  State. 

The  roots,  after  lifting,  should  not  be  permitted  to  dry.  Hence, 
in  hauling  from  the  nursery  to  the  farm,  the  trees  should  be  well 
covered  with  wet  straw  and  old  sacks,  or,  if  shipped  from  the  nursery 
to  distant  points,  should  be  well  packed.  The  best  way  to  pack  trees 


CARE   OF    TREES    BOFORE    PLANTING  99 

is,  undoubtedly,  to  box  them  in  with  wet  straw,  but  it  costs  less  and 
they  usually  carry  well  considerable  distances  if  carefully  bundled 
with  tules  (dry  reed  stems),  the  roots  packed  in  wet  straw,  and  the 
packing  and  covering  bound  down  tight  with  ropes  to  prevent  drying 
out. 

Attention  should  be  paid  to  hauling  away  trees  from  the  railway  _ 
stations  as  soon  as  possible  after  arrival.  It  is  not  uncommon  for 
shipments  to  lie  on  the  station  platforms  for  days,  often  when  a  des- 
iccating north  wind  is  blowing.  Such  treatment  soon  takes  the  life 
out  of  the  trees,  and  often,  no  doubt,  the  nurseryman  is  blamed  for 
failure  of  trees;  which  have  suffered  some  such  neglect  as  this,  either 
from  transportation  companies  or  from  the  purchasers. 

Heeling  In. — On  arrival  at  the  farms,  trees  should  be  "heeled  in" 
as  soon  as  possible;  even  if  it  is  the  intention,  to  plant  at  once,  heel 
them  in  just  the  same,  for  delays  arise  often  in  the  most  unexpected 
manner.  To  heel  in,  dig  a  trench  or  plow  a  deep  furrow,  or  a  double 
furrow,  in  light,  moist,  but  well-drained  soil ;  put  in  the  trees  singly 
side  by  side,  removing  all  the  packing  material  carefully  from  the 
roots,  laying  the  tops  all  one  way,  and  then  shovel  the  earth  over 
the  roots  until  they  are  well  covered  with  loose  soil,  and  be  sure  that 
the  soil  sifts  down  well  between  the  roots.  Ordinarily  this  treatment 
will  hold  the  trees  in  good  condition  for  a  considerable  time  if  need 
be.  If,  however,  they  have  become  dry  before  arrival,  the  bundles 
should  be  thoroughly  drenched  with  water  before  heeling  in.  In 
extreme  cases,  where  ,the  top  shows  drying  by  shrinking  and  shrivel- 
ing of  the  bark,  the  trees  should  be  drenched,  and  then  they  should 
be  covered  root  and  top  with  earth  for  two  or  three  days,  when,  if  the 
trouble  has  not  gone  too  far,  the<  bark  will  recover  its  smoothness  and 
plumpness.  It  should  be  very!  seldom,  however,  that  a  lot  of  trees  is 
allowed  to  get  into  such  condition  by  neglect.  In  heeling  in  it  will 
be  found  a  great  convenience  and  a  safeguard  against  possible  con- 
fusion by  loss  of  labels,  if  each  variety  as  taken  from  the  packing  is 
placed  by  itself  in  the  trench.  Nurserymen  generally  attach  a  label 
to  each  small  bundle,  if  the  trees  are  of  several  varieties,  and  the 
novice  is  apt  to  lose  all  track  of- his  sorts  when  heeling*  in  the  trench, 
unless  he  heels  in  each  kind  by  itself,  leaving  the  nurseryman's  label 
to  mark  the  whole  lot  of  each  kind. 

If  the  planter  has  his  own  ideas  of  after-treatment  of  his  trees, 
or  if  he  is  a  beginner  and  desires  to  adopt  the  suggestions  which  will 
be  laid  down  in  this  book,  he  should  insist  that  the  nurseryman  shall 
not  trim  up  or  cut  back  the  trees  before  packing.  Have  the  trees 
packed  just  as  they  are  lifted  from  the  ground.  The  work  towards 
the  shaping  of  the  tree  should  be  done  after  it  is  planted  in  the  x 
orchard. 

PLANTING   THE    ORCHARD 

The  young  deciduous  tree  should  be  dormant  before  being  re- 
moved from  the  nursery  row,  and  if  its  leaves  have  fallen  it  is  good 
evidence  of  its  dormancy.  Such,  however,  is  the  effect  of  the  climate 


100  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS  I    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

of  California,  more  apparent  in  some  years  than  others,  and  with 
some  kinds  of  fruit  than  others,  and  the  young  tree  retains  a  small 
part  of  its  activity  very  late,  and  in  such  cases  it  is  not  practicable  to 
wait  for  the  complete  falling  of  the  leaves.  Sometimes  for  convenience 
of  work,  the  trees  have  to  be  lifted  before  this  takes  place,  and  in 
such  case  it  is  desirable  to  remove  the  leaves  to  lessen  evaporation. 
It  is  probably  better  to  transplant  in  this  condition  for  the  sake  of 
early  setting  in  its  new  position  than  to  wait  for  all  the  leaves  to 
drop.  This  statement  is  not  intended  to  include  nursery  stock  which 
is  kept  growing  late  in  the  season  by  late  irrigation.  Such  trees  are 
not  always  desirable. 

Time  to  Plant. —  The  best  time  to  plant  deciduous  trees  in  Cali- 
fornia is  soon  after  the  early  rains  have  deeply  moistened  the  ground. 
It  is  not  desirable,  however,  to  have  a  stratum  of  dry  earth  below. 
This  can  be  removed  by  irrigation  when  available.  Early  planting 
of  common  orchard  fruits  is  of  advantage  for  several  reasons.  First, 
an  early-planted  tree  gets  the  full  benefit  of  the  season's  rainfall, 
whatever  it  may  be,  and  a  late-planted  tree,  in  a  year  with  short  rain- 
fall, is  apt  to  suffer  during  its  first  season's  growth,  unless  it  can  be 
irrigated.  The  two  main  things  to  observe  are  the  dormancy  of  the 
tree  and  the  proper  condition  of  the  soil,  and  both  of  these  are  most 
apt  to  coincide  in  many  parts  of  California  about  the  first  of  Janu- 
ary, but  in  heavy  loams  in  region  of  large  rainfall,  the  soil  may 
then  be  too  cold  and  wet.  There  will,  however,  be  some  variation 
from  year  to  year,  and  different  parts  of  the  State  disagree  as  to  the 
date.  Hence,  the  general  rule  must  be  based  on  conditions,  that 
of  the  tree  and  that  of  the  soil.  If  the  novice  can  not  judge  these 
for  himself,  he  must  get  the  advice  of  some  one  of  experience  in  the 
locality. 

The  dormant  period  of  a  tree  in  California,  as  has  been  stated  in 
another  connection,  is  very  short.  As  many  cold-climate  annual  plants 
become  perennial  here,  so  our  deciduous  trees,  in  comparatively  frost- 
less  portions  of  the  State,  evince  a  tendency  to  become  evergreen. 
The  period  of  dormancy  in  the  root  is  also  shorter  than  the  inactivity 
of  the  top.  Trees  transplanted  early  are  found  to  have  their  root 
wounds  calloused  over  and  new  rootlets  considerably  advanced  before 
the  buds  swell.  Therefore,  by  early  planting  the  tree  begins  soon 
to  take  hold  upon  the  soil,  the  latter  being  well  settled  around  it  by 
rains,  which  often  follow  early  planting,  and  the  high  winds,  which 
are  apt  to  come  in  the  spring  in  some  parts  of  the  State,  find  the  tree 
well  anchored  and  ready  to  maintain  itself. 

Again,  the  proper  condition  of  soil,  if  not  seized  at  its  first  coming, 
may  not  recur  until  after  the  great  storms  of  the  winter  are  over, 
say  in  February  or  March  (in  most  parts  of  the  State),  and  then  often 
the  buds  are  bursting  into  bloom  and  leaf.  Planting  when  the  soil  is 
water-soaked  and  cold  is  very  undesirable,  for  in  such  condition  it 
cannot  be  properly  disposed  about  the  roots,  the  inactive  roots  may 
begin  to  decay,  and  trees  moved  at  this  period  are  apt  to  show  their 
dislike  of  the  treatment.  If  the  work  has  been  delayed  unavoidably, 
so  that  early  planting  cannot  be  done,  it  is  better  to  keep  the  trees 


HOW    TO    PLANT    FRUIT    TREES  101 

heeled  in  until  the  proper  soil  condition  returns,  even  if  it  be  rather 
late,  for  a  little  extra  attention  to  cultivation  for  retention  of  moisure 
will  pull  through  a  late-planted  tree. 

These  remarks  are  of  very  wide  application  in  this  State,  but  there 
are  exceptions.  In  our  high  altitudes,  where  the  climate  approaches 
Eastern  conditions  in  cold  and  snowfall,  practice  in  planting  will  also 
approximate  Eastern  methods.  In  regions  of  very  heavy  rainfall  and 
on  the  upper  coast  where  the  rainy  season  and  moisture  from  fogs 
are  prolonged  late  in  the  spring,  late  planting  is  safer  and  surer  than 
in  the  warmer,  drier  parts  of  the  State. 

Another  consideration,  too,  is  the  slope  of  the  land  to  be  planted. 
Our  hillside  fruit  growers  in  regions  of  heavy  winter  storms  some- 
times plant  slopes,  which,  if  plowed  deep  in  the  fall,  are  apt  to  wash 
badly  during  the  heavy  winter  rains.  On  such  slopes  it  is  better  to 
plow  late  in  the  winter,  after  the  heavy  storms  are  over,  and  plant 
when  the  soil  has  become  warm  and  mellow. 


THE    OPERATION    OF    PLANTING 

Tree  planting  should  be  carefully  and  well  done,  but  it  need  not 
necessarily  be  slowly  done.  With  a  kind  soil  deeply  worked  and 
just  in  the  right  condition  for  planting,  trees  may  be  put  in  well  and 
rapidly.  Two  men  work  together  at  a  decided  advantage.  Using 
the  straight  "tree-setter,"  which  has  already  been  described,  one 
takes  each  end,  and  as  soon  as  the  center  notch  encloses  the  tree 
stake,  the  setter  stakes  are  pushed  into  the  soil,  the  "setter"  is  laid 
aside,  and  the  two  men,  taking  up  their  shovels  or  spades,  begin  first 
around  the  outside  of  the  hole,  throwing  all  the  surface  dirt 
on  the  same  side  of  the  hole  and  leaving  the  tree  stake  to  be  thrown 
out  last,  because  its  remaining  serves  to  center  the  hole.  The  lower 
soil  is  now  thrown  to  the  other  side  of  the  hole,  and  when  depth 
enough  is  reached,  the  soil  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole  is  loosened 
up  to  the  depth  of  a  shovel  thrust,  without  removing  it  from  the  hole. 
A  shovelful  or  two  of  the  surface  soil  is  thrown  into  the  center  of 
the  hole,  being  allowed  to  remain  higher  in  the  center,  because  this 
generally  furnishes  a  cushion  about  the  natural  shape  of  the  under 
surface  of  the  root  system  of  the  tree.  Now  replace  the  tree-setter 
upon  its  end  pegs,  let  one  man  hold  the  tree  with  its  stem  in  the  central 
notch  in  the  setter,  and  while  the  other  man  shovels  in  the  surface  earth 
rather  slowly  at  first,  the  man  who  holds  the  tree  with  one  hand  will 
spread  out  the  roots,  pulverize  and  pack  the  earth  around  them,  being 
sure  that  no  cavities  are  left  under  any  of  the  roots,  but  that  their 
surfaces  everywhere  come  into  contact  with  the  soil,  and  that  they 
spread  out  as  widely  as  possible.  The  earth  is  being  continuously 
put  in  by  the  shoveler,  and  when  the  roots  are  covered  the  planter 
steps  in  the  hole  and  carefully  firms'  the  soil  down  upon  the  roots  by 
tramping  (especially  at  the  cut  ends  of  the  roots  around  the  outer 
side  of  the  hole),  at  the  same  time  judging  of  the  perpendicularity  of 
the  tree  with  his  eye.  When  this  is  done,  both  men  use  their  shovels 
and  fill  up  the  hole  with  the  earth  taken  from  below,  being  sure  to  leave 


102  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS  I    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

the  last  few  inches  at  the  surface  pulverized,  but  untramped,  unless 
the  soil  be  very  light  so  that  tramping  will  not  overpack  it.  Some  one 
said  long  ago  that  one  should  not  plant  a  tree  as  he  does  a  post, 
ramming  down  the  earth  to  the  very  top  of  the  hole.  Many  trees  are 
doubtless  ruined  by  over  zeal  in  this  respect. 

The  shovel  has  been  mentioned  frequently  as  the  tool  to  be  used 
in  planting.  Where  the  soil  is  deeply  plowed,  well  worked,  and  free 
from  stone,  the  shovel  is  the  most  rapid  tool.  Under  other  conditions 
the  long-handled  spade,  and  in  some  cases  the  long-handled  spading 
fork,  serves  admirably  in  loosening  the  soil  at  the  bottom  of  the  holes 
and  in  breaking  up  lumps  while  rilling  in.  One  man  with  a  shovel  or 
spade,  and  the  other  with  the  fork,  make  a  good  combination  in  this 
respect. 

Planting  in  a  Furrow. — A  practice  which  has  been  largely  fol- 
lowed in  the  Sacramento  Valley  and  which  attains  greatest  speed  and 
cheapness  consists  in  laying  off  as  described  in  the  preceding  chapter, 
and  then  proceeding  with  a  heavy  listing  plow,  followed  by  a  subsoil 
plow  in  the  same  furrow.  The  trees  are  then  rapidly  set  with  the 
least  digging.  This  is  all  done  before  the  field  is  plowed.  Plowing 
immediately  follows  planting.  The  advantages  of  this  method  are 
ease  of  work  on  firm  ground  instead  of  a  plowed  surface,  and  escape 
of  injury  to  this  surface  by  men  and  teams  in  planting  after  plowing. 
It  does  not,  however,  prepare  the  land  so  well  as  deep  working  before 
laying  out. 

RANDOM  SUGGESTIONS 

The  roots  of  every  tree  should  be  examined  before  planting.  All 
large  root  ends  should  have  a  fresh,  clean  cut  with  a  sharp  knife  or 
shears.  Make  a  slanting  cut  with  the  cut  surface  on  the  underside 
of  the  root.  Where  a  root  is  mangled  or  bruised,  it  should  in  most 
cases  be  cut  back  to  a  sound  place. 

The  wound  made  by  the  cutting  away  of  the  seedling  stock  above 
the  bud  should  be  at  the  north  or,  northeast,  in  order  that  this  weak 
point  may  be  shaded  as  much  as  possible  from  the  afternoon  sun. 

If  the  roots  of  young  trees  grow  more  to  one  side  than  the  other, 
place  the  strongest  roots  toward  the  prevailing  wind. 

The  use  of  water  to  settle  the  earth  around  the  roots  is  sometimes 
desirable  in  sections  where  the  rainfall  is  light  or  uncertain.  Pour  in 
four  or  five  gallons  from  the  water  wagon  after  the  hand  work  in 
spreading  the  roots  and  in  pressing  the  soil  under  and  around  them 
has  been  done  and  the  hole  partly  filled.  When  the  water  has  soaked 
away,  fill  the  hole  with  fine  earth  without  tramping.  In  irrigated  dis- 
tricts leading  the  water  along  the  line  of  trees  in  a  furrow  to  settle 
the  ground  at  planting  is  a  good  practice.  It  is  almost  essential  in  the 
planting  of  evergreen  trees  which  are  best  moved  during  the  dry 
season.  In  early  planting  in  parts  of  the  State  where  the  rainfall  is 
abundant,  there  may  be  no  need  of  water-settling;  puddling  the  roots, 
or  dipping  them  in  thin  mud  and  planting  them  with  this  mud  adher- 
•  ing,  is  governed  by  much  the  same  conditions  as  water-settling ;  it  may 


MANURE    IN    TREE   PLANTING  103 

insure  growth  of  the  tree  when  otherwise  it  might  be  seriously  injured 
by  drouth.  With  puddled  roots  especial  care  should  also  be  taken  to 
leave  the  surface  loose  to  prevent  evaporation.  In  making  puddle, 
use  loamy  soil  and  never  adobe,  for  in  dry  time  the  latter  will  bake 
around  the  roots  and  may  kill  the  tree. 

The  Use  of  Manure. — Never  put  manure  in  the  hole  with  the 
tree.  Sometimes  the  injunction  is,  Never  put  anything  but  well  rotted 
manure  in  the  hole.  It  is  better  to  put  in  none  of  any  kind.  Manure 
should  be  spread  upon  the  ground  after  planting.  The  rains  then  leach 
it  out  and  it  may  be  turned  under  in  the  spring  plowing.  There  are, 
however,  light  soils  in  the  drier  parts  of  the  State  where  turning  under 
manure  in  the  spring  is  a  disadvantage,  as  it  makes  the  soil  too  porous 
and  facilitates  evaporation.  On  such  soils,  extra  care  should  be  taken 
to  have  the  manure  thoroughly  decomposed  by  composting,  as  will 
be  described  in  the  chapter  on  fertilizers,  and  all  applications  should  be  • 
made  either  late  in  the  spring  to  act  as  a  mulch  in  the  summer,  or  if  a 
mulch  is  not  thought  desirable,  apply  the  manure  in  the  fall  before  the 
first  rains,  so  that  it  may  be  turned  under  at  the  first  plowing  and  have 
the  whole  winter  for  disintegration.  In  this  dry  climate  there  is  often 
misapprehension,  especially  among  newcomers,  as  to  what  is  well- 
rotted  manure.  They  take  the  scrapings  of  the  corral,  which  have  been 
trampled  and  pulverized,  but  which,  having  been  kept  dry,  have  never 
rotted.  When  this  is  put  in  the  holes  with  the  tree  and  then  moistened 
by  rainfall  or  irrigation,  it  will  burn  the  tree,  the  first  sign  of  injury 
being  the  drying  up  of  the  leaves.  It  is,  on  the  whole,  safest  and  best 
to  put  nothing  but  well-pulverized  surface  soil  around  the  roots  of  the 
young  tree. 

Depth  of  Planting. — The  depth  to  which  trees  should  be  set  has 
always  been  a  matter  of  discord  among  the  planters.  The  safest  rule 
under  ordinary  circumstances  is  to  get  the  tree  as  nearly  as  possible 
the  same  depth  it  stood  in  the  nursery  row ;  that  is,  so  as  to  have  it 
stand  that  way  when  the  ground  has  settled,  or  the  surface  returned  by 
cultivation  to  its  normal  level.  In  planting  in  loose  soil  in  the  drier 
parts  of  the  State,  it  is  often  desirable  to  plant  rather  low,  because 
several  inches  depth  of  the  surface  soil  become  dry,  and  the  roots  should 
be  well  in  the  moist  layer.  But  if  irrigation  is  to  be  practised,  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  water  level  will  rise  when  the  soil  is  saturated 
and  deep-planted  trees  are  apt  to  suffer.  The  experience  of  recent 
years  is  decidedly  against  deep  planting,  which  used  to  be  advised 
because  of  our  dry  climate.  Thousands  of  trees  have  been  ruined  by 
planting  too  deep  except  in  light  sandy  soil. 

Speed  in  Plalnting. — On  good  soil,  well  prepared,  trees  can  be 
put  in  rapidly  and  the  job  still  be  well  done.  It  is  reported  that  on  one 
occasion,  in  planting  almonds,  twenty  men  finished  sixty-four  acres 
from  Friday  noon  to  Wednesday  night,  placing  the  stakes,  digging  the 
holes,  and  planting  the  trees.  This  would  be  almost  three-quarters  of 
an  acre  per  day  per  man.  In  planting  peaches  and  apricots  an  average 
of  one  hundred  trees  per  day  to  the  man  has  been  attained.  On  the 
mellow  loam,  in  another  case,  the  average  was  one  hundred  and  twenty- 


104  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

five  trees  to  the  man,  digging  holes  two  feet  square  in  land  which  had 
been  plowed  twelve  inches  deep.  Such  work  is  only  possible  on  good 
soil,  well  prepared,  and  by  men  who  work  well  together. 

Mapping  and  Labeling. — Where  mixed  varieties  of  fruit  are 
planted,  the  orchard  should  be  mapped  as  soon  as  the  trees  are  set.  A 
good  durable  map  is  made  of  the  glazed  muslin,  such  as  carpenters  and 
architects  use  for  their  drawings.  The  map  can  be  easily  drawn  to  a 
scale  by  using  a  fraction  of  an  inch  to  represent  a  foot.  After  the  map 
is  made,  it  can  be  rolled  on  a  broom  stick  and  easily  preserved.  With 
such  a  record,  the  grower  need  not  care  what  becomes  of  the  labels, 
as  he  can  locate  a  variety  at  any  time  by  its  row  and  tree  number.  If, 
however,  one  desires  labels,  let  them  be  made  in  .this  way:  Take  a 
piece  of  common  sheet  zinc  five  inches  wide.  Across  this,  cut  pieces 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide  at  one  end  and  tapering  to  a  point  at 
the  other.  Near  the  wider  end  write  plainly  with  a  common  lead-pencil 
the  name  of  the  variety  ^  This  will  get  brighter  by  exposure  to  the 
weather.  The  small  end  may  be  coiled  around  the  branch  of  the  tree ;  it 
will  yield  as  the  tree  grows  and  will  do  no  injury.  Such  labels  will  last 
for  a  long  time.  Labels  attached  by  a  cord  or  wire  should  be  removed 
as  soon  as  the  trees  are  set,  for  they  are  apt  to  be  forgotten  and  the 
tree  seriously  injured  by  the  cutting  in  of  the  ligature.  Even  when 
labels  are  used  the  map  is  the  only  surety,  because  any  kind  of  a  label 
is  apt  to  be  lost  by  accident  or  through  malice  or  mischief  of  intruders. 

Mulching. — Although  early  planted  trees  on  'deep  soils  in  re- 
gions of  sufficient  rainfall  need  only  good  cultivation,  after  planting, 
there  are  cases  in  which  mulching  is  desirable.  Various  light  mate- 
rials may  be  used  for  a  mulch,  but  nothing  is  better  than  well-rotted 
straw,  in  which  fermentation  has  killed  all  weed  seed.  Apply  it  to  a 
distance  of  two  feet  around  the  tree,  arid  to  a  depth  of  not  less  than  six 
inches.  It  is  best  done  as  soon  as  the  tree  is  planted,  and  is  to  be 
especially  recommended  when  late  planting  is  practiced.  Even  in  lo- 
calities of  light  rainfall,  if  the  trees  are  well  mulched  early  in  the  winter, 
irrigation  may  be  unnecessary  for  the  young  deciduous  tree.  Trees 
planted  very  late  in  the  spring  may,  by  using  great  care  and  mulching 
well,  make  as  great  a  growth  as  those  set  out  early  in  winter.  This 
should  not  be  an  excuse  for  late  planting,  but  where  late  planting  is 
necessary,  mulching  will  help  the  trees  to  pull  through.  It  is  a  far 
easier  way  of  keeping  the  ground  moist  than  by  irrigating,  but  is  not 
a  substitute  for  it  where  systematic  irrigation  is  necessary,  though  irri- 
gation may  often  be  lessened,  and  in  some  cases  obviated,  by  extra  cul- 
tivation or  mulching,  at  least  until  the  trees  come  into  bearing. 

Guarding  Against  Sunburn. — Newly-set  trees  should  be  pro- 
tected against  sunburn.  This  can  be  easily  done  by  winding  strips 
of  burlap  from  old  grain  sacks  spirally  around  the  stems  beginning 
just  below  the  ground  surface  to  the  points  where  the  young  shoots 
will  appear.  When  these  start  the  strip  can  be  loosened  and  rewound 
so  as  to  protect  the  bark  between  the  shoots.  The  top  can  be  fastened 
with  a  stitch  or  two  with  a  twine  needle.  Manufactured  "tree  pro- 
tectors" of  paper  or  rushes  which  are  readily  adjusted  around  the  trees 


PROTECTION    AGAINST    SUNBURN  105 

are  now  largely  sold.  Whitewash  made  according  to  the  formula  at 
the  close  of  Chapter  IX  is  a  good  protection  from  sunburn.  For 
young  trees,  however,  it  should  be  made  with  air-slacked  lime,  which 
has  lost  some  of  its  causticity.  Another  whitewash,  which  has  been 
largely  used  for  young  trees,  consists  of  four  ounces  of  whale  oil  soap 
dissolved  in  each  gallon  of  water,  Spanish  whiting  being  stirred  in  to 
give  the  solution  a  paint-like  consistency.  Millions  of  trees  have  per- 
ished in  this  State,  and  as  many  more  been  condemned  to  sickly  lives, 
because  of  sunburn,  and  borers  which  seek  the  injured  bark  for  en- 
trance. Pruning  has  much  to  do  with  saving  trees  from  this  evil,  as 
will  be 'shown  in  the  proper  connection,  but  in  the  hotter  parts  of  the 
State,  the  first  precaution  should  be  to  shade  the  bark  of  the  young 
tree  with  some  artificial  protection.  The  use  of  white  lead  and  oil  paint 
has,  however,  seriously  injured  young  bark. 

Cutting  Back  at  Planting. — Whatever  idea  the  grower  may  have 
as  to  shaping  his  tree,  it  must  be  cut  back  when  planted.  Lifting  from 
the  nursery  has  removed  a  considerable  part  of  the  root  system  of  the 
young  tree  and  the  top  must  be  reduced  accordingly.  The  planter  who 
dislikes  to  sacrifice  the  fine  top  will  sacrifice  future  growth  and  vigor 
by  retaining  it.  The  tree  may  struggle  through  and  regain  strength, 
but  it  will  for  years  be  smaller  than  if  it  had  been  properly  cut  back 
at  planting.  If  the  moisture  supply  should  be  short  the  tree  may  die 
the  first  summer  which  would  have  survived  if  differently  treated  at 
planting.  The  manner  of  cutting  back  depends  somewhat  upon  the 
style  of  pruning  to  be  followed  afterward,  as  will  be  considered  in  the 
next  chapter. 


CHAPTER  XII 

* 

PRUNING  TREES  AND  THINNING  FRUIT 

It  is  not  intended  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of  the  general  theories 
of  pruning1.  The  reader  desiring  to  pursue  them  is  referred  to  the 
abundant  literature  on  the  subject  in  Eastern  and  European  treatises. 
The  effort  to  approve  or  condemn  these  theories  by  considering  them 
in  the  light  of  California  experience  and  observation  might  lead  to 
interesting  conclusions,  but  it  has  no  place  in  a  work  aiming  merely  at 
an  exposition  of  what  appears  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  practice  in 
California  fruit  growing.  It  will  be  found  that  this  practice  varies 
somewhat  in  the  different  regions  of  California,  sometimes  in  degree, 
sometimes  in  kind,,  because  of  different  local  conditions,  and  it  might  be 
found  that  nearly  all  reasonable  theories  of  pruning  could  be  verified 
in  California  experience. 

Pruning  in  California  is  at  present  almost  exclusively  a  shaping  pro- 
cess. Our  fruit  trees  are  naturally  so  prone  to  bear  fruit  that  pruning 
to  produce  fruitfulness  is  seldom  thought  of,  and  still  more  rarely 
practiced,  while  pruninng  to  reduce  bearing  wood,  and  thus  decrease 
the  burden  of  the  tree,  is  quite  widely  done,  to  take  the  place,  in  part, 
of  thinning  out  the  fruit.  Pruning  to  restore  vigor  to  the  tree,  as  in 
cutting  it  back  to  induce  a  new  wood  growth,  is  also  rather  a  rare  pro- 
ceeding, but  probably  could  be  much  more  widely  employed  to  ad- 
vantage. We  prune,  then,  for  shape  and  for  the  many  practical  ad- 
vantages which  adhere  in  the  form  now  prevailing  in  California 
orchards.  Some  of  these  advantages  are  peculiar  to  our  climate ;  others 
we  share  with  those  who  advocate  a  similar  form  elsewhere. 

Our  best  orchards  of  the  same  fruits  in  adjacent  localities  are 
almost  identical  in  form  and  general  appearance  of  the  trees,  and  those 
more  distant  differ  chiefly  in  the  extent  to  which  the  same  principles 
are  applied.  And  this  is  not  because  the  trees  are  allowed  to  follow 
their  natural  inclination,  which  should  secure  resemblance  but  because 
their  natural  bent  is  resolutely  conquered  by  agreement  of  growers 
that  they  know  what  is  good  for  the  tree ;  and  this  substantial  unanim- 
ity is  the  result  of  the  experience  of  the  last  fifty-five  years.  People 
possessed  of  the  art  temperament  sometimes  complain  of  the  depressing 
uniformity  and  artificiality  of  orchard-tree  shapes  in  California.  They 
are  apt  to  lament  the  fact  that  systematic  orcharding  destroys  the  pic- 
turesqueness  of  tree-growth.  They  should  understand  that  such  con- 
ception of  a  fruit  tree  has  no  place  in  commercial  fruit  growing.  The 
producing  tree  is  the  result  of  the  conception  of  an  agency  to  serve 
certain  purposes.  The  orchardist  does  not  pursue  uniformity  merely 
for  its  own  sake,  but  rather  for  the  purpose  it  serves,  and  the  fact  that 
many  thinking  men  have  practically  agreed  upon  a  certain  form  as  an 
ideal  of  producing  ability  is  demonstration  that  such  form  is,  at  least, 
approximately  correct.  There  is  an  industrial  conception  of  a  tree, 

106 


ENDS    SOUGHT    IN    PRUNING  107 

which  is  necessarily  and  essentially  different  from  a  conception  of  pic- 
turesqueness  based  upon  the  feral  type.  The  wild  tree  is  rude  and 
crude  from  a  cultural  point  of  view. 


PRACTICAL  PURPOSES  OF  PRUNING 

One  of  the  first  things  for  a  beginner  to  undertake  as  he  approaches 
the  practice  of  pruning  trees  and  vines  is  to  form  a  good  idea  of  the 
purposes  to  be  served.  Imitation  is  not  the  foundation  of  intelligent 
pruning,  though  it  yields  many  valuable  suggestions.  Satisfactory 
work  rests  upon  a  correct  understanding  of  the  reasons  for  each  act 
and  to  the  attainment  of  this,  all  study,  observation  and  experience 
should  tend.  Possessing  this,  one  can  proceed  capably,  modifying 
method  to  meet  condition,  and  producing  desirable  results.  Receive 
all  suggestions  and  then  go  quietly  to  the  tree  and  study  your  problem 
in  its  shade.  The  tree  is  the  best  revelator  of  its  needs.  Some  of  the 
best  pruners  in  California  are  men  who  were  untrained  to  horticulture 
before  they  entered  upon  their  orchard  work.  Reading,  discussion, 
systematic  instruction  are  all  valuable.  They  save  much  time  and  many 
errors,  but  recourse  to  the  tree  affords  the  sovereign  test  of  attainment. 

These  may  be  counted  among  the  practical  purposes  to  be  attained 
by  pruning  in  California :  (a)  Convenience  of  the  grower ;  (b)  health 
and  strength  of  the  tree ;  (c)  regulation  of  heat  and  light ;  ( d)  attain- 
ment of  strong  bearing  wood ;  (e)  attainment  of  size  in  fruit ;  (f)  pro- 
motion of  regular  bearing.  Examine  trees  with  reference  to  their 
embodiment  of  these  characters  and  one  can  hardly  fail  to  secure  rays 
of  light  upon  the  subject  of  pruning  which  seem  dark  to  so  many. 

Convenience. — Trees  which  branch  near  the  ground  are  most 
quickly  and  cheaply  handled  in  all  the  operations  of  pruning,  spraying, 
fruit-thinning  and  picking.  Low  trees  with  obliquely-rising  branches 
are  more  easily  cultivated  than  any  form  with  horizontal  branches,  un- 
'less  the  head  is  carried  so  high  that  the  animals  pass  easily  under  the 
tree.  To  do  this  sacrifices  all  the  other  conveniences  and  economies 
which  actually  determine  profit,  and  is  really  out  of  the  question  from 
a  commercial  point  of  view.  Sometimes  it  does  not  pay  to  pick  some 
fruits  at  a  certain  distance  above  the  ground,  when  picking  at  half  that 
distance  yields  a  profit. 

Health  and  Strength. — It  is  imperative  in  most  parts  of  this 
State  that  the  sunshine  be  not  allowed  to  touch  the  bark  during  the  heat 
of  the  day.  This  protection  is  secured  even  for  young  trees  by  low 
branching  and  encouragement  of  small,  low  laterals.  The  low  tree  with 
properly  spaced  branches  attains  superior  strength  by  virtue  of  thick, 
strongly  knit,  short  growth  between  branches,  and  by  its  strong,  stiff, 
obliquely-rising  growth  sustains  weight  which  brings  horizontal 
branches  to  the  ground,  and  thus  even  high-headed  trees  are  liable  to 
continually  increasing  interference  with  cultivation,  and  the  desperate 
grower  has  to  raise  the  head  of  his  tree  higher  into  the  air  and  farther 
above  the  profit  line,  while  at  the  same  time' he  renders  it  more  liable 
to  sunburn,  to  bark-binding  and  to  unthrift  by  forcing  the  sap  to  flow 


108  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

an  unnecessary  distance  and  through  wood  and  bark  which  impede  its 
movement.  Besides  a  low  tree  escapes  stress  by  strong  winds  which  a 
high  tree  invites  and  at  the  same  time  is  less  able  to  withstand.  Prun- 
ing for  health  and  strength  of  tree  also  includes  the  removal  of  un- 
thrifty or  diseased  parts,  which  are  not  only  an  incumbrance  to  the  tree 
but  may  communicate  to  other  parts  the  causes  of  their  ill  condition. 

Heat  and  Light. — The  maintenance  of  strong  bearing  wood  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  tree  is  conditioned  upon  the  proper  pruning  of 
the  top  of  the  tree.  How  far  the  upper  levels  or  the  shade-layer  of  the 
tree  can  be  safely  opened,  depends  upon  the  local  climate  in  each  fruit 
region.  The  rule  must  be  the  higher  the  summer  heat  the  denser  the 
tree ;  the  lower  the  heat  the  thinner  the  tree ;  but  everywhere  the  proper 
condition  of  openness  must  be  constantly  in  view  in  pruning.  Not  alone 
must  this  be  done  to  maintain  thrifty  growth  below,  but  it  is  also  essen- 
tial to  the  best  growth  and  ripening  of  the  fruit  in  the  lower  and  interior 
parts  of  the  tree.  Fruit  inferior  in  size,  color  and  quality  results,  in 
part,  from  lack  of  pruning  to  regulate  the  admission  of  light  and  heat, 
sometimes  one,  sometimes  both,  to  the  shaded  portion  of  the  tree. 

Bearing  Wood. — Good  fruit  develops  on  good  bearing  wood  and 
good  bearing  wood  is  the  product  of  proper  degrees  of  light  and  heat, 
as  has  just  been  urged.  But  bearing  wood  in  the  case  of  some  fruits  is 
new  wood,  and  reduction  of  old  wood  for  the  purpose  of  forcing  the 
growth  of  new  wood  must  be  constantly  in  mind.  Renewal  is  more  or 
less  a  consideration  with  all  trees,  and  especially  the  securing  of  strong 
new  wood.  This  is  a  point  upon  which  close  study  of  the  bearing  tree 
will  yield  most  satisfactory  suggestions. 

Size  of  Fruit.— The  size  of  fruit,  providing  the  tree  is  healthy 
and  vigorous,  depends  upon  the  character  and  amount  of  bearing  wood 
which  the  tree  is  allowed  to  carry.  Removal  of  part  of  the  fruit  burden 
is  done  by  thinning  after  it  is  well  set,  but  this  labor  should  always  be 
minimized  by  antecedent  pruning,  which  aims  to  retain  more  or  less 
bearing  wood  according  to  the  vigor,  size  and  bearing  habit  of  the  tree. 
Thinning  out  of  bearing  shoots  and  spurs,  when  either  are  clearly  seen 
to  be  in  excess,  should  be  the  constant  study  of  the  pruner. 

Regular  Bearing. — This  point  is  largely  involved  in  the  preced- 
ing and  affords  an  additional  incentive.  Regulating  the  amount  of  fruit 
borne  in  one  year  may  involve  the  profit  of  two  years,  because  a  tree 
may  not  be  able  to  produce  an  excessive  amount  of  fruit  and  perfect 
good  fruit  buds  for  the  following  year.  It  may  generally  make  buds 
which  will  bloom,  but  not  always  that.  If  it  does  make  the  bloom,  it  is 
no  guaranty  that  the  bloom  will  be  strong  and  effective  for  bearing. 
Consequently,  pruning  for  reasonable  amount  of  bearing  should  always 
be  borne  in  view  and  should  be  practiced  at  the  close  of  the  year  of  non- 
bearing  with  particular  diligence,  if  the  alternate  year  bearing  habit  is 
to  be  broken  up. 

The  foregoing  are  among  the  practical  purposes  to  be  served  in 
pruning.  There  are  others,  but  these  will  suffice  to  emphasize  a  single 
point,  and  that  is,  that  pruning  can  not  be  compressed  into  a  single 
formula,  nor  can  one  learn  it  by  a  recipe.  There  are  various  ends  to 


CALIFORNIA  STYLES  OF  ORCHARD  TREES  109 

attain ;  they  may  be  attained  in  different  ways,  although  it  is  not  strange 
that  substantial  agreement  in  methods  does  largely  prevail.  It  is  better 
to  try  to  understand  the  purposes  than  to  memorize  the  formulae.  Get 
the  tree  and  its  interest  clearly  in  the  mind ;  have  an  ideal  toward  which 
to  work ;  be  more  interested  in  why  a  neighbor  prunes  in  a  certain  way 
than  how  he  does  it.  Learn  constantly  by  all  available  means,  and  at 
the  same  time  study  the  visible  forms  and  aim  to  understand  their 
fullest  significance. 


FORMS  OF  TREE  BEST  SUITED  TO  CALIFORNIA 
CONDITIONS 

The  form  of  deciduous  fruit  tree  which  prevails  with  singular  uni- 
formity all  over  the  State  is  the  "vase,"  or  "goblet,"  or  "wine-glass", 
form,  all  these  terms  signifying  a  similar  shape.  There  are  different 
ways  in  which  this  form  is  secured  and  maintained  in  different  parts 
of  the  State,  and  with  different  fruits,  which  will  be  especially  noted  in 
the  chapters  devoted  to  these  fruits. 

The  mainspring  of  success  in  California  is  to  grow  low  trees.  Low 
is  a  term  admitting  of  degrees,  it  is  true,  any  may  imply  a  trunk  six 
inches  up  to  one  or  two  feet,  in  the  clear.  In  addition  to  the  general 
advantages  of  low-trained  trees  which  have  been  described,  there  are 
special  reasons  for  this  form  in  California.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of 
trees  have  been  destroyed  by  the  exposure  of  a  long,  bare  trunk  to  the 
rays  of  the  afternoon  sun.  The  sun-burned  sides  have  given  the  con- 
ditions desired  by  borers,  and  destruction  has  quickly  followed.  -  Some 
times  young  trees  have  not  survived  their  first  season  in  the  orchard, 
because  of  burned  bark,  or  this,  with  the  added  injury  by  the  borers. 
It  is  also  found  by  California  experience  that  growth  is  more  vigorous 
in  the  branches  when  they  emerge  near  the  ground.  Even  where 
actual  burning  may  not  occur  the  travel  of  the  sap  through  the  longer 
distance  of  trunk  is  undesirable.  It  is  believed,  also,  that  benefit  re- 
sults from  shading  of  the  ground  at  the  base  of  the  trees,  by  reducing 
evaporation,  and  by  maintaining  a  temperature  of  soil  better  suited 
to  vigorous  root-growth. 

But  whatever  may  be  the  reasons,  the  fact  is  ^disputable,  the 
higher  the  prevailing  summer  temperature,  and  the  greater  the  aridity, 
the  lower  should  the  trees  be  headed.  Trees  which  will  do  well  in  the 
central  and  upper  coast  region  and  adjacent  to  the  bay  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, with  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  inches  of  clear  trunk,  would 
dwindle  and  probably  perish  in  the  heated  valleys  in  all  parts  of  the 
State.  In  such  situations,  both  north  and  south,  the  best  practice  is  to 
head  the  tree  fifteen,  twelve,  and  even  some  hold  as  low  as  six  inches 
from  the  ground.  There  will  always  be  some  difference  of  opinion  as 
to  detail,  but  the  necessity  of  making  the  trunk  short  enough  to  be 
effectually  shaded  by  the  foliage  is  admitted  by  all  growers. 

Variations  of  the  Vase  Form. — There  are  several  variations  of 
the  vase  form  to  be  found  in  California  orchards.  The  prevalent  is  a 
vase  form  with  short- jointed  leaders  which  will  be  described  in  detail 


110 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS  :    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


as  the  "common  vase  form."  Another,  which  is  gaining  in  popularity, 
aims  to  grow  leaders  trained  along  in  directions  first  chosen  for  them, 
and  this  will  be  described  as  the  "vase  form  with  continuous  leaders." 
The  latter  method  aims  to  secure  more  open  centers  and  to  produce 
fruit  nearer  to  the  leaders  or,  as  one  may  call  them,  the  ribs  of  the 
tree — the  figure  having  a  rough  resemblance  to  the  ribs  of  an  inverted 
umbrella  rather  than  the  ribs  of  a  man. 

Characteristic  of  the  Common  Vase  Form. — This  vase  form  is 
a  product  of  French  ingenuity  in  the  training  of  dwarf  trees,  but  it  has 
undergone  very  marked  modification  in  California,  losing  much  of  the 
accuracy  of  its  outline  and  gaining  vastly  in  speed  of  work  and  in 
bearing  capacity  of  tree  without  sacrificing  any  practical  value  which 
adheres  in  the  design. 

This  vase  form  dispenses  with  the  central  stem  or  trunk  at  a  certain 
short  distance  above  the  ground,  but  this  is  not  done  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  a  hollow  or  open-center  tree,  which  is  a  leading  characteristic 
of  the  old  European  vase  form.  The  few  branches  which  are  desired  to 
grow  from  the  short  stem  are  pruned  when  the  tree  is  young  to  induce 
successive  branching  with  short  interspaces.  At  each  cutting  the  aim  is 
to  get  two  branches  from  one,  and  nearly  as  posible  of  equal  vigor,  so 
the  California  tree  does  not,  except,  of  course,  in  occasional  instances, 
show  the  outline  of  a  leader  from  the  bottom  to  the  top,  but  there  is  a 
succession  of  branchings,  turned  this  way  or  that  by  the  skillful  pruner, 
occupying  available  air  space,  distributing  the  weight  so  it  comes  more 
nearly  over  the  center  of  gravity  and  at  the  same  time  knitting  the 
fibers  of  the  branch  so  that  the  weight  of  the  fruit  is  well  sustained. 
This  idea,  however,  is  not  allowed  to  go  so  far  as  to  wholly  close  the 


Forms  of  head  resulting  from  cutting  back. 

Twelve-year-old    apple  tree  in  the  writer's  garden    in    Berkeley,    showing    forms    of    head 
resulting  from  cutting  back  for  greater  and  less  spacing  of  main  branches  at  planting. 


HOW    TO    FORM    THE    HEAD   OF    A    TREE 


111 


Results  of   cutting  back  to   longer  and   shorter   stems. 

Apricot  and  cherry  trees  twelve  years  old,  showing  results  of  cutting  back     to  longer  and 
shorter   stems   at   planting,   as   an   experiment   in   head    form. 


112  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

interior  of  the  tree,  but  to  retain  such  degree  of  open  interior  as  is 
found  desirable.  When  the  tree  is  laden  with  fruit,  the  weight  natur- 
ally expands  the  top  quite  enough  to  admit  the  sunlight  without  expos- 
ing either  the  fruit  or  the  branches  to  danger  of  burning.  Thus  ifc 
appears  that  instead  of  the  true  vase  of  wine-glass,  with  hollow  interior 
and  thin  walls,  we  have  the  general  exterior  outline  of  this  model,  but 
give  a  good  part  of  the  central  area  of  the  figure  to  bearing  shoots,  and 
thus  secure  a  large  bearing  surface  with  well-strengthened  supports. 

It  has  been  found  that  this  many-branching  form,  developed  upon  a 
few  main  branches  well  placed  upon  the  trunk,  gives  a  stronger  tree 
than  can  be  had  by  growing  a  considerable  number  of  leaders,  all  start- 
ing from  near  the  point  where  the  tree  was  headed  at  planting.  Such 
leaders  crowd  each  other  at  the  point  of  emergence  from  the  stem,  and 
when  laden  with  fruit,  sway  outward  and  break  out  at  this  point.  A 
vastly  stronger  tree  is  secured  by  starting  but  four  or  five  branches 
from  the  low  trunk  and  letting  them  emerge  from  different  sides  of 
the  stem,  and  at  different  levels.  Thus  teach  main  attachment  to  the 
stem  has  abundant  room,  and  the  wood  enlarges  symmetrically  and 
solidly.  The  expansion  of  the  top  is  attained  by  the  branching  which 
follows  the  cutting  back  of  succeeding  years.  Starting  branches  from 
nearly  the  same  level  on  the  stem  has  been  the  occasion  of  great  losses 
of  overladen  trees,  and  quite  a  considerable  recourse  to  strengthening 
up  weak  trees  by  running  bolts  through  from  side  to  side  at  the  points 
where  experience  shows  breakage  is  likely  to  occur.  In  this  respect  it 
is  now  clearly  shown  that  the  practice  which  was  widely  adopted  a  few 
years  ago  of  beginning  with  a  very  short  stem  and  using  the  three  or 
four  adjacent  buds  nearest  the  point  to  which  the  tree  was  cut  back  at 
planting  is  defective.  It  is  much  better  not  to  cut  back  so  far  at  plant-  j 
ing,  but  to  leave  a  longer  trunk,  keep  a  greater  distance  between  the? 
main  branches  and  still  have  the  lowest  branch  as  near  the  ground  as 
before,  thus  securing  a  tree  which  is  practically  as  low  as  that  secured 
by  the  old  method  of  starting.  This  point  will  be  enforced  by  illus- 
trations. 

HOW  TO  SECURE  THE  COMMON  VASE  FORM 

For  the  benefit  of  the  inexperienced  reader,  it  will  be  well  to  illus- 
trate the  steps  by  which  the  form  of  tree  found  so  generally  desirable 
is  to  be  attained. 

Cutting  Back  at  Planting. — This  has  been  already  mentioned 
as  essential  to  strong  growth  of  the  transplanted  tree.  It  is  also  the 
prime  act  in  securing  a  tree  with  a  low  head  and  strong  branches.  For- 
merly trees  were  cut  back  farther  than  desirable  and  the  branches 
allowed  to  crowd  each  other,  as  has  just  been  stated.  It  is  better  to 
retain  twenty-four  inches  of  stem  than  twelve  inches — providing  care 
is  taken  during  the  first  summer  to  prevent,  by  pinching,  the  growth 
of  too  many  branches  near  together.  Allow  those  to  grow  which  are 
more  distant  from  each  other  on  the  stem  and  pinch  the  intervening 
shoots.  In  this  way  one  can  have  the  lowest  branch  at  six  inches  from 
the  ground  in  the  hot  valleys  if  desired,  or  twelve  inches  in  the  coast 


THE    COMMON    VASE    FORM  113 

valleys,  and  the  highest  branch  at  eighteen  or  twenty-four  inches.  This 
gives  about  twice  the  distance  between  the  main  branches  which  was 
formerly  allowed,  and  it  is  of  vast  advantage  to  the  strength  of  the 
tree.  The  illustrations  of  this  fact  are  from  trees  planted  by  the  writer 
in  1887  to  test  this  matter.  At  this  date  they  are  large  trees  and  show 
the  forms  of  heads  resulting  from  different  spacing  of  branches  on  the 
young  trees  during  the  first  summer's  growth. 

First,  then,  cut  back  the  tree  just  after  planting,  as  shown  in  the 
engraving,  deciding  first  at  which  height  you  wish  trees  to  form  heads, 
and  cut  them  all  back  as  uniformly  as  possible  and  still  secure  a  good 
bud  just  below  the  point  of  cutting.  To  preserve  these  buds  the  trees 
should  be  handled  carefully  while  removing  from  the  nursery  and  dur- 
ing planting. 

If  the  tree  has  already  grown  laterals  in  the  nursery  where  the  head 
is  desired,  three  or  four  of  these  properly1  placed  on  the  stem  may  be 
selected  to  form  the  main  branches,  shortened  in  to  the  sound  bud 
nearest  the  stem,  and  other  laterals,  not  desired  to  form  the  head,  re- 
moved. This  treatment  is  shown  in  the  engraving  of  a  young  peach 
tree  well  branched  in  the  nursery.  If  all  the  laterals  on  the  young  tree- 
have  started  out  above  where  the  head  is  desired,  as  is  sometimes  the 
case,  it  may  be  necessary  to  remove  the  whole  top,  and  usually  others 
will  start  below  afterwards.  If  there  are  no  buds  visible  on  the  stem  at 
the  place  where  the  head  is  desired,  the  choice  must  be  made  between 
heading  the  tree  higher  up,  where  the  buds  are,  or  cutting  back  without 
regard  to  buds,  trusting  to  the  development  of  latent  buds  at  the  right 
place,  or  to  the  growth  of  a  shoot  from  below,  which  can  be  cut  back 
to  form  a  head  the  following  year.  It  is  for  this  reason,  among  others, 
that  planters  prefer  a  yearling  tree  which  has  not  branched,  but  has 
good  buds  all  along  the  stem.  Peaches  and  apricots  usually  branch  in 
the  nursery,  but  usually  have  dormant  buds  at  the  bases  of  such  branches 
which  can  be  employed  in  making  new  growth  where  it  is  desired. 

After  cutting  back  at  planting,  the  shoots  desired  to  form  the  head 
are  allowed  to  make  their  full  growth  without  interference.  All  shoots 
not  desired  for  branches  are  pinched  off  after  growing  out  two  or  three 
inches,  leaving  a  bunch  of  leaves  to  shade  the  trunk  and  contribute  to 
its  stouter  growth.  Constant  watchfulness  is  necessary  to  pinch  off  un- 
desirable branches  all  the  first  summer. 

First  Pruning. — In  the  winter  following  planting,  the  shoots  of 
the  previous  season's  growth  are  cut  back  to  about  ten  or  twelve  inches 
from  their  junction  with  the  stem.  Some  prefer  to  cut  shorter,  but  this 
is  apt  to  huddle  the  branches  too  close  together  when  they  get  old  and 
stout.  Growers,  however,  do  not  agree  on  the  exact  length  which  these 
future  main  branches  should  be  left  at  first  pruning. 

If,  during  the  first  summer's  growth,  all  shoots  except  the  number 
desired  to  form  the  head  have  been  pinched  back,  the  first  winter  prun- 
ing consists  only  in  cutting  back  the  main  branches.  If  laterals  have 
grown  on  the  parts  of  these  branches  which  are  to  be  left  on  the  tree, 
they  should  be  cut  back  to  a  bud  or  two.  Some  growers  practice  cutting 
away  all  such  laterals  cleanly  because  they  are  too  young  to  bear  fruit, 
but  it  is  better  to  shorten  and  retain  at  least  a  part  of  them  and,  when 


114 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS  I    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


growth  starts,  pinch  the  tips  after  throwing  out' a  few  leaves  to  shade 
and  thicken  the  branches,  just  as  the  short  growths  left  the  previous 
summer  serve  the  main  stem. 

Second  Pruning. — During  the  second  summer  it  is  usual  to  allow 
two  branches  to  grow  from  each  of  the  main  branches  left  at  the  pre- 
vious winter  pruning,  and  to  pinch  off  all  others,  as  described.  These 
branches  are  allowed  to  run  out  their  full  growth,  except  where  ex- 
cessive growth  is  made,  and  then  it  is  repressed  by  summer  pruning. 
This  is  done  with  the  apricot  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  State,  as  will 
be  considered  at  length  in  the  chapter  on  that  fruit.  Usually,  however, 
the  main  branches  are  untouched  during  the  second  summer's  growth 
unless  some  are  running  out  so  far  as  to  make  the  tree  lop-sided.  Dur- 
ing the  following  winter  the  main  branches  are  cut  back  from  one-half 
to  two-thirds  of  the  growth  they  have  made,  and  if  too  many  strong 
laterals  have  grown  below  this  point,  some  are  shortened,  others  are 
removed  entirely  where  they  are  apt  to  cross  or  crowd  each  other  or  to 
interfere  with  cultivation.  It  is  not  desirable,  however,  that  all  small 
growth  should  be  cleanly  removed.  Some  of  these  small  shoots  will 
bear  a  little  fruit  and  the  leaf  action  is  in  any  case  desirable  as  a  con- 
tributor to  the  strength  of  the  larger  branches  to  which  they  are  at- 
tached. Besides,  they  serve  to  shade  the  bark  from  sunburn. 

Third  Pruning. — When  the  tree  reaches  its  third  winter  prun- 
ing, its  form  is  well  outlined,  and  early-bearing  trees  like  the  peach, 
apricot,  almond,  Japanese  plum,  etc.,  will  give  the  grower  a  respectable 


Pruning  for  branch  spacing. 

Yearling  apple  marked  to  cut  back  for  greater  or  less 
space  between  main  branches;  also  first  year's  growth 
from  each  beginning  marked  for  first  winter  pruning. 


VASE    FORM    WITH    CONTINUOUS    LEADERS  115 

crop  the  next  season.  To  bear  this  crop  greater  care  should  be  taken  at 
the  third  winter  pruning  to  leave  the  small  laterals  low  down  on  the 
main  branches,  for  on  them,  clustered  close  in  the  head  of  the  tree,  most 
of  the  first  crop  will  be  found.  Though  some  trees,  as  stated,  do  bear 
earlier  than  the  third  summer,  the  fruit  is  not  usually  considered  of 
commercial  account  until  the  third  summer.  An  engraving  is  given  of 
a  peach  tree  just  after  its  second  winter  pruning.  It  is  a  very  good 
representative  of  the  common  vase-form  of  a  tree  as  grown  in  Cali- 
fornia. It  has  four  main  branches,  each  issuing  from  a  different  point 
on  the  stem,  each  permitted  to  carry  two  main  branches,  which  are  not 
arranged  around  the  circumference,  but  some  of  them  tending  toward 
the  center.  At  the  third  pruning  more  shoots  have  been  left  than  are 
required  by  the  rule,  for,  starting  with  four  main  branches,  there  are 
usually  sixteen  left  at  the  third  pruning. 

VASE  FORM  WITH  CONTINUOUS  LEADERS 

This  form  has  the  same  prototype  as  the  common  vase  form,  viz. : 
the  French  garden  tree  and  it  adheres  more  closely  to  the  motives  and 
characters  of  its  prototype.  As  practiced  in  the  Winters  region  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Sacramento  Valley,  it  is  aptly  described  by  D.  J.  Whit- 
ney as  follows : 

"It  is  called  the  open-top  system  of  pruning.  Hold  in  mind  a  wide, 
shallow  bowl  with  long  legs  bent  inward  and  joining  at  the  bottom  com- 
ing down  rather  regularly  from  rim  to  base  and  you  know  what  a  typi- 
cal open-top  apricot  tree  looks  like.  The  idea  seems  to  have  leaders  to 
come  up  along  the  outside  of  the  tree,  none  in  the  center  at  all,  to  have 
the  center  of  the  tree  open,  or  occupied  only  by  fruit  wood  and  not 
much  of  it.  In  the  yearly  pruning  the  development  is  all  outward. 
There  is  an  effort  to  have  fruit  wood  along  the  leaders  down  to  the 
crotch,  but  often  without  success.  Looking  over  an  orchard  from  above, 
there  can  be  seen  a  lot  of  flat  green  disks  set  regularly  twenty  to  thirty 
feet  or  so  apart." 

This  variation  of  the  vase  form  is  quite  a  departure  from  the  com- 
mon vase  form,  both  in  its  purposes  and  methods.  It  is  used  in  the 
Winters'  region  for  apricots,  peaches  and  plums.  It  is  coming  into  the 
upper  San  Joaquin  Valley  for  peaches,  the  leaders,  however,  being 
grown  nearer  to  upright  because  of  the  weaker  wood  of  the  peach.  As 
used  for  that  fruit  it  will  be  discussed  in  detail  in  Chapter  XX.  It  is 
also  used  for  the  lemon,  as  exemplified  by  the  flat,  saucer-shaped  trees 
which  one  will  see  in  some  lemon  orchards.  As  something  of  a  de- 
parture, both  in  principles  and  practices,  from  the  common  vase  form 
which  has  widely  prevailed  for  the  last  forty  years,  it  has  still  to  widely 
demonstrate  its  claims  to  superiority. 

PRUNING  BEARING  TREES 

Three  winter  prunings  of  deciduous  trees  usually  establish  their  per- 
manent form,  and  subsequent  pruning  is  chiefly  directed  toward  the 
retention  of  that  form ;  for  strength  of  branch  and  stem ;  for  renewal 


116 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


of  bearing"  wood ;  for  regulation  of  amount  of  bearing  wood ;  for  rela- 
tive light  and  shade,  and  for  convenience  in  cultivation  and  other 
orchard  work.  Naturally,  these  ends  are  sought  according  to  the  needs 
and  habits  of  different  fruits,  and  the  methods  of  attaining  them  will 
be  discussed  in  the  chapters  treating  of  these  fruits.  There  are,  how- 
ever, certain  general  considerations  which  are  proper  in  this  connec- 
tion: 

Pruning  during  the  dormancy  of  the  tree  induces  greater  growth 
of  wood  during  the  following  summer ;  pruning  during  the  active  period 
reduces  wood  growth  and  promotes  fruit-bearing.  The  amount  of 
wood  removed  during  the  dormant  period  will  make  the  summer  growth 


Yearling  peach.    Cut  back  at  planting. 


First  summer's  growth  in  the 
orchard. 


These   sketches,    and   those   en   pages    118   and    119,    represent    the   progress   of  the   peach 
tree   from  a   branched  yearling  to   bearing   form   entering   the   third   summer. 

of  wood  proportionately  stronger.  Whether  the  total  weight  of  wood 
growth  would  be  greater  may  be  questioned,  but  the  effective  wood 
growth  is  certainly  greater.  Whether  the  feet  of  new  wood  grown  on 
a  peach  tree  cut  back  to  stumps  in  the  winter  would  be  greater  in  weight 
than  all  the  inches  of  growth  which  would  be  scattered  all  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  tree  if  not  cut  back,  may  be  doubted,  but  the  new  growth 
secured  by  cutting  back  will  be  of  immense  vigor,  and  the  following 
year  will  bear  large  fruit,  while  the  new  growth  on  the  tree  not  cut 
back  will  be  thin  and  short  and  the  fruit  absent  or  indifferent.  The 
weaker  the  tree  or  the  branch  or  the  twig  of  the  tree,  the  greater  part 
of  it  to  be  removed  when  dormant  to  get  the  stronger  new  growth. 


THE    COMMON    VASE    FORM 


117 


In  the  case  of  fruit  trees  in  vigorous  growth  pruning  during  the 
active  period  or  allowing  the  wood  to  go  uncut  during  the  dormant 
period,  having  the  same  effect,  viz.,  the  promotion  of  fruiting.  Some 
trees,  like  apricots  and  peaches,  which  bear  upon  new  laterals,  will  bear 
fruit  even  though  heavily  winter-cut,  if  these  small  laterals  are  retained 
on  the  lower  parts  of  the  main  branches.  Some  other  trees,  like  the 
prune,  which  bear  on  spurs,  will  delay  the  formation  of  spurs  if  heavily 
winter-cut.  These  two  facts  suggest  two  diverse  policies  in  pruning 
bearing  trees :  A  peach  tree  unpruned  will  reduce  its  crop  for  lack  of 
weakness  of  new  laterals ;  a  prune  tree  too  severely  winter-pruned  will 
reduce  its  crop  for  lack  of  old  spurs.  Again,  some  fruits,  or  varieties 


First  winter  pruning. 


Second  summer  growth  in  orchard. 


of  fruits,  bear  chiefly  upon  the  tips,  others  chiefly  upon  the  lateral 
spurs ;  shortening  one  reduces  the  crop  largely ;  shortening  the  other 
may  increase  the  marketable  crop  by  decreasing  the  aggregate  number 
These  and  other  similar  facts  suggest  that  pruning  bearing  trees,  to  be 
intelligently  pursued,  must  be  accompanied  with  the  fullest  possible 
knowledge  of  the  bearing  habit  of  the  fruit  or  variety  thereof. 

Cutting  back  or  "shortening  in"  should  be  done  in  a  way  which  will 
reduce  the  burst  of  new  shoots  near  the  cut.  This  is  measurably  secured 
by  always  cutting  the  branch  at  a  strong  lateral,  because  the  sap  flow 
into  this  lateral  prevents  undue  pressure  and  forcing  of  latent  buds  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  cut.  For  this  reason  the  cutting  back  of  all  branches 


118 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


to  a  certain  definite  height  is  wrong.  Trees  shorn  across  at  a  certain 
line  become  thick  as  a  brush  with  top  shoots  which  require  extensive 
thinning,  or  the  bearing  wood  will  soon  be  all  at  that  level  through 
failure  of  the  densely  shaded  bearing  wood  below.  Cut  to  the  nearest 
lateral  below  the  line  you  wish  to  approximate,  and  shorten  the  lateral, 
if  desirable,  and  the  result  will  be  fewer  and  stronger  shoots  than  from 
a  stub-cut. 

In  the  treatment  of  bearing  trees  the  main  effort  should  generally  be 
toward  thinning  or  reducing  the  number  of  bearing  shoots.  This  is 
related  to  the  important  work  of  thinning  the  fruit  to  reduce  the  burden 
of  the  tree,  and  will  be  mentioned  again  in  that  connection.  The  work 


Second  winter  pruning  in  orchard. 

has,  however,  a  bearing  beyond  the  size  of  the  individual  fruit  speci- 
mens. It  involves  the  whole  future  of  the  tree  as  a  profitable  affair.  An 
unthinned  tree  becomes  a  thicket  of  small,  weak,  and  dying  laterals  and 
spurs.  An  attempt  to  cure  this  afterwards  by  sawing  out  many  large 
branches  is  only  partially  successful,  though  perhaps  the  best  thing  that 
can  be  done  after  such  condition  has  been  allowed  to  exist.  The  only 
way  to  keep  the  interior  of  the  tree  full  enough  of  strong,  bearing  wood 
is  to  resolutely  and  regularly  thin  out  surplus  shoots  as  the  tree  ad- 
vances in  age  and  size.  This  work  is  as  important  with  trees  which 
are  not  regularly  cut  back,  as  with  those  which  are  thus  treated.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  vital  as  well  as  the  most  generally  neglected  item  in 
orchard  practice. 


WHEN    TO    PRUNE    FRUIT    TREES  119 

In  thinning  out  lateral  bearing  shoots  seldom  leave  more  than  one 
at  any  point ;  select  the  strongest ;  remove  the  rest  close  to  the  branch. 
When  a  new  shoot  springs  out  at  the  base  of  an  older  one  remove  the. 
older  one ;  when  a  new  shoot  breaks  out  on  the  side  of  an  older  one 
cut  the  older  one  back  to  that  point.  In  thinning  always  reject  the 
older,  weaker  laterals  or  spurs.  This  does  not  apply  to  the  outbreak  of 
strong  suckers  or  water  sprouts  below  the  main  branches ;  they  should 
usually  be  cleanly  cut  away  unless  a  new  main  branch  is  desirable. 

Pruning  of  bearing  trees  should  always  have  regard  to  the  removal 
of  branches  which  have  become  decrepit  through  sunburn,  blight  or 
disease  of  any  kind,  frost  injury,  or  in  any  form  die-back  from  what- 
ever cause.  Such  wood  is  not  only  of  lessened  value,  but  there  is  also 
danger  of  extension  of  the  trouble.  Removing  such  wood  and  training 
new  wood  to  take  its  place  should  always  be  in  mind. 

Where  cutting  of  large  branches  is  demanded  for  any  reason  it 
should  be  remembered  that  the  wounds  are  most  quickly  healed  and 
least  injury  to  the  tree  is  to  be  apprehended  if  the  cutting  is  done  near 
the  beginning  of  the  growing  season,  and  not  at  the  beginning  of  the 
dormant  period. 

TIMES    FOR    PRUNING 

Some  changes  of  view  have  lately  prevailed  as  to  the  times,  within 
the  dormant  period,  during  which  winter-pruning  can  be  done  to  the 
best  advantage.  Formerly  it  was  thought  to  be  a  vital  matter  that  no 
cutting  should  be  done  until  the  leaves  had  fallen,  and  this  is  still 
the  prevailing  practice,  and  may  prove  to  be  on  all  accounts  the  best. 
Recently,  however,  pruning  in  autumn  has  been  quite  widely  practiced. 

Fall  Pruning. — There  is  a  time  near  the  end  of  the  active  season 
in  California  when  the  foliage  changes  its  aspect.  There  is  no  marked 
change  in  color,  perhaps,  but  there  is  a  certain  limpness  and  drooping 
which  betokens  decided  decline  in  activity.  It  comes  first  to  the  early 
fruits,  the  cherries  and  apricots,  for  instance,  and  upon  old  trees  earlier 
than  young  ones.  The  buds  are  well  formed;  the  season's  growth 
apparently  complete.  There  are  no  frosts  to  hasten  the  fall  of  the  leaf 
and  it  remains  in  place.  Does  it  render  any  important  service?  On 
the  conclusion  that^does  not,  many  growers  begin  the  winter  pruning 
while  the  days  are  longer  and  the  ground  dry  and  firm,  rather  than  delay 
pruning  until  the  short,  dark  days  and  rain-soaked  soil  of  December 
and  January  render  pruning  expensive  and  disagreeable.  Those  trees 
are  first  pruned  which  first  assume  the  appearance  described,  and  the 
work  proceeds  with  other  varieties  afterwards  until  the  winter  pruning 
may  be  finished  by  December  1 — about  the  time  when  it  commonly 
began  under  the  old  practice.  Not  only  is  more  thus  accomplished  in 
the  same  number  of  days'  work,  but  the  orchard  is  earlier  in  shape  for 
the  winter  spraying  and  cultivation,  and  the  grower  is  ahead  of  his 
work  and  not  behind  it  all  the  season  if  the  season  is  unusually  rainy. 
Several  years'  practice  of  this  method  discloses  no  bad  results  except  in 
the  one  item  of  increasing  danger  from  frost.  Vines  and  trees  pruned 
early  in  the  dormant  period  have  a  tendency  to  start  growth  earlier 
than  those  pruned  late  in  the  dormant  period.  In  places,  then,  where 


120 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS  !    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


early  bloom  and  fruit-setting  are  particularly  threatened  by  frost,  this 
practice  may  be  undesirable. 

Spring  Pruning. — Resting  largely  upon  this  matter  of  retarding 
growth,  the  practice  of  pruning  very  late  in  the  dormant  period,  or, 
in  fact,  at  the  beginning  of  the  growing  season,  is  also  gaining  wider 
adoption  where  frost  injury  is  especially  feared.  It  is  not  actual  freez- 
ing, but  a  drop  of  two  or  three  degrees  below  the  freezing  point  which 
is  feared,  and  during  recent  years  such  a  temperature  has  wrought 
havoc  with  some  fruits,  in  early  valley  regions  particularly.  Later 
pruning,  even  after  the  bloom  and  foliage  have  appeared,  has  worked 
no  injury  to  the  trees,  but  it  is  less  conveniently  done  than  when  the 
trees  are  free  of  foliage. 


Young  peach  and  apple  trees,  showing  branches  well  spaced  on  the  stems. 

Summer  Pruning. — Summer  pruning,  to  induce  bearing,  is,  as 
has  been  previously  intimated,  but  little  employed  in  this  State,  for  the 
constant  tendency  of  our  trees  is  to  bear  early  and  to  overbear.  Enough 
has,  however,  been  done  in  individual  cases  to  show  that  fruit-bearing 
is  promoted  by  pruning  after  the  chief  growth  of  the  season  has  been 
attained.  If  the  pruning  results  in  forcing  out  laterals  late  in  the  season 
it  has  been  done  too  early.  What  is  desirable  is  the  strengthening  or 
development  of  fruit  buds,  and  this  will  be  accomplished  after  the  energy 
has  been  too  far  dissipated  to  make  new  wood  growth. 

Summer  pruning  to  check  the  too  exuberant  wood  growth  of  some 
kinds  of  trees  is  employed  to  some  extent,  chiefly  in  the  warmer  parts 
of  the  State,  where  the  vegetative  process  in  some  trees  seems  fairly 
to  run  riot,  and  unless  checked  is  apt  to  ruin  the  tree  by  breaking*  to 


0/3 


(9! 


SUMMER   PRUNING   OF    FRUIT   TREES  121 

pieces  when  the  wind  and  weight  of  fruit  test  its  strength.  The  methods 
of  summer  pruning  employed  in  different  parts  of  the  State  for  different 
fruits  will  be  considered  in  connection  with  the  special  chapters  on 
these  fruits. 

Summer  pruning  to  preserve  form  is  another  matter,  and  relates  in 
the  main  to  pinching  in,  to  check  undesirable  extension  and  to  direct 
the  sap  toward  shoots  in  which  growth  is  desired.  This  practice  is 
approved  by  most  of  our  orchardists,  and  is  employed  by  them  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent.  More  people  believe  in  it  than  practice  it,  how- 
ever, because  the  summer  months,  with  their  long  succession  of  fruits 
to  be  gathered  and  shipped  or  dried,  and  the  additional  consideration 
that  there  is  always  a  scarcity  of  labor  at  this  time,  give  the  orchardist 
so  much  work  to  do  that  he  is  more  apt  to  confine  his  "pinching"  to  a 
little  that  he  may  do  now  and  then  when  he  has  a  few  moments'  leisure 
than  to  do  the  work  thoroughly  and  systematically.  The  result  is  that 
the  regular  winter  pruning  is  the  main  operation  for  tree  shaping  in 
this  State. 

There  is  such  a  great  difference  in  opinion  about  summer  pruning 
that  it  will  be  very  difficult  to  make  any  assertions  about  it  which  will 
not  be  disputed.  Much  of  this  difference  comes,  of  course,  from  differ- 


Weak  tree  from  ill-spaced  branches. 

ent  conditions  prevailing  in  different  trees  and  in  different  parts  of 
the  State,  and  some  of  these  will  be  met,  as  already  promised,  in  follow- 
ing chapters.  Leaving  these  wholly  out  of  consideration  at  this  time, 
it  is  safe  to  advise  those  who  wish  to  secure  symmetry  or  any  particular 
form  in  any  kind  of  a  tree,  that  they  can  resort  to  summer  pinching 
with  advantage,  and  can  sometimes  to  advantage  remove  wood  too 
large  for  the  thumb  and  finger  to  sever. 

Constant  watchfulness  should  be  maintained  for  adventitious  shoots 
starting  out  on  stem  or  limb  at  points  where  branches  are  not  desired. 
Wherever  they  start  out  strongly,  they  should  be  pinched,  or  entirely 
removed,  according  to  the  best  judgment  to  be  formed  in  each  case. 
They  should  not  be  allowed  to  divert  the  sap  from  the  fruiting  wood 
to  make  the  generally  coarse  and  sterile  wood  which  is  characteristic 
of  them.  Suckers  which  properly,  according  to  Downing,  are  "shoots 
sent  up  from  the  root  or  from  parts  of  the  stem  below  the  surface  of 
the  soil,"  should  be  removed  whenever  discovered.  In  common  Cali- 
fornia parlance  the  term  "sucker"  is  used  as  a  synonym  for  "water- 
sprout"  and  signifies  undesirable  shooting  from  any  part  of  the  tree  or 
vine. 


122  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS  I    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

RENEWING    OLD    TREES 

Improving  and  renewing  trees  by  cutting  back  and  grafting  has 
already  been  considered  under  the  head  of  propagation.  It  is  often 
desirable  to  renew  trees  of  a  satisfactory  variety,  and  this  is  done 
simply  by  cutting  back  when  the  tree  is  dormant.  Cutting  back  was 
formerly  done  early  in  the  winter,  before  the  rise  of  the  sap  begins,  but 
more  recently  it  has  been  seen  that  the  exposure  of  large  cut  surfaces 
for  weeks  or  months  before  growth  begins,  results  in  drying  and  shrink- 
age of  the  bark  and  checking  of  the  wood,  both  of  which  are  avoided  ( 
by  amputation  later  in  the  dormant  period  or  during  the  early  part  of 
the  growing  season,  In  cutting  back,  of  course,  those  stumps  should 
be  left  to  support  new  branches  which  will  secure  the  best  balance  and 
symmetry  in  the  new  head.  When  the  new  growth  starts  there  gener- 
ally appear  many  more  shoots  than  are  desirable,  and  selection  of  the 
best-placed  and  most  vigorous  should  be  chosen,  the  others  either  being 
rubbed  off  in  the  bud  or  pinched  back  when  a  few  leaves  are  put  out. 
In  cutting  back  trees,  the  exposed  trunk  and  branch  stumps  should  be 
wrapped  in  old  sacking,  or  carefully  whitewashed  as  protection  from 
sunburn. 

In  removing  large  limbs  it  is  desirable  that  the  cut  should  be  made 
in  the  right  place  so  as  to  secure  quick  covering  of  the  scar  with  new 
growth.  Cutting  so  as  to  leave  a  long  stub  results  in  an  unsightly 
piece  of  dead  wood  on  the  tree,  and  this,  in  decaying,  carries  the  decay 
deep  into  the  center  of  the  trunk  or  branch.  Cutting  too  close  prevents 
covering  with  the  new  bark,  and  also  results  in  a  hole  in  the  branch. 
Cutting  just  to  the  right  mark,  which  is  the  outer  edge  of  the  little 
collar  or  swelling  which  will  be  found  at  the  base  of  all  branches, 
enables  the  wound  to  grow  over  quickly,  and  if  the  wound  is  properly 
treated  when  cut,  there  will  be  no  decay,  and  the  wound  will  soon  be 
obliterated. 

In  amputating  large  branches,  an  undercut  with  the  saw  should  be 
made  first  so  that  the  bark  shall  not  be  torn  as  the  branch  falls.  Another 
good  way  is  to  saw  off  first  at  a  distance  from  the  final  cut,  and  then 
saw  off  smoothly  at  the  right  place  when  the  weight  is  removed. 

Trees  often  become  "hide-bound,"  as  it  is  called.  Especially  in  this 
dry  climate  the  bark  gets  dry  and  tough,  therefore  can  not  expand  in 
proportion  to  the  growth  of  the  tree,  or  supply  the  amount  of  sap  neces- 
sary for  the  demand.  Slitting  such  trees  here  and  there  up  and  down 
the  trunk  and  main  limbs  with  a  sharp  knife  seems  to  have  good  effect, 
for  often  in  three  months  the  cut  opens  half  an  inch,  and  a  fine,  clear 
bark,  with  an  increase  of  growth,  results.  On  old  trees,  too,  there  is 
often  a  growth  of  moss  and  lichens  which  should  be  removed.  This 
can  be  done  by  scraping  off  the  rough,  loose  bark  and  spraying  with 
an  alkaline  wash,  composed  of  one  pound  of  caustic  soda  or  potash  to 
six  gallons  of  water.  If  scale  insects  are  present,  the  lime,  salt,  and 
sulphur  spray  should  be  used,  as  will  be  described  in  the  chapter  on 
injurious  insects.  This  will  remove  the  parasites,  give  the  trees  a  clean, 
bright  bark  and  contribute  to  their  vigor. 


USE   OF    KNIVES   AND    SHEARS  123 

PRUNING   TOOLS 

There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  comparative  value  of 
the  pruning  knife  and  the  pruning  shears.  The  knife,  if  sharp,  and 
well  used,  makes  a  smooth  cut,  with  no  bruising  of  the  bark,  and  such 
a  wound  heals  over  perfectly.  The  shears,  if  of  good  pattern  and  sharp, 
also  make  a  very  good  cut,  but  there  is  always  some  little  injury  to 
the  bark  on  the  side  opposite  the  entry  of  the  blade.  On  small  cuts, 
say  three-quarters  of  an  inch  or  less,  if  the  blade  is  kept  very  sharp,  the 
resistance  does  not  make  sufficient  injury  to  the  bark  to  seriously  con- 
sider, and  the  speed  with  which  the  shears  can  be  used  renders  them 
the  main  reliance  for  all  the  smaller  pruning.  Nearly  all  styles  of  hand 
shears  are  used  in  this  State. 

There  are,  also,  two-hand  shears,  which  are  very  powerful,  and 
enable  one  to  work  very  quickly.  When  kept  well  sharpened  they  are 
very  effective  tools.  There  are  a  number  of  styles  in  use,  both  home- 
made and  imported. 

Still  another  arrangement  of  shears  is  mounted  on  a  pole,  the  cut- 
ting blade  being  operated  by  a  cord,  and  having  a  spring  to  throw  the 
blade  back.  The  pole  is  jointed,  so  that  one  or  more  lengths  can  be 
used.  With  this  device  one  can  stand  on  the  ground  and  shorten  in 
the  top  shoots  of  a  tree  very  handily. 

For  larger  cuts  than  can  be  made  with  the  pruning  knife  or  one- 
hand  shears,  there  are  pruning  saws  of  different  styles,  of  which  two 
styles  are  chiefly  used.  One  has  a  frame  made  of  the  best  spring  steel, 
constructed  somewhat  on  the  plan  of  a  butcher's  saw,  except  that  the 
saw  blade  is  much  narrower ;  and  instead  of  being  stationary,  it  revolves 
so  that  the  pruner  is  enabled  to  adjust  the  blade  to  cut  at  any  angle, 
as  is  often  necessary  to  do  when  cutting  where  limbs  grow  close  to- 
gether, and  where  it  would  be  impossible  to  use  an  ordinary  saw  of  a 
wider  blade.  The  blade  is  only  one-fourth  to  one-half  inch  wide,  and 
therefore  not  liable  to  get  pinched  in  the  cut.  Strength  is  imparted  by 
a  tension  screw  under  the  handle,  which  tightens  the  blade.  The  blade 
is  easily  detached  by  slackening  the  tension  screw,  and  lifting  the  blade 
out  of  the  slot  in  the  clutches  at  each  end.  The  blade  can  be  thus 
reversed  and  made  to  cut  with  a  push  or  a  pull,  as  may  be  desired. 

Another  popular  saw  is  the  curved  pruning  saw,  with  twelve  and 
fourteen-inch  blades,  which  cuts  with  a  pull. 

During  recent  years  it  has  been  possible  to  find  quite  full  assort- 
ments of  pruning  tools  at  the  hardware  and  general  merchandise  stores 
in  all  our  fruit  districts  where  these  devices  can  be  compared  and  selec- 
tion made  according  to  individual  preference,  for  there  can  be  no  best 
tools  for  all  men  and  all  uses. 

CUTTING   TO    A    BUD 

Whatever  may  be  used  to  make  the  cut,  it  is  important  to  sever 
the  twig  or  shoot  at  that  distance  from  a  wood  bud  which  gives  that 
bud  the  best  chance  to  grow  well,  and  at  the  same  time  facilitates  the 
healing  and  complete  obliteration  of  the  scar.  Cutting  too  far  from  the 
bud  leaves  a  stub  which  dies  back,  and  is  likely  to  carry  decay  into  the 


124  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

pith  and  thence  down  into  the  limb.  Cutting  too  close  to  the  bud  or 
carrying  the  slope  down  too  far  behind  it,  does  not  give  it  enough  live 
wood  to  carry  it,  and  it  makes  a  weak  growth. 

Cutting  to  inside  buds  with  trees  of  spreading  habit,  and  to  outside 
buds  with  upright  growers,  or  to  a  side  bud  when  lateral  extension  is 
desired,  should  always  be  remembered  as  a  means  of  throwing  new 
growth  in  the  direction  demanded  by  symmetery  and  equal  occupation 
of  the  space  allotted  to  the  tree.  This  is  one  respect  in  which  study 
of  the  habit  of  the  tree  suggests  proper  practice. 

COVERING   WOUNDS 

Whenever  wood  is  cut  with  so  great  diameter  that  it  will  not  grow 
over  in  one  season,  the  wound  should  be  coated  with  something  to  keep 
the  wood  from  checking  and  decaying.  It  has  been  amply  demon- 
strated by  California  experience  that  smooth-paring  of  the  cut  made 
by  shears  or  saw  is  a  waste  of  time.  Large  wounds  should,  however, 
be  covered  to  prevent  checking  of  the  wood  and  drying  back  of  bark 
edges.  Nothing  is  better  or  cheaper  for  this  covering  than  lead  and 
oil  paint,  a  little  thicker  than  for  ordinary  use,  and  applied  sparingly, 
so  that  it  will  not  run  down  the  bark.  Asphaltum,  "Grade  D,"  applied 
warm  is  used  in  the  same  way  with  satisfaction. 

GATHERING   UP    PRUNINGS 

Gathering  up  prunings  for  burning  is  tedious  and  expensive,  and 
several  efforts  have  been  made  to  substitute  machinery  for  hand  labor. 
Anderson's  Brush  Rake,  invented  by  W.  C.  Anderson,  of  San  Jose, 
has  been  used  to  some  extent.  It  readily  gathers  all  kinds  of  tree  and 
vine  brush,  compresses  it  considerably  and  is  easily  discharged  of  its 
load  by  a  slight  lift  while  still  going  forward.  It  is  said  to  save  about 
one-half  the  cost  of  hand  raking,  Brush  is  often  gathered  into  wind- 
rows by  the  use  of  horse  rakes  borrowed  from  the  hay  field. 

Baling  Prunings. — There  is  a  fuel  value  in  prunings  which  has 
become  more  clear  since  pumping  for  irrigation  is  so  widely  practiced, 
but  loose  prunings  are  too  expensive  in  handling.  T.  G.  Rogers,  of 
Winters,  has  contrived  a  "brush  baler."  It  is  a  large  strong  saw-horse 
inverted,  to  which  is  bolted  a  long,  heavy  lever.  Attached  to  a  cross 
piece  on  the  lever  are  four  heavy  tines  bent  in  a  semi-circle.  The  saw- 
horse  is  filled  with  brush,  the  lever  is  then  pulled  down  and  fastened  by 
a  ratchet  brake,  the  brush  is  forced  into  a  small,  compact  bundle,  and 
when  bound  with  wire  makes  a  bundle  easily  handled  by  the  fireman. 

Prunings  for  Fertilizing. — Although  many  propositions  for  re- 
turning prunings  to  the  soil  and  several  machines  for  cutting  have 
been  used,  such  practice  has  never  widely  prevailed  because  of  cost 
of  labor  involved.  At  the  Limoneira  lemon  orchard  in  Ventura  county, 
a  feed  cutter  run  by  a  gasoline  engine,  and  both  mounted  on  a 
wagon-bed,  is  run  through  the  orchard  after  pruning.  Two  men  pick 
up  prunings  and  feed  them  into  the  cutter  as  the  wagon  slowly  pro- 
ceeds. This  waste  from  an  evergreen  tree  seems  to  decay  very  readily 
in  the  soil  as  it  is  covered-in  by  cultivation. 


INCREASING    SIZE   OF    FRUITS  125 

THINNING    FRUIT 

Intimately  connected  with  the  pruning  of  bearing  trees,  is  the  thin- 
ning of  the  fruit  or  proper  spacing  of  the  individual  fruits  so  that  each 
shall  have  space  and  sap  to  allow  its  attainment  of  satisfactory  market- 
able size.  It  has  been  fully  demonstrated  that  no  demand  is  profitable 
which  will  be  content  with  the  undersized  fruit  from  an  overladen  tree. 
The  superior  price  for  good-sized  fruit  for  all  uses,  not  excluding  dry- 
ing, is  unquestionable;  the  total  weight  secured  may  be  variable  as 
between  thinned  and  unthinned  trees,  but  it  can  be  accepted  as  an 
indisputable  fact  that  any  increase  of  weight  there  may  be  upon  an 
unthinned  tree  will  not  be  nearly  an  equivalent  for  the  loss  in  value.  It 
is  the  conclusion  of  our  largest  and  most  successful  growers  that,  large 
as  is  the  expenditure  required  for  careful  and  systematic  thinning  of 
fruit,  it  is  the  most  directly  profitable  outlay  which  they  have  to  make 
for  orchard  maintenance. 

Objects  in  View  in  Fruit  Thinning. — But  thinning  fruit  has 
objects  beyond  the  value  of  the  visible  crop  which  it  makes  profitable. 
No  overburdened  tree  can  discharge  the  two-fold  summer  duty  of  every 
cultivated  fruit-bearing  tree,  which  is  to  perfect  this  season's  fruit 
and  lay  a  good  strong  foundation  for  next  year's  bearing.  If  the  tree, 
after  fruit  gathering,  has  not  the  strong,  vigorous  foliage  to  complete 
the  formation  of  fruit  buds  for  the  following  year,  there  will  either 
be  a  lack  of  bloom  or  a  show  of  bloom  unfit  to  set,  and  the  tree  will 
work  for  itself  next  year,  and  not  for  you,  because  this  year  you  would 
not  work  for  it.  In  this  particular,  thinning  fruit  coincides'  in  purpose 
with  pruning  to  limit  the  amount  of  bearing  wood,  which  has  already 
been  considered. 

Other  objects  there  are  also  which  are  related  directly  to  the  profit 
of  orcharding  and  should  command  respect  from  the  most  careless. 
The  following  is  an  emphatic  statement  of  the  case : 

There  are  at  least  six  ways  in  which  growers  are  repaid  for  thinning 
peaches,  nectarines  or  apricots  designed  for  drying: 

First:  Yon  can  thin  off  half  the  fruit  when  small  quicker  than  you  could 
pick  it  when  large,  and  when  mature  the  time  required  to  fill  a  basket  depends 
mainly  upon  the  number  of  peaches  it  holds. 

Second :  It  takes  just  as  long  to  cut  and  spread  on  a  drying  tray  a  small  peach 
as  a  large  one.  It  takes  longer  to  cut  eight  peaches  that  will  weigh  a  pound 
than  to  cut  three  and  pick  five  off  when  they  are  little. 

Third:  If  peaches  run  six  to  the  pound  the  weight  of  pits  will  not  vary 
much  from  that  of  the  cured  fruit.  If  they  run  three  to  the  pound,  they  will 
weigh  not  much  over  half.  A  ton  of  large  peaches  is  as  likely  to  yield  400 
pounds  of  dried  as  a  ton  of  small  fruit  of  the  same  variety  to  yield  300  pounds. 
It  means  a  difference  of  about  $8.00  per  ton  in  the  value  of  the  fresh  fruit 
to  the  dryer.  It  will  cost  over  $1.00  per  ton  to  thin  a  heavily  laden  peach  orchard 
in  a  way  to  make  that  difference. 

Fourth :  Granted  that  you  leave  fruit  to  reach  the  same  weight  as  maturity, 
still  you  leave  it  along  the  body  and  in  places  on  the  limbs  where  the  weight 
has  no  breaking  leverage  and  take  it  off  the  ends  where  it  may  get  sun-burned 
and  is  almost  sure  to  break  the  tree. 

Fifth:  Vitality  drawn  from  the  plant  and  certain  elements  of  fertility  from 
the  soil,  are  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  seeds  matured.  The  pulp  cuts 
little  figure  except  in  aerial  substances  and  water. 


126  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Sixth :  Suppose  that  fruit  dried  from  peaches  that  weigh  three  to  the  pound 
only  brings  one  cent  a  pound  more  than  that  from  peaches  half  that  size.  Two 
cents  would  more  accurately  measure  the  difference  in  value.  Still,  the  smaller 
figure  is  enough  to  meet  the  whole  cost  of  picking  and  hauling  or  of  cutting  and 
drying  in  any  well-managed  establishment. 

When  to  Thin  Fruit. — Thinning  of  fruit  should  begin  with  the 
winter  pruning  of  bearing  trees,  as  has  been  already  urged  in  con- 
nection with  regulating  the  amount  of  bearing  wood  allotted  to  each 
tree.  After  this  is  carefully  done,  there  is  the  thinning  of  bloom,  which 
is  urged  on  the  ground  of  least  possible  loss  of  energy  by  the  tree  in 
the  partial  development  of  fruit  to  be  subsequently  removed.  Hand- 
thinning  of  individual  blooms  is  impracticable  on  a  commercial  scale, 
but  the  removal  of  spurs  or  twigs,  or  shortening  of  them  with  shears, 
is  feasible  enough.  The  objection  must  lie  in  the  fact  that  profusion 
of  bloom  does  not  necessarily  indicate  an  excessive  set  of  fruit,  and  any 
severe  reduction  of  bloom  is,  therefore,  venturesome  unless  one  is  fully 
assured  by  local  experience  of  the  habit  of  the  variety  under  treatment. 
Reduction  of  the  amount  of  fruit  itself  is,  therefore,  the  only  safe  pro- 
ceeding, and  this  should  not,  as  a  rule,  be  undertaken  until  the  first 
drop,  through  lack  of  pollination,  has  taken  place.  Even  at  greater 
theoretical  loss  of  energy  to  the  tree,  it  is  better  to  err  on  the  side  of 
thinning  a  little  too  late  than  too  early  in  order  to  secure  the  fullest 
assurance  possible  of  the  permanent  burden  which  the  tree  assumes. 
Where  spring  frosts  are  likely  to  occur  they  afford  additional  reason 
for  delay.  If  surety  of  the  local  conditions  comes  before  the  pits  harden 
in  the  young  fruit  it  is  fortunate  for  the  tree,  but  even  after  that  it  is 
still  a  greater  saving  to  the  tree  and  assurance  of  profit  to  the  grower 
to  reduce  the  fruit  to  a  proper  amount  than  to  permit  over-bearing. 

The  Practice  of  Thinning. — If  the  tree  has  not  been  sufficiently 
relieved  of  an  excess  of  bearing  wood  during  the  winter  pruning  and 
has  made  a  very  heavy  set  of  fruit,  thinning  with  the  shears  by  cutting 
out  whole  spurs  or  short  bearing  shoots,  or  even  shortening  in  longer 
limbs,  cutting  always  to  a  lateral  when  possible,  is  of  no  appreciable 
injury  to  the  tree.  After  all  the  shear-work  possible  is  done,  the  spac- 
ing of  the  fruits  on  the  twigs  and  branches  must  be  provided  for.  This 
was  done  in  early  days  by  beating;  the  tree  with  a  pole,  and  some  still 
maintain  that  they  can  use  the  pole  to  advantage.  The  almost  universal 
practice,  however,  is  to  use  the  hand  in  plucking  or  pushing  off  the 
small  fruit.  This  is  done  very  quickly  by  experienced  workmen.  If 
the  trees  are  low,  as  they  should  be,  most  of  the  work  can  be  done  from 
the  ground.  It  is  best  to  work  in  vertical  spaces  and  take  all  that  can 
be  reached  from  top  to  bottom  without  changing  position ;  then  move 
a  step  or  two  and  take  another  vertical  strip,  and  so  on. 

The  distance  which  should  be  left  between  specimens  depends  upon 
conditions.  It  is  as  unsatisfactory  to  him  by  rule  of  inches  as  it  is  to 
prune  by  such  a  rule.  The  space  to  each  fruit  depends  upon  the  kind, 
the  age,  vigor  and  strength  of  the  tree,  the  size  and  thrift  of  the  lateral 
or  spur  which  carries  the  fruit,  the  moisture  supply,  the  richness  of  the 
soil,  etc.  It  also  depends  upon  what  use  is  to  be  made  of  the  fruit, 
because  it  is  possible  to  have  some  fruit  which  is  too  large  for  certain 


METHODS    OF    THINNING    FRUITS  127 

demands,  though  this  objection  does  not  often  arise.  The  strength  of 
the  shoot  is  perhaps  the  most  easily  appreciable  factor.  With  peaches, 
for  instance,  a  shortened  lateral  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter 
should  only  carry  one  peach,  while  one  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter might  mature  four  good  large  fruits.  It  would  evidently  be 
wrong  to  work  for  an  arbitrary  inch-distance  on  all  sorts  of  shoots,  and 
it  will  be  seen  to  be  just  as  irrational  if  it  be  applied  without  regard  to 
the  other  conditions  of  the  tree.  If,  however,  a  rule  must  be  had,  let 
it  be  this,  that  the  distance  between  the  fruit  shall  be  two  and  one-half 
times  the  diameter  desired  in  the  fruit.  This  would  fix  an  arbitrary 
distance,  then  of  four  to  six  inches  for  apricots  and  six  to  eight  inches 
for  peaches — with  other  fruits  according  to  their  respective  sizes,  and 
the  late  varieties  with  greater  distance  than  early. 

Any  such  standard,  however,  considers  only  the  size  of  the  fruit, 
not  the  strength  of  the  tree,  and  therefore  stops  short  of  one  of  the 
important  ends  of  thinning,  to  conserve  the  strength  of  the  tree  for  next 
season's  fruiting.  Fruits  might  be  thus  spaced  and  still  the  tree  be 
overladen,  because  it  may  be  carrying  too  many  bearing  shoots.  Cal- 
culate the  burden  of  the  tree  in  this  way,  for  instance :  Peaches  which 
weigh  three  to  the  pound  are  of  fair  marketable  size;  sixty  such 
peaches  will  fill  an  ordinary  peach  box  of  twenty  pounds ;  ten  to  twelve 
such  boxes  is  fruit  enough  for  a  good  bearing  tree  six  to  ten  years  of 
age.  Now  count  the  little  peaches  you  have  left  on  one  main  branch 
and  its  laterals,  which  ought  to  be  about  one-tenth  of  the  tree,  and  thin 
down  to  about  sixty.  By  doing  a  few  trees  in  this  way  and  thinking 
of  the  relation  of  the  bearing  wood  to  the  fruit,  one  will  soon  get 
a  conception  of  the  proper  degree  of  thinning,  and  proceed  to  realize 
it  as  rapidly  as  the  fingers  can  fly  along  the  branch. 

It  is  seldom  desirable  to  divide  doubles  in  peaches ;  pull  both  off  or 
leave  both  on,  as  they  may  be  needed  or  not  to  make  the  load  of  the 
tree.  Clusters  of  apples  or  pears  should  often  be  reduced  to  singles, 
except  where  size  is  apt  to  be  too  great. 

All  kinds  of  fruit  are  clearly  subject  to  increase  of  size  by  thinning, 
but  it  is  with  only  the  larger  fruits  that  the  practice  prevails  at  present. 
The  dividing  line  seems  to  lie  upon  the  prune.  With  this  fruit  thinning 
is  only  done  by  pruning  the  tree  for  the  reduction  of  the  number  of 
bearing  branches,  while  with  some  shipping  plums  hand  thinning  is 
practiced.  Growers  are  still  striving  for  a  prune  naturally  of  larger 
size  rather  than  to  have  recourse  to  thinning. 

The  practice  of  thinning  partially  at  first,  trusting  to  further 
removal  of  fruit  later  if  too  much  of  it  survives  the  natural  drop  and 
various  accidents,  is  followed  by  some  growers,  but  the  rule  is  to  finish 
at  one  operation. 

The  size  of  oranges  on  over-burdened  trees  can  be  increased  by 
thinning,  just  as  other  fruits  are  enlarged,  but  it  is  not  systematically 
undertaken,  because  it  is  not  so  necessary  and  because  it  is  perhaps 
easier  to  get  oranges  too  large  and  to  be  discounted  for  over-large  and 
coarse  fruit.  Removing  part  of  the  fruit  from  young  trees  is  often 
done — for  the  good  of  the  tree,  not  for  the  good  of  the  fruit. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

CULTIVATION 

It  was  demonstrated  very  early  in  California  experience  in  fruit 
growing,  that  "clean  culture"  is  generally  the  proper  treatment  for 
trees  and  vines  during  the  growing  season,  at  least.  Though  the  fre- 
quent stirring  of  the  soil  and  eradication  of  grass  and  weeds  have  been 
advocated  by  certain  horticulturalists  for  generations  and  have  recently 
been  demonstrated  to  be  desirable  by  careful  comparative  experiments 
it  has  nowhere  secured  such  wide  adherence  as  in  California.  It  may 
even  be  held  to  be  an  essential  to  successful  growth  of  tree  and  vine  in 
most  soils  and  situations  in  California,  and  the  several  advantages  of 
clean  culture  are  intensified  under  our  conditions. 

Chief  of  these  advantages  is  the  maintenance  of  the  soil  in  a  condi- 
tion favoring  root  growth,  and  the  main  feature  of  this  condition  is  the 
retention  of  the  moisture,  though  regulation  of  summer  temperature  in 
the  soil  is  also  involved.  Where  moisture-retention  is  not  the  chief 
concern,  because  of  ample  irrigation  facilities,  and  the  moderation  of 
soil  temperature  of  greater  moment,  a  summer-growing  cover  crop  may 
be  of  benefit  to  the  trees.  In  irrigated  districts  of  excessive  heat  and 
dry  air  this  policy  may  prevail,  but  it  will  be  only  the  exception  to  the 
rule  of  clean  culture. 

Retaining  Moisture  by  Cultivation. — It  is  a  familiar  fact  that 
water  will  rise  in  a  tube  of  exceeding  small  diameter  very  much  higher 
than  the  surface  of  the  body  of  water  in  which  the  tube  is  held  upright. 
The  water  rises  by  capillary  attraction.  A  compact  soil  has  extending 
through  it,  minute  spaces,  formed  by  the  partial  contact  of  its  particles, 
which  facilitate  the  rise  of  water  from  moist  layers  below,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  same  principle  which  causes  the  water  to  rise  in  the 
capillary  tube.  This  movement  is  constantly  going  on  in  firm  soil, 
and  as  fast  as  the  top  layer  is  robbed  of  its  moisture  by  evaporation, 
the  water  rises  from  below  and  it  too  is  evaporated.  During  the  long, 
dry  summer,  the  water  rises  and  is  evaporated  from  a  depth  of  several 
feet  in  some  soils,  and  the  earth,  beneath  the  baking  sun  heat,  becomes 
"dry  as  a  brick." 

When  a  soil  is  broken  up  by  cultivation,  capillarity  is  temporarily 
destroyed  through  the  disturbed  layer,  because  the  particles  are  so 
separated  that  the  mutual  connection  of  the  minute  inter-spaces  no 
longer  exists.  But  if  it  can  be  roughly  broken  up,  so  that  the  disturbed 
layer  takes  the  form  of  coarse  clods,  the  air  has  free  access  to  the  upper 
surface  of  the  firm  soil  beneath  them,  in  which  the  capillary  condition 
still  exists,  and  evaporation  proceeds  in  the  same  way,  though  in  a 
somewhat  less  degree,  as  if  there  had  been  no  cultivation.  It  becomes 
evident,  then,  that  the  pulverization  of  the  disturbed  layer  must  be  so 
complete  that  the  particles  are  separated  and  capillarity  destroyed,  and, 
farther,  that  the  free  access  of  air  to  the  lower  point,  where  capillarity 

128 


RETAINING    MOISTURE   BY   TILLAGE  129 

exists,  must  be  prevented.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  fine  loose  earth 
which  acts  as  a  mulch.  When  this  is  attained,  only  that  moisture  in  the 
upper  surface  which  comes  in  immediate  contact  with  the  air  is  evapor- 
ated, and  the  balance  is  retained  for  the  use  of  the  plant.  Plants 
growing,  then,  in  a  well-cultivated  soil,  have  the  water  in  the  lower 
soil  held  for  their  use,  and  as  fast  as  they  use  it  the  supply  is  replaced 
through  the  firm  soil  below,  which  evaporation  being  stopped,  remains 
moist  and  permeable  by  roots  which  extend  freely,  seeking  the  nourish- 
ment they  need. 

Such  is  a  brief  outline  of  the  theory  which  explains  the  results 
gained  by  thorough  cultivation  of  the  soil,  so  far,  at  least,  as  retention 
of  moisture  is  concerned.  The  practical  demonstration  is  easy.  Go 
into  a  well-cultivated  orchard  or  vineyard,  push  aside  the  soil  with  the 
foot,  and  moisture  will  be  found  two  or  three  inches  from  the  surface, 
or  even  less  in  some  soils,  while  on  uncultivated  land  adjacent,  digging 
to  the  depth  of  several  feet  will  show  nothing  but  hard  earth,  baked 
and  arid.  In  such  hard-baked  earth,  moreover,  the  sun  heat  is  conveyed 
or  conducted  downward  very  rapidly  during  a  hot  day,  so  that  in  some 
cases  the  roots  are  seriously  injured.  When  the  surface  is  well  tilled, 
it  will  act  like  a  blanket,  preventing  a  too  rapid  conveyance  of  heat 
downward,  and  thus  also  diminishing  the  intensity  of  evaporation. 

Accurate  demonstration  of  these  facts  has  been  secured  as  the 
result  of  many  moisture  determinations  in  cultivated  and  uncultivated 
soil  by  the  University  of  California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.* 
Very  striking  exhibition  of  the  condition  of  trees  with  and  without 
cultivation  is  found  in  the  engravings  which  are  reproduced  herewith. 
Upon  the  demonstration,  the  practice  in  the  uncultivated  orchard  was 
radically  changed.  The  exact  determination  of  moisture  present  at 
various  depths  of  the  soil  beneath  these  contrasted  orchards  in  the 
month  of  July  is  as  follows : 


Depth  in  soil. 

First  foot  

Cultivated. 
Per  cent. 

.   64 

Tons  per  acre. 

128 

Uncultivated. 
Per  cent.          Tons 

43 

per  acre. 

86 

Second  foot 

58 

116 

44 

88 

Third  foot 

64 

128 

39 

78 

Fourth  foot   .    .  . 

6.5 

130 

5  1 

102 

Fifth  foot 

67 

134 

34 

68 

Sixth  foot  . 

.  6.0 

120 

4.5 

00 

Totals,  six  feet 6.3  756  4.2  512 

This  shows  a  gain  of  nearly  fifty  per  cent  of  soil  moisture  by  cultiva- 
tion. 

Necessity  of  Adequate  Cultivation. — It  has  been  very  fully  dem- 
onstrated by  California  experience  that  adequate  depth  of  tilth  must 
be  attained.  The  depth  of  cultivation,  or  the  thickness  of  the  dust- 
mulch,  as  some  like  to  call  it,  must  be  sufficient  to  prevent  the  access 
of  the  dry  air  to  the  firm  soil  below.  At  the  East,  where  they  have  a 
moister  air  a  thin  mulch  may  answer,  but  in  California,  with  a  thirsty 
air  for  such  a  protracted  period,  there  must  be  deeper  tilth.  Two  or 

*Bulletin  121. 


130  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW   TO   GROW   THEM 

three  inches  of  dust  spread  over  a  hardpan  layer  formed  in  some  soils 
by  cultivation,  will  not  retain  moisture  well  in  California.  The  cultiva- 
tor should  go  twice  that  depth,  ordinarily,  and  then  the  result  will  be 
accomplished  if  it  is  done  frequently  enough  to  prevent  the  re-firming 
of  the  surface  by  atmospheric  moisture  or  by  the  rise  of  moisture  from 
below.  The  exact  significance  of  depth  in  the  loose,  surface  layer  has 
also  been  demonstrated  by  moisture  determination  in  the  subsoil  at 
different  points  by  the  California  Experiment  Station,  as  follows : 

Percentage  of  Moisture  in  Cultivated  Loam  Soil. 


Depth. 
Three  inches                .    . 

Niles. 
54 

Santa  Maria. 
53 

Venturia. 
83 

Six  inches    

6.3 

8.5 

9.3 

These  may  be  accepted,  probably,  as  average  results :  Variation 
may  occur  in  soils  of  different  characters.  The  capillarity  in  a  heavy 
soil  is  vastly  greater  than  in  a  light  soil.  The  difficulty  of  securing  a 
pulverized  surface  layer  is  also  greater  in  the  heavy  soil.  The  poorer 
the  pulverization,  the  deeper  the  layer  must  be.  Naturally,  then,  grow- 
ers' practice  will  vary.  The  rule  will  remain  that  there  must  be  depth 
enough  to  secure  effective  protection  of  the  firm  soil  beneath  from 
agencies  promoting  evaporation. 

Loss  of  Moisture  by  Weed  Growth. — One  of  the  most  active 
agencies  for  the  exhaustion  of  moisture  from  the  subsoil  is  the  growth 
of  weeds.  To  cultivate  the  soil  in  winter  and  spring,  and  then  to  allow 
a  summer  growth  of  weeds  to  "shade  the  soil"  is  a  great  error.  Al- 
though under  cover  of  rank  weeds  moisture  many  appear  even  at  the 
surface  and  convey  the  impression  of  moisture-saving,  the  fact  is,  as 
fully  demonstrated  by  experience  and  actual  experiment,  the  moisture 
in  the  lower  layers  of  the  soil  is  reduced  and  trees  are  thus  robbed  of 
their  supply.  Weed  growth  must  be  resolutely  suppressed  during  the 
dry  season,  if  one  has  to  operate  by  rainfall  or  desires  to  make  best 
use  of  irrigation  water. 

Moisture  Storage  in  the  Soil. — Conservation  of  moisture  in  the 
soil  is  not  only  the  surety  of  the  current  season's  growth  and  fruitful- 
ness,  but  is  the  safeguard  against  injury  from  the  years  of  deficient 
rainfall  which  occur  now  and  then  in  California.  The  moisture  supply 
is  equalized  by  this  storage  of  the  soil,  and  a  surplus  from  the  liberal 
rainfall  of  one  year  is  held  over  to  supply  the  lack  of  the  next.  Of 
course,  the  well-cultivated  surface  is  also  well  calculated  to  catch  water. 
While  from  a  hard  surface  much  of  a  heavy  rainfall  flows  off  quickly 
to  a  lower  level  before  it  can  penetrate,  a  loose  soil,  if  sufficiently  deep, 
retains  all  that  falls  upon  it,  except  the  excess,  which  disappears  by 
drainage. 

It  has  sometimes  been  held  by  California  orchardists  that  planting 
some  tall-growing  crop,  like  corn,  so  as  to  shade  the  young  tree  and 
the  ground  around  it,  is  an  advantage.  This  is  a  great  mistake.  Though 
some  rich,  moist  soils  may  afford  moisture  enough  to  grow  both  the 
tree  and  the  corn,  it  is  a  fact  that  in  most  cases  the  growth  of  the  corn 


INTER-CROPPING    IN    ORCHARDS  131 

is  made  at  the  expense  of  the  tree,  and  sometimes  almost  costs  its  life 
and  thrift.  It  has  been  amply  shown  by  investigation  that  though  shad- 
ing ground  by  a  leafy  growth  may  make  the  surface  layer  of  the  soil 
moister,  the  lower  layers  are  invariably  made  drier,  and  it  is  in  these 
lower  layers  that  the  tree  seeks  its  sustenance.  The  young  tree  should 
be  shaded  as  has  been  described  in  the  chapter  on  planting,  and  not  by 
a  growing  plant. 


GROWING    CROPS    BETWEEN    TREES    AND   VINES 

The  possible  advantage  of  a  cover  growth  of  clover  in  regions  of 
high  heat  and  ample  moisture  has  been  noted  at  the  opening  of  this 
chapter.  The  rule,  however,  must  be :  Grow  nothing  whatever  between 
the  trees  if  you  desire  the  full  success  of  the  latter.  As  with  all  rules, 
this  one  may  admit  of  exceptions. 

Inter-cultures  in  orchard  or  vineyard  may  be  allowed  under  certain 
conditions  of  the  soil  and  the  purse  of  the  grower.  If  the  soil  is  deep 
and  moist  and  rich,  the  cost  of  planting  and  cultivation,  and  sometimes 
more,  may  be  made  by  growing  a  crop  among  your  trees.  Of  course, 
if  irrigation  is  available,  much  more  can  be  done  in  this  direction  than 
if  dependent  upon  natural  supplies  of  water. 

There  is  much  difference  as  to  crops  in  amount  of  injury  they  may 
do  to  the  trees.  Growing  alfalfa,  without  irrigation,  has  been  known  to 
kill  out  an  orchard,  and  yet  alfalfa  growing  in  an  orchard  under  condi- 
tions may  be  a  great  advantage,  as  described  in  the  next  chapter.  Grain 
is  less  dangerous,  but  still  is  objectionable,  both  because  of  exhaus- 
tion of  soil  and  moisture,  and  because  of  danger  to  trees  from  heat 
deflected  from  strow  and  stubble.  The  crops  least  injurious,  because 
of  their  requirements,  and  because  of  the  constant  cultivation  of  them, 
checks  the  loss  of  moisture  by  evaporation  are  corn,  beans,  potatoes, 
beets,  carrots,  etc.,  squashes,  and  other  members  of  the  melon  family, 
onions,  and  other  shallow-rooting  vegetables.  In  the  growth  of  these, 
however,  there  should  be  a  width  of  several  feet  of  well-cultured  soil 
on  all  sides  of  the  tree,  unoccupied. 

In  soils  exceptionally  rich  and  deep,  and  where  rainfall  is  abundant, 
inter-cultures  of  small  fruits  or  vegetables  may  be  carried  on  for  a 
long  series  of  years  with  profit  both  from  the  trees  and  the  inter-culture. 
In  similar  deep,  rich  soils,  with  irrigation,  immense  crops  of  small 
fruits  and  vegetables,  even  as  high  as  twelve  to  twenty-four  tons  of 
tomatoes  per  acre  have  been  taken  from  between  orchard  rows,  and 
one  hundred  and  fifty  sacks  of  onions  per  acre  from  between  the  rows 
of  a  strawberry  plantation.  In  Ventura  county  some  fields  of  lima 
beans,  in  favorable  years,  have  paid  over  $70  per  acre — grown  between 
young  trees.  In  other  parts  of  the  State  considerable  amounts  of  peas 
for  sale  to  canners  are  grown  between  the  rows  in  young  orchards. 
This  crop  is  especially  desirable  when  good  sale  is  assured,  because  the 
plant  is  hardy  and  can  make  a  good  part  of  its  growth  during  the  rainy 
season  and  the  ground  be  cleaned  up  and  well  cultivated  early  in  the 
summer.  As  beans  and  peas  are  legumes,  their  roots  enrich  the  soil,-* 
as  will  be  noted  in  the  chapter  on  fertilization. 


132  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS  I    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

How  Exhaustion  by  Inter-Culture  May  Be  Avoided. — But  all 

inter-cultures  are  a  loan  made  by  the  trees  to  the  orchardist.  The  term 
may  be  very  long  and  the  rate  of  interest  very  small  in  some  cases,  but 
sooner  or  later  the  trees  will  need  restitution  to  the  soil  of  the  plant 
food  removed  by  inter-cropping.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  the 
use  of  fertilizers.  Still  the  rule  that  the  trees  or  vines  should  have  all 
the  ground  is  generally  true.  It  is  also  true  that  on  merely  ordinary 
soils,  trusting  to  rainfall,  or  on  shallow  soils,  trusting  in  part  in  irriga- 
tion, the  trees  or  vines  should  have  the  full  strength  of  the  land  and  all 
the  help  which  can  be  given  them  in  the  shape  of  thorough  cultivation. 

METHODS    OF   TILLAGE 

In  general  terms  the  main  objects  of  tillage  of  orchard  and  vine- 
yard are  two :  Winter  cultivation  for  moisture  reception,  and  summer 
cultivation  for  moisture  retention. 

Wherever  early  winter  plowing  can  be  done  without  too  great 
danger  of  soil  washing,  it  affords  the  best  available  means  of  admitting 
water  to  the  great  reservoir  in  the  lower  levels  a  deep  soil.  Too  fre- 
quently large  volumes  of  rain  water,  enriched  by  air-washing  as  it  falls 
and  by  fine  soil-particles  as  it  flows,  are  allowed  to  run  off  into  the 
country  drainage,  with  the  double  loss  of  fertility  and  moisture  to 
the  fruit  grower.  Deep  penetration  of  winter  rains  should  be,  in  all 
safe  ways,  promoted.  Cultivation  for  retention  has  already  been 
strongly  urged  and  is  quite  generally  recognized. 

To  serve  these  main  purposes  there  are  two  main  divisions  of  prac- 
tice in  this  State,  each  of  which  has  variations  of  greater  or  less 
importance. 

First :  Winter  plowing  followed  by  frequent  use  of  cultivator  and 
pulverizer  in  summer. 

Second :  Use  of  cultivator  at  intervals  both  winter  and  summer, 
following,  if  needed,  with  pulverizer  in  the  summer. 

The  main  features  of  each  division  of  practice,  and  some  of  the 
claims  by  which  each  method  is  supported  by  its  advocates,  will  be 
noted. 

Plowing  Orchard  and  Vineyard. — There  is  considerable  varia- 
tion in  the  practice  of  plowing  orchard  and  vineyard,  in  the  kinds  of 
plows  employed,  and  the  times  chosen  for  the  work.  Some  plow  but 
once,  toward  spring,  whenever  the  ground  is  in  suitable  condition; 
and,  if  there  is  much  growth  of  weeds  and  clovers,  a  looped  chain  is 
run  from  the  plow  to  the  end  of  the  evener  to  aid  in  drawing  under 
the  tall  growth.  Sometimes,  however,  the  growth  gets  so  rank  before 
the  soil  is  in  condition  to  plow  that  the  weeds  are  mown  before 
plowing.  Where  but  one  plowing  is  done,  the  soil  is  usually  thrown 
away  from  the  trees  and  afterwards  is  leveled  back  by  harrowing  or 
cultivating.  If  this  practice  is  adopted,  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
soil  is  properly  returned  about  the  tree  roots,  for  injury  is  sometimes 
done  by  bringing  the  roots  too  near  the  surface,  which  is  soon  after- 
wards intensely  heated  by  the  sunshine. 


POINTS  TO  GAIN  IN  PLOWING  133 

It  is  undoubtedly  better  practice  to  plow  earlier,  when  the  green 
stuff  gets  a  good  start,  but  is  still  not  too  high  to  turn  under  handily. 
In  this  practice  the  weed  stems  are  less  woody,  and  they  easily  decay 
and  act  as  a  fertilizer.  Where  early  plowing  is  practiced,  it  is  usual 
to  plow  again  when  the  second  growth  of  weeds  reaches  the  proper 
state  in  the  spring.  When  two  plowings  are  given,  the  earth  is  usually 
thrown  away  from  the  trees  in  the  first  plowing,  and  returned  toward 
the  trees  in  the  second  plowing.  But  this  order  is  sometimes  reversed 
in  situations  where  rainfall  is  heavy  and  the  soil  retentive,  for  the  dead 
furrow  between  the  rows  often  acts  as  a  surface  drain  to  carry  off 
surplus  water,  which  is  thus  prevented  from  standing  around  the  tree 
roots.  In  all  modes  of  plowing  it  is  desirable  that  before  the  summer 
heat  comes,  the  surface  be  leveled  as  completely  as  possible. 

Too  much  stress  can  not  be  laid  upon  the  importance  of  plowing 
when  the  soil  is  in  good  condition  and  not  otherwise.  To  disregard 
this  is  bad  enough  in  all  soils,  but  it  is  a  grievous  mistake  to  work 
any  of  the  clayey  soils  when  they  are  out  of  condition.  If  too  wet, 
they  are  puddled  by  the  plow  and  dry  down  in  hard  clods,  impenetrable 
by  air,  and  even  resist  water  itself  for  a  long  time.  When  clods  are 
thus  formed,  it  may  require  long  effort  to  bring  the  soil  back  to  a  good 
friable  condition.  The  cultivation  of  adobe  is  one  of  the  problems  of 
California  agriculture.  The  more  refractory  it  is,  the  more  particular 
care  is  needed  to  take  it  when  it  is  in  proper  condition  to  work.  To 
work  it  when  perfectly  dry  is  simply  impossible,  and  if  it  is  plowed  when 
too  wet  and  sticky,  it  becomes  hard,  lumpy,  and  altogether  unmanage- 
able. The  condition  which  favors  best  results  by  tillage  must  be  learned 
by  experience. 

Another  mistake  apt  to  be  made  where  the  orchard  or  vineyard 
is  but  one  of  the  branches  of  a  mixed  farm,  is  to  put  aside  the  plowing 
until  all  the  field  work  is  done,  and  in  some  seasons  the  soil  in  the 
orchard  has  become  so  dry  that  it  turns  up  in  large  clods  which  are 
afterwards  partially  reduced  by  the  harrow,  but  never  put  in  the  fine 
tilth  which  should  be  secured  for  the  retention  of  moisture  and  other- 
wise to  encourage  the  growth  and  productiveness  of  the  tree. 

Breaking  up  Hardpan. — Those  who  advocate  the  use  of  the  plow, 
claim  several  advantages  for  it.  The  chief  is  that  more  thorough  tilth 
can  be  secured.  In  most,  but  not  all  soils,  there  is  formed  by  cultiva- 
tion an  artificial  hardpan  at  whatever  depth  the  implement  attains,  if 
this  depth  can  be  kept  the  same  for  many  successive  cultivations.  This 
hardpan,  in  some  soils  at  least,  becomes  impervious  to  water  and  is 
otherwise  an  injury  to  the  growth  of  the  trees.  It  occurs  in  irrigated 
and  unirrigated  land  alike,  but  probably  is  more  quickly  formed  by 
irrigation.  When  continuous  summer  cultivation  is  practiced,  the  hard- 
pan  will  be  found  at  whatever  depth  the  teeth  uniformity  reach.  The 
remedy  is  to  plow  in  winter  just  below  this  hardpan  layer  and  thus 
break  it  up,  and  then  by  the  action  of  the  air  and  rains  it  is  reduced, 
and  cultivation  may  proceed  as  before.  Where  the  hardpan  is  formed 
by  the  plow,  the  ground  should  be  plowed  shallow  one  year  and  deeply- 
the  next,  thus  alternating  from  year  to  year. 


134  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO   GROW    THEM 

Green  Manuring. — Another  advantage  in  the  use  of  the  plow  is, 
as  has  already  been  mentioned,  the  turning  under  of  the  growth  of 
weeds,  grass,  and  clover  as  a  green  manure.  Many  growers  attach 
considerable  importance  to  this,  and  some,  who  have  orchards  in  which 
winter  growth  has  been  killed  out  by  long  cultivation,  are  seeking  for 
a  quickly-growing  crop  which  they  can  sow  with  the  first  rains  and 
secure  growth  enough  to  turn  under  with  the  winter  plowing.  This 
consideration  will  be  further  presented  in  the  chapter  on  fertilization. 

Plowing  Hillside  to  Prevent  Washing. — Where  the  slope  of  the 
land  is  sharp,  there  is  much  danger  from  washing  during  the  rainy 
season,  if  the  hillside  is  not  terraced  or  furnished  with  ditches  carefully 
laid  out  on  contour  lines  to  carry  the  water  down  on  a  gentle  grade. 
The  old  plan  of  plowing  furrows  one  above  another  around  the  hill  to 
check  the  flow  and  let  the  water  down  easily,  is  often  found  treacherous 
unless  one  is  able  to  strike  good  grades,  because  of  the  liability  to  col- 
lection of  water  at  certain  points  and  the  subsequent  breaking  away 
and  washing.  Recently  some  of  the  foothill  growers  have  adopted  the 
plan  of  plowing  furrows  seven  or  eight  feet  apart  straight  down  the 
hill  in  the  direction  of  its  deepest  descent.  The  rainfall  is  thus  dis- 
tributed over  the  ground  so  that  not  much  water  is  collected  at  any  one 
place  and  the  harm  done  by  washing  will  not  amount  to  much.  Hillside 
work  differs  according  to  character  of  soil  and  of  local  rainfall  and 
conference  with  experienced  men  in  the  region  will  usually  afford  the 
beginner  the  best  suggestions  of  method.  In  some  localities,  the  plow- 
ing of  a  few  furrows  at  intervals  to  assist  in  penetration  and  the  growth 
of  a  cover  crop  during  the  winter  to  assist  in  binding  the  soil,  will  be 
found  better  than  any  attempt  at  the  early  plowing,  which  may  work 
admirably  on  level  lands. 

The  Best  Plow. — For  plowing  orchards  and  vineyards  many 
kinds  of  plows  are  used,  including  the  ordinary  one-  and  two-horse 
walking  plows,  single  and  double  sulky  or  riding  plows,  and  gang  plows 
of  different  kinds.  Recently  disk  plows  and  harrows  have  become  very 
popular.  In  several  of  the  leading  fruit  districts  there  are  plows  made 
in  the  local  shops  which  are  patterned  to  meet  the  different  soils  pre- 
vailing. Which  is  the  best  plow  is  a  question  which  can  not  be 
answered,  it  must  be  determined  by  local  conditions,  and  the  best  way 
to  get  information  is  to  consult  the  experienced  cultivators  of  the 
locality. 

Avoiding  Injury  to  Trees  and  Vines. — The  great  problem  is  to 
use  the  plow  so  as  not  to  injure  the  trees  and  vines.  Injury  to  the 
roots  is  one  ground  on  which  those  who  advocate  the  banishment  of 
the  plow  from  the  orchard  and  vineyard  base  their  opposition,  as  will 
appear  more  fully  presently.  It  is  the  usual  practice  to  run  the  plow 
shallower  when  approaching  the  stem  of  the  tree  or  vine,  and  this  is 
easily  done  when  using  a  riding  plow  or  a  two-horse  walking  plow 
between  the  rows  and  finishing  up  near  the  trees  with  a  single-horse 
walking  plow,  which  is  a  common  practice.  The  injury  by  the  plow,  to 
which  especial  reference  is  now  made,  is  that  to  the  bark  of  the  tree  or 
to  the  vine  stump. 


AVOIDING    INJURY    TO    TREES  135 

Makers  of  the  special  orchard  and  vineyard  plows  have  recently 
made  them  adjustable  so  that  the  plow  will  work  either  side  of  the 
central  line  of  draft,  and  these  improved  tools  have  rendered  obsolete 
the  early  contrivances  for  accomplishing  the  result  with  common  field 
plows. 

Extensions  of  disks  and  of  spring-tooth  harrows  are  often  made  by 
attaching  the  parts  to  the  ends  of  a  central  piece  in  such  a  way  that 
the  horses  walk  in  the  centers  and  the  cultivators  work  under  the  low 
branches  and  very  near  to  the  stems  of  the  trees.  These  are  chiefly 
used  with  citrus  trees  whose  foliage  and  fruits  are  permitted  to  grow 
very  near  to  the  soil  surface. 

Flat  Hames  and  a  Spreader. — Among  the  worst  things  for  use 
among  trees  are  the  pointed  iron  hames  which  are  found  on  most  har- 
nesses. They  often  seriously  bark  the  branches  under  which  the  horse 
passes,  and  should  be  dispensed  with.  An  arrangement  widely  used 
consists  in  having  broad  leather  tugs  and  hames  with  only  one  long  iron 
loop  on  the  swell  of  the  hame.  The  tug  is  passed  around  the  hame  and 
the  end  is  brought  through  the  iron  loop  from  the  under  side  so  that 
the  draft  will  hold  the  tug  tight  between  the  collar  and  the  hame  and 
the  end  between  the  iron  staple  and  the  pulling  part  of  the  trace.  A 
spreader  is  put  between  the  tugs ;  it  is  made  of  a  hard-wood  stick  six- 
teen to  eighteen  inches  long;  a  hole  is  bored  in  each  end  large  enough 
for  a  two-inch  screw,  a  hole  punched  in  each  trace  about  twelve  inches 
from  the  rear  end,  and  the  tugs  are  screwed  to  the  ends  of  the  spreader, 
and  the  ends  of  the  tugs  attached  to  the  plow  clevis.  This  gives  no  iron 
or  wooden  surfaces  at  all,  either  on  harness  or  whifHetree,  to  strike 
the  bark. 

Improved  Singletrees. — Later  than  these  came  the  orchard  and 
vineyard  singletrees,  invented  and  patened  by  Californians,  which  are 
widely  used  and  sold  in  all  stores  of  the  fruit  growing  districts. 

Dispensing  with  Doubletrees. — Still  other  inventions  which 
admit  the  use  of  two  horses  even  close  up  to  the  trees,  because  they 
dispense  entirely  with  whifHetrees  and  tugs,  are  known  as  the  steel 
harness,  Eastern  inventions,  which  have  secured  the  approval  of  some 
of  our  leading  growers,  for  use  in  orchard  and  vineyard.  The  plow  is 
attached  to  the  steel  yoke  by  a  chain  running  between  the  horses.  With 
them  it  is  possible  to  work  quite  close  to  the  trees  and  vines,  and  is  es- 
pecially desirable  in  the  vineyard  in  working  close  to  the  vines  when 
they  have  grown  out  about  two  feet,  which  is  a  difficult  job  with  the 
old-style  harness. 

SUMMER    TREATMENT    OF    PLOWED    ORCHARDS    AND 

VINEYARD 

Where  the  orchard  or  vineyard  is  plowed  twice  during  the  winter, 
the  land  should  remain  after  the  first  plowing  as  the  plow  leaves  it. 
The  moistening  and  aeration  during  the  winter  have  good  effect  upon 
the  soil  both  chemically  and  mechanically. 

If  but  one  plowing  is  done,  when  the  chief  rains  are  supposed  to  be 
over,  there  must  be  full  effort  put  forth  to  reduce  the  soil  to  good  tilth, 


136  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS  :    HOW   TO   GROW   THEM 

and  to  level  the  surface  as  much  as  possible.  This  is  done  by  harrowing 
with  one  of  the  several  improved  harrows  which  are  now  generally  in- 
troduced and  found  very  effective.  They  act  in  cultivating,  clod  crush- 
ing, and  leveling,  in  a  most  satisfactory  manner.  They  are  too  well 
known  to  need  description.  Each  has  its  advocates  and  its  adaptations 
to  certain  soils.  As  with  plows,  so  with  harrows  and  cultivators,  the 
best  for  one  soil  may  not  be  the  best  for  another,  and  local  inquiry 
among  experienced  fruit  growers  will  be  the  best  guide  for  the  new- 
comer. In  addition  to  the  excellent  implements  brought  from  the  East- 
ern States,  there  are  others  of  California  invention  and  manufacture 
which  have  very  marked  local  adaptations,  and  almost  every  fruit 
region  in  California  has  some  embodiment  of  local  inventive  genius  in 
the  form  of  implements  of  tillage. 

The  secret  of  success  in  handling  the  heavier  soils  in  spring  working 
is  to  secure  as  perfect  surface  pulverization  as  possible  without  com- 
pacting the  soil.  Light  soils  need  a  certain  amount  of  firming  after 
plowing,  or  else  there  is  too  free  access  of  air  and  too  great  drying  out. 
For  these  and  other  reasons,  the  grower  has  to  study  his  soil  and  learn 
from  observation  the  methods  which  succeed  best  with  it.  The  practice 
which  gave  success  under  certain  conditions  might  not  be  well  adapted 
under  other  conditions.  The  use  of  the  roller  is  a  striking  example  of 
this  fact.  In  some  orchards  the  roller  is  a  benefit,  in  others  a  decided 
injury.  Its  chief  effect  is  compacting  the  surface  layer,  which  is  only 
desirable  on  very  coarse  open  soils.  The  long-tooth  harrow  accom- 
plishes a  very  marked  compacting  of  the  soil  to  the  depth  it  reaches, 
and  often  settles  the  lower  layer  too  closely  and  causes  it  to  run  together 
too  solidly  if  rain  follows.  The  modern  cultivators,  clod-crushers,  disk- 
harrows,  etc.,  are  superior  in  effect,  each  in  the  soil  to  which  its  action 
is  most  desirable. 

After  working  down  the  soil  after  plowing,  the  cultivator  is  relied 
upon  to  kill  the  weeds,  break  up  the  crust  which  may  form  after  spring 
rains  or  after  irrigation,  and  to  prevent  the  compacting  of  the  surface 
layer  of  the  soil  from  any  causes. 


CULTIVATION  WITHOUT  PLOWING 

There  are  orchards  in  California  which  have  not  been  plowed  for 
years — in  some  cases  the  plow  has  not  been  used  since  the  trees  were 
planted.  Instances  of  this  kind  are  to  be  found  both  in  irrigated  and 
unirrigated  land.  It  depends  largely  upon  the  mechanical  condition 
and  disposition  of  the  soil  whether  the  practice  will  give  satisfactory 
results.  It  can  not  be  trusted  on  land  prone  to  develop  hardpan,  as  has 
already  been  considered,  and  yet  the  term  "cultivation"  has  taken  such 
a  wide  range  in  this  State,  and  the  tools  have  reached  such  efficiency, 
that  there  is  not  as  much  difference  as  formerly  between  the  plow  and 
the  cultivator,  except  that  the  former  turns  the  soil  and  the  latter  stirs 
without  turning.  For  some  who  oppose  the  .use  of  the  plow,  use  a 
chisel-tooth  cultivator,  cutting  to  a  depth  of  eight  inches  in  the  spring, 
but  at  other  times  of  the  year  they  are  not  more  than  half  as  deep. 
This  treatment  would  tend  to  dispose  of  hardpan.  However  this  may 


PURPOSES   OF    CULTIVATION  137 

be,  and  what  the  special  nature  of  their  soils,  there  are  fruit  growers, 
both  in  northern  and  southern  California,  who  have  for  years  trusted 
almost  wholly  to  the  cultivator,  cutting  to  a  depth  of  three  or  four 
inches,  and  keep  their  orchards  throughout  the  year  almost  in  the  same 
state  of  tilth,  never  allowing  a  weed  to  grow.  This  practice  is,  how- 
ever, becoming  less  prevalent,  and  for  certain  soils  the  question  is 
practically  settled  in  the  minds  of  nearly  all  orchardists,  while  for  other 
soils  there  is  still  doubt.  For  the  heavier  soils,  which  continuous  shal- 
low cultivation  is  apt  to  render  too  compact,  it  is  necessary  to  have  re- 
course to  the  plow  to  open  the  land  for  proper  aeration  and  penetration 
of  moisture  which  otherwise  would  be  largely  lost  by  surface  run-off. 
The  lighter  soils  do  not  require  this  and  they  seem  to  do  well  with  con- 
tinuous use  of  the  cultivator.  It  is  beginning  to  be  clearly  seen,  how- 
ever, that  this  treatment  tends  toward  the  decrease  of  the  humus  and 
the  consequent  impoverishment  of  the  soil.  Its  water-holding  capacity 
is  also  lessened.  These  facts  have  induced  some  growers  to  change 
their  practice  and  to  take  up  the  plow  during  late  winter  or  early  spring 
to  cover  in  the  growth  of  green  stuff  which  they  allow  to  grow  instead 
of  frequently  destroying  it  with  the  winter  use  of  the  cultivator.  Either 
the  fall  and  spring  plowing,  or  both,  followed  by  the  summer  use  of 
the  cultivator,  the  most  rational  and  satisfactory  practice  for  most 
of  our  deciduous  orchards,  though  there  are  local  conditions  and  cir- 
cumstances under  which  different  procedure  is  preferable. 


SUMMER  CULTIVATION 

Whatever  the  winter  policy  may  be,  the  essential  point  in  summer 
cutivation  is  to  preserve  the  surface  layer  of  pulverised  earth.  It  will 
not  do  to  have  a  few  inches  of  clogs,  from  the  size  of  a  pea  to  that  of  a 
goose  egg,  resting  on  a  hard  surface.  The  finer  the  pulverization  the 
shallower  can  be  the  surface  layer,  and  vice  versa,  and  this  is  probably 
one  reason  why  in  practice  the  work  of  the  plow  is,  in  so  many  situa- 
tions, found  the  best  foundation  upon  which  to  rest  the  years'  cultiva- 
tion. 

In  order  to  secure  this  finely-pulverized  layer,  it  is  sometimes  neces- 
sary to  use  what  is  called  a  "rubber,"  where  there  are  many  clods  which 
are  merely  displaced  by  the  harrow  or  cultivator.  There  are  different 
styles,  and  they  are  generally  home-made.  The  most  common  form  is 
made  of  two-inch  plank  in  lengths  of  three  or  four  feet,  bolted  or  spiked 
to  pieces  of  four-by-four-inch  scantling  running  crosswise,  the  edges 
of  the  planks  lapped  like  the  clapboards  which  are  used  for  weather 
boarding.  As  these  edges  are  drawn  over  the  surface,  the  clods  are 
rubbed  into  tilth  if  they  are  not  too  hard  and  dry. 

But  this  rubbing  may  be  very  undesirable  if  it  leaves  the  surface 
smooth  and  polished.  It  may  reflect  the  sunheat  even  to  tree-burning, 
and  is  apt  to  form  an  evaporating  surface,  which  is  most  to  be  avoided. 
The  best  finish  for  the  land  is  that  produced  by  a  light,  fine-toothed 
harrow,  and  an  attachment  of  this  kind  is  provided  with  various  clod 
crushers  and  cultivators.  The  result  is  a  surface  af  loose  earth,  flat  and 
fine,  which  approaches  very  closely  an  ideal  condition. 


138  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS  I    HOW   TO   GROW   THEM 

There  is  less  difference  than  formerly  in  the  use  of  the  harrow  or 
cultivator  during  the  summer.  Still  some  are  content  to  use  the  culti- 
vator only  as  a  weed-killer,  and  after  the  weeds  cease  to  grow  and  the 
spring  showers  are  over,  the  cultivator  is  laid  aside  and  the  land  left 
unstirred  until  the  following  winter.  This,  of  course,  refers  to  unirri- 
gated  ground,  for  wherever  irrigation  is  practiced  a  cultivator  must  fol- 
low, except  on  hillsides;  where  the  surface  is  left  undisturbed  after  the 
irrigation  furrows  are  made  until  the  beginning  of  the  dry  season. 
It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  even  if  no  rain  falls,  the  soil  becomes  com- 
pacted to  a  certain  degree,  and  the  best  way  to  imprison  the  greatest 
possible  amount  of  moisture  below  is  to  run  the  cultivator  at  intervals 
all  through  the  dry  season.  It  should  run  shallow  and  only  stir  the  sur- 
face layer.  The  experience  of  the  most  successful  growers  is  that  fre- 
quent stirring  without,  however,  bringing  new  soil  to  the  air,  is  the 
best-paying  practice. 

WHAT  IS  THOROUGH  CULTIVATION 

As  clean,  thorough  cultivation  has  been  approved,  it  may  be  desir- 
able to  attempt  to  define  the  term.  It  can,  however,  only  be  approxi- 
mately done,  because  of  the  great  difference  in  individual  views  and 
practices.  Some  indication  of  the  operations  which  are  contemplated 
may  be  had  in  the  following  specifications  upon  which  contracts  have 
been  let  for  care  of  orchard :  First,  plowing  away  from  the  trees,  fol- 
lowed by  harrowing;  second,  plowing  toward  the  trees,  followed  by 
harrowing;  ten  summer  workings  with  cultivator;  three  working  with 
shallow  cultivator  or  weed-cutter;  five  hand  hoeings  around  the  trees. 
The  contract  intends  the  most  complete  and  perfect  working  of  the  soil 
and  specifies  the  above  merely  that  there  may  be  no  difference  of  opin- 
ion between  owner  and  contractor. 

In  cases  where  the  land  is  infected  with  morning-glory,  weekly  cut- 
ting with  sharp,  flat  teeth  beneath  the  surface  is  stipulated  for  in  some 
cases,  and  this  seems  about  the  only  way  to  cope  with  this  formidable 
trespasser. 

CULTIVATION  FOR  WEED  KILLING 

Cultivation  for  weed  killing  is  a  minor  consideration  in  California, 
because  cultivation  for  moisture  conservation  effectually  disposes  of 
most  of  them,  and  weeds  do  not  start  readily  in  the  earth-mulch  during 
the  dry  season.  There  are,  however,  a  few  most  persistent  pests  which 
require  heroic  measures.  Johnson  grass  and  morning-glory  are  the 
most  prominent  of  these.  The  only  successful  treatment  consists  in 
cutting  constantly  with  a  weed-cutter  (a  sharp  horizontal  knife),  oper- 
ated so  as  to  pass  under  the  whole  surface  and  run  so  often  that  the 
plant  is  never  allowed  to  show  a  shoot  on  the  surface.  It  is  of  no  use 
merely  to  cultivate  or  "weed-cut"  as  for  other  weeds.  This  spreads 
the  pest  more  and  more ;  but  if  the  rising  shoots  are  continually  cut 
under  the  surface,  and  never  allowed  to  get  the  light,  it  will  kill  the 
plant  surely,  but  it  may  take  two  seasons  to  do  it.  Weed-cutting  knives 


SOIL   COVERING   TO    HOLD   MOISTURE  139 

of  this  description  are  usually  contrived  by  local  smiths  and  are  attached 
to  sleds  or  fitted  with  plow  handles,  or  used  with  a  pair  of  thills  and 
cultivator  handles  or  other  rigging  as  the  operator  may  choose.  The 
vital  point  is  a  blade  of  sheet  steel,  very  sharp  and  rigged  to  run  just 
under  the  surface.  It  must  be  used  as  often  as  once  each  week. 


MULCHING  A  SUBSTITUTE  FOR  CULTIVATION 

The  use  of  a  mulch  or  covering  of  the  ground  with  a  litter  of  light 
materials  to  prevent  evaporation,  is  practised  to  a  small  extent  in  this 
State.  Though  mainly  used  for  berries  of  different  kinds,  recourse  has 
also  been  had  to  mulching  by  vineyardists.  The  materials  used  are 
various,  such  as  partly-rotted  straw,  coarse  manure,  damaged  hay,  corn- 
husks,  corn-stalks,  vine  prunings  and  leaves,  and  even  fine  brush  from 
adjacent  thickets.  The  practice  has  been  found  of  greatest  value  on 
hillsides  where  cultivation  is  difficult,  and  danger  of  washing  of  loose 
soil  is  great.  There  are  cases  where  vines  have  been  grown  several 
years  in  this  way  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  owner.  The  danger  of  fire 
in  our  dry  climate  when  the  surface  is  covered  to  a  depth  of  several 
inches  with  a  dry  mulch  is  considerable.  As  a  rule,  the  mulch  employed 
by  the  California  grower  is  a  perfect  pulverization  of  the  surface  soil. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

FERTILIZERS  FOR  TREES  AND  VINES 

It  was  a  popular  doctrine  among  early  Californians  that  California 
soils  would  never  need  fertilization,  and  that  there  is  something  in  our 
soil  and  climate  which  releases  us  forever  from  repaying  anything  to 
the  ground  for  the  wealth  of  produce  which  we  take  from  it.  Such  a 
view  is,  of  course,  without  foundation,  and  yet  it  is  not  difficult  to  see 
how  it  arose.  Early  attempts  to  enrich  the  soil  by  the  turning  under 
of  coarse  stable  manure,  as  is  done  in  other  countries,  was  undertaken 
here  on  light  soil  in  a  region  rather  short  of  rainfall.  The  manure  did 
not  decompose,  and  its  coarse  materials  made  a  soil,  already  too  light 
to  retain  moisture  well,  so  open  and  porous  that  its  moisture  was  quickly 
carried  away  by  evaporation,  and  crops  did  not  grow  so  well  as  upon 
adjacent  land  which  had  not  been  manured.  So  the  fiat  went  forth 
against  manure.  The  corrals*  became  undisturbed  guano  deposits,  and 
manure  piles  were  fired  in  dry  weather  to  get  the  soil  poison  out  of  the 
way.  Innumerable  tons  of  bones  were  gathered  and  ground  in  San 
Francisco  and  shipped  away  to  countries  which  need  fertilizers. 
Nature  did  much  to  foster  the  popular  delusion,  for  field  crops  were 
gloriously  large,  and  trees  and  vines  grew  rampantly  and  bore  fruit  the 
weight  of  which  they  were  unable  to  sustain.  How  could  there  be  more 
conclusive  evidence  that  manure  was  a  detriment  to  California  soils  ? 

A  few  decades  of  experience  have  swept  away  such  fallacies  and 
now  California  growers,  especially  those  handling  citrus  fruits,  are  not 
only  freely  investing  in  commercial  fertilizers  but  are  buying  and  ship- 
ping considerable  distances  all  available  animal  manures.  They  are  also 
untiring  students  of  the  art  of  fertilization  and  the  sciences  underlying 
it.  It  was  in  response  to  their  demand  that  the  California  Legislature 
of  1903  passed  a  fertilizer  control  law  giving  the  University  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station  regulation  of  the  trade  in  fertilizing  materials. 
All  dealers  are  required  to  register  and  submit  samples  of  their  brands 
and  there  is  constant  inspection  to  detect  departures.  Semi-annual  re- 
ports are  published  for  public  information  and  these,  with  special  in- 
structions for  taking  samples  when  purchasers  desire  analyses  on  their 
own  account,  can  be  had  by  application  to  the  Experiment  Station  at 
Berkeley.  The  total  amount  of  sales  reported  under  the  law  for  the 
year  ending  June  30,  1912,  was  50,995  tons. 

It  is  foreign  to  our  purpose  to  discuss  the  general  subject  of  the  use 
of  fertilizers  in  California,  and  the  changes  in  belief  and  practice  which 
have  recently  gained  ground.  Of  course,  the  marked  falling  off  in  the 
yield  of  shallow-rooting  cereals  gave  the  first  unmistakable  intimation 
that  there  was  nothing  wrong  about  the  old  theory  of  the  perpetual 
youth  of  California  soils.  The  lands  used  for  fruit  are  sometimes  slow 
to  show  exhaustion,  because  trees  are  deep  feeders,  and  the  soils,  as 
they  are  often  the  very  best  and  deepest  of  the  State,  selected  for  fruit 
because  of  that  very  character,  possess,  in  an  eminent  degree  lasting 

*Inclosures  for  livestock  of  any  kind. 

140 


WHEN    TO    USE    FERTILIZERS  141 

properties,  as  is  shown  in  the  chapter  on  the  fruit  soils  of  California. 
But  certain  of  these  soils  are  already  showing  the  need  of  refreshment, 
and  intelligent  growers  are  quick  to  minister  to  the  lands  which  are 
giving  them  such  generous  returns,  as  they  can  well  afford  to  do. 

WHEN    IS    FERTILIZATION    NECESSARY? 

Though  the  use  of  fertilizers  by  our  fruit  growers  is  beginning,  it 
should  be  plainly  stated  that  at  present,  except  perhaps  with  citrus 
fruit  trees,  or  the  oldest  orchards  of  other  fruits,  it  is  not  yet  the  rule 
that  such  applications  are  necessary.  There  are  some  soils  which  are 
really  too  rich  for  fruit.  There  is  sometimes  an  over-rank  growth  of 
wood,  which  delays  or  prevents  the  formation  of  fruit  buds,  and  there 
is  a  marvelous  development  of  fruit  which  is  inconsistent  with  the  high- 
est quality.  For  this  reason  the  grower  should  not  conclude,  from  the 
foregoing  general  remarks  concerning  the  need  of  fertilization  in  Cali- 
fornia, that  he  must  manure  his  soil  whether  it  needs  it  or  not.  Espe- 
cially is  this  the  case  with  young  trees,  in  which  the  wood  growth  is 
easily  over-stimulated.  As  with  irrigation,  so  in  fertilization;  the  tree 
or  vine  itself  will  give  the  observing  grower  hints  as  to  its  needs,  and  if 
the  growth  of  wood  and  color  of  foliage  are  such  as  obviously  indicate 
health  and  vigor,  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  plant  needs  nothing  but 
good  cultivation  and  intelligent  pruning. 

Usually  cases  of  over-rich  ground  will  cure  themselves  as  the  trees 
attain  size  and  full  bearing,  and  it  is  then  that  fertilization  may  be 
necessary.  When  the  tree  or  vine  which  has  been  properly  pruned  and 
cultivated  is  not  able  to  mature  a  good  weight  of  well-developed  fruit, 
and  make  a  satisfactory  wood  growth,  usually  at  the  same  time  showing 
some  degree  of  distress  by  the  color  of  its  foliage,  it  needs  help ;  and 
if  the  grower  is  sure  that  the  trouble  is  not  from  lack  of  moisture  in 
the  soil,  he  should  bestir  himself  in  the  manuring  of  his  orchard  or 
vineyard.  In  examining  the  soil  for  moisture,  one  should  dig  deeply,  for 
there  have  been  cases  of  moisture  near  the  surface,  and  drouth  below. 

WHAT  FERTILIZERS  APPLY  TO  FRUIT  TREES  AND  VINES 

A  discussion  of  this  subject  from  a  chemist's  point  of  view  is 
beyond  the  scope  of  this  volume.  The  results  of  research  at  the  Uni- 
versity Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley  are  summarized  in  the  treatise 
on  soils  by  Dr.  E.  W.  Hilgard,  who  maintains  the  position  that  the 
most  intelligent  and  economical  choice  of  fertilizers  is  to  be  made 
after  ascertaining  by  analysis  in  what  constituents  the  soil  is  deficient 
and  in  what  it  is  well  supplied.  Some  applications  made  in  conformity 
with  suggestions  based  upon  analysis  have  proved  very  satisfactory. 
But  as  soils  vary  within  narrow  limits  of  area,  there  must  be  analysis 
for  each  soil  in  question. 

Approaching  the  matter  of  choosing  fertilizers  without  soil  analysis, 
the  method  by  local  trial  is  open.  In  this  recourse  there  is  danger 
of  error,  as  pointed  out  by  Dr.  Hilgard,  arising  from  local  differences 
in  soil  and  subsoil,  and  must  be  checked  by  several  check  plots  so 
interposed  between  the  others  as  to  not  only  check  them  by  direct  com- 


142  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS  I    HOW    TO   GROW    THEM 

parison,  and  to  prevent  the  washing  of  fertilizers  from  one  fertilized 
plot  to  another,  but  they  must  also  be  compared,  first  of  all,  among 
themselves,  to  determine  what  is  the  normal  product  of  the  unfertilized 
land.  It  will  frequently  be  found  that  these  unfertilized  check 
plots  differ  more  widely  between  themselves  than  do  the  fertilized 
ones  from  them  or  from  each  other.  Systematic  experimentation, 
on  plots  arranged  to  avoid  such  errors,  has  been  continued  for  several 
years  by  the  University  Experiment  Station  in  the  citrus  district  of 
Southern  California.  Results  from  this  work,  not  yet  available,  can 
be  secured,  when  ready,  by  correspondence  with  the  Station  at  Berkeley. 
It  is  also  hoped  by  this  work  to  secure  some  knowledge  of  what  specific 
effects  on  growth  or  fruiting  are  caused  by  the  use  of  particular  sub- 
stances. Statements  now  freely  made  along  this  line  are  largely 
conjectural. 

From  these  statements  it  must  appear  that  the  prescription  of 
fertilizers  is  not  an  easy  matter.  Disappointments  will  naturally  be 
encountered,  but  unquestionably  the  advantage  is  on  the  side  of  patient 
trial  and  wise  investment  in  fertilizers  honestly  made  and  honestly 
sold.  The  observing  grower  must  learn  all  that  he  can  from  experience. 
It  is  obviously  the  duty  of  the  grower  to  constantly  study  fertilizer 
questions  as  presented  in  books  and  journals  and  to  be  alert  for  obser- 
vation of  the  behavior  of  his  own  trees  with  the  applications  he  may 
make.  The  publications  of  responsible  fertilizer  manufacturers  and 
dealers,  also  convey  important  information  when  read  discriminately. 

Though  the  deficiencies  of  the  soil,  as  learned  by  analysis,  or  by 
practical  test,  must  be  the  basis  of  prescription  of  fertilizers,  the 
analyses  of  fruits,  as  showing  the  special  needs  of  the  plants,  are  of 
the  highest  importance.  The  following  analyses  of  the  different  fruits, 
containing  in  each  case,  skin,  pulp,  and  seeds,  are  almost  entirely  from 
California-grown  specimens,  and  are  supposed  to  represent  an  average 
composition  of  the  fruits  named. 

Quantities  of  soil  ingredients  withdrawn  by  various  fruits 

Compiled  from  analyses  by  G.  E.  Colby,  University  of  California. 


Fresh  Fruit 
100Q  Pounds. 

Total  Ash 
Pounds. 

Potash 
Pounds. 

Lime    Phosphoric  Acid     Nitrogen 
Pounds.           Pounds.             Pounds. 

Almondst   

17.29 

9.95 

1.04 

2.04              7.01 

Apricots    

5.08 

3.01 

.16 

.66               1.94 

Apples  

2.64 

1.40 

.11 

.33               1.05 

Bananas    

10.78 

6.80 

.10 

.17                .97 

Cherries    

4.82 

2.77 

.20 

.72              2.29 

Chestnutst   

9.52 

3.67 

1.20 

1.58              6.40 

Figs   

7.81 

4.69 

.85 

.86              2.38 

Grapes     

5.00 

2.55 

.25 

.11 

.26 

Lemons   

5.26 

2.54 

1.55 

.58 

.51 

Olives    

13.50 

9.11 

2.43 

1.25 

).60 

Oranges    

4.32 

2.11 

.97 

.53 

.83 

Peaches  

5.30 

3.94* 

.14* 

.85* 

.20* 

Pears  

2.50 

1.34 

.19 

.34 

.90 

Prunes,  French  

4.86 

3.10 

22 

.68 

.82 

Plums    

5.35 

3.41* 

.25* 

.75* 

.81 

Walnutst    

12.98 

8.18 

1.55 

1.47              5.41 

t  Including   hulls.         *  Estimated. 


HOW    TO    USE    BONES    FOR   FRUIT   TREES  143 

FIRST   AID    TO    THE    INJURED    SOIL 

Based  upon  the  clear  characteristics  of  California  soils  as  already 
indicated  in  the  chapter  on  that  subject,  Dr.  Hilgard  advises  that  any 
large-scale  fertilization  should  begin  with  phosphates  and  nitrogen, 
and,  should  this  not  prove  fully  satisfactory,  then  with  potash  also,  this 
being  the  order  in  which  these  substances  are  likely  to  become  deficient 
in  most  of  our  soils  under  cultivation.  In  the  course  of  time  potash 
fertilization  will  become  widely  necessary  in  this  State;  in  fact  some 
California  soils  are  naturally  deficient  in  potash. 


AVAILABLE  SUPPLIES  OF  PHOSPHATES 

Phosphatic  manures  which  are  clearly  promotive  of  freer  fruiting 
of  trees  and  vines,  are  now  being  supplied  to  fruit  growers  by 
importers  and  manufacturers  located  in  various  California  cities,  and 
results  attained  by  their  use  are  such  as  to  warrant  continuance.  They 
are  bone  and  rock  phosphates,  which  are  transformed  into  superphos- 
phates, and  with  nitrogenous  matter  added,  serve  as  good  applications 
both  for  growth  and  fruiting. 

Home-Made  Bone  Manures. — Much  good  bone  manure  can  be 
made  by  collecting  bones,  heads,  horns,  feet,  etc.,  from  butchers'  shops 
or  elsewhere.  How  to  make  such  material  available,  by  simple  proceed- 
ings, is  described  by  Prof.  Hilgard  as  follows : 

1.  Bones  put  into  a  well-kept  (moistened)  manure  pile  will  themselves  grad- 
ually decay  and  disappear,  enriching  the  manure  to  that  extent. 

2.  Raw  bones  may  be  bodily  buried  in  the  soil  around  the  trees;  if  placed 
at  a  sufficient  depth,  beyond  the  reach  of  the  summer's  heat  and  drouth  and 
cultivating  tools,  the  rootlets  will  cluster  around  each  piece,  and,  in  course  of  a 
few  years,  consume  it  entirely. 

3.  Bones  may  be  packed  in  moist  wood  ashes,  best  mixed  with  a  little  quick- 
lime, the  mass  kept  moist  but  never  dripping.     In  a  few  months  the  hardest  bones 
will  be  reduced  to  a  fine  mush,  which  is  as  effectual  as  super-phosphate.     Con- 
centrated lye  and  soil  may  be  used  instead  of  ashes.     In  this  process  the  nitrogen 
of  the  bones  is  lost,  going  off  in  the  form  of  ammonia,  the  odor  of  which  is 
very  perceptible  in  the  tank  used. 

For  neither  of  these  processes  should  the  bones  be  burned.  The  burning  of 
bones,  is  an  unqualified  destriment  to  their  effectiveness,  which  can  only  be  undone 
bv  the  use  of  sulphuric  acid. 

4.  Bones  steamed  for  three  or  four  hours  in  a  boiler  under  a  pressure  of 
thirty-five  to  fifty  pounds,  can,  after  drying,  be  readily  crushed  in  an  ordinary 
barley-crushing  mill,  and  thus  be  rendered  more  convenient  for  use.     Practically, 
very  little  of  the  nitrogen  (glue)  of  the  bones  need  be  thus  lost. 


POTASH 

Though,  as  already  stated,  potash  is  commonly  in  good  supply 
in  California  soils,  it  is  very  clear  from  experience  that  additions  of 
potash,  perhaps  in  more  available  form,  are  advisable.  The  fruit 
analyses  already  given  show  that  the  use  of  this  substance  by  fruit 
trees  and  vines  is  very  large.  Recent  experiments  seem  to  indicate 
that  potash  ministers  directly  to  the  quality  of  the  fruit  in  some  cases. 


144  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS  I    HOW    TO   GROW    THEM 

Ashes  from  wood  fires  are  the  most  available  source  of  potash,  but  it 
is  a  mistake  to  regard  wood  ashes  as  valuable  only  for  their  potash 
contents.  Professor  Storer  has  found  by  analysis  of  a  number  of 
samples  of  house  ashes,  that  selected  samples  contain  8^2  per  cent  of 
real  potash,  and  2  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  or  say  4l/2  pounds  of 
potash  and  one  pound  of  phosphoric  per  bushel.  Hence  there  is 
enough  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  to  make  a  bushel  of  ashes  worth 
twenty  or  twenty-five  cents,  and  besides  that,  some  ten  or  fifteen  cents 
additional  may  not  be  allowed  for  the  "alkali  power"  of  the  ashes,  i.  e., 
the  force  of  alkalinity  which  enables  ashes  to  rot  weeds  and  to  ferment 
peat. 

These  facts  suggest  to  the  fruit  grower  that  he  should  carefully 
preserve  all  home-made  wood  ashes  and  apply  them  to  the  soil  at  once, 
or,  if  stored  for  future  application,  be  sure  that  they  are  kept  dry. 
Leached  ashes  from  the  lye  barrel,  or  ashes  from  open  piles,  leached 
by  rains,  are  hardly  worth  handling.  Coal  ashes  are  almost  devoid 
of  fertilizing  properties,  though,  if  finely  divided,  as  in  the  case  of 
coals  burning  completely,  their  use  is  beneficial,  mechanically,  on  clay 
soils,  in  the  same  way  that  fine  sand  would  be. 

The  chief  supplies  of  potash  salts  are  now  brought  from  Germany, 
but  a  strenuous  effort  is  being  made  to  develop  a  local  supply  from 
sea-weeds  and  by  developing  deposits  in  the  arid  regions  of  this 
country. 

NITROGEN 

Nitrogen  ministers  directly  to  the  vegetative  activity  of  the  plant 
and  this  is  a  wonderful  stimulant  of  wood  growth  and  foliage.  Sup- 
plies of  this  substance  can  be  had  from  animal  manures,  which  will 
be  considered  later.  The  effect  of  stable  manure  upon  the  soil  and 
the  plant  is  notably  strengthening  and  restorative.  For  this  reason 
money  and  effort  are  often  well  -expended  in  securing  it  even  beyond 
the  cost  of  the  equivalent  of  the  plant  food  which  it  contains.  Another 
natural  form  of  nitrogen  in  cover  crops  or  green  manures  will  be 
discussed  presently.  Of  commercial  forms  of  nitrogen,  tankage  and 
dried  blood  are  highly  esteemed  for  orchard  use,  and  there  is  large 
use  also  of  Chile  saltpeter,  which  contains  about  sixteen  per  cent  of 
nitrogen,  in  immediately  available  form.  From  two  to  four  hundred 
pounds  per  acre  is  the  usual  application,  and  it  should  be  evenly  dis- 
tributed over  the  ground,  not  collected  near  the  trees.  Sulphate  of 
ammonia  is  another  available  source  of  nitrogen  obtainable  in  com- 
merce; a  good  commercial  article  contains  twenty  per  cent  and  over 
of  nitrogen.  It  does  not,  however,  act  quite  as  rapidly  as  the  Chile 
saltpeter.  A  suggestion  of  caution  in  the  use  of  nitrogenous  manures 
will  be  given  presently. 

LIME,    GYPSUM     AND    MARL 

Lime  is  another  substance  usually  abundant  in  California  soils, 
but  still  often  desirable  as  an  application.  This  is,  notably,  the  case 
on  our  heavy  clays  or  adobes,  where,  as  has  already  been  mentioned 


VARIOUS   FORMS   OF   LIME  145 

in  another  connection,  the  use  of  lime  as  a  top  dressing,  at  the  rate  of 
six  hundred  to  one  thousand  pounds  to  the  acre,  not  only  makes  the 
heavy  soil  more  friable,  but  acts  upon  and  makes  available  the  large 
amount  of  organic  matter  which  such  soils  usually  contain.  Lime  also 
renders  inorganic  materials  more  available  for  plant  food,  corrects 
acidity,  and  may  destroy  insects  and  fungi.  Application  of  lime  is 
also  desirable  after  applications  of  barnyard  manure  have  been  made 
for  several  years;  and  it  is  especially  valuable  wherever,  in  alluvial 
soils  rich  in  vegetable  matter,  there  is  an  excessive  growth  of  wood 
and  leaf.  Usually  light  soils  are  not  materially  benefited  by  the  use 
of  lime. 

Ground  limestone  is  gaining  standing  as  a  fertilizer.  It  acts  less 
vigorously  and  -more  slowly  than  burnt  lime  or  hydrate  of  lime  in 
improving  heavy  soils,  but  it  serves  a  good  purpose  in  overcoming 
sourness  in  loams,  silts  or  sands.  It  should  be  used  in  double  the 
amounts  prescribed  for  other  forms  of  lime. 

Gypsum. — Gypsum,  or  land  plaster  (sulphate  of  lime),  occurs 
in  considerable  quantities  in  this  State  and  Nevada.  It  acts  directly 
in  correcting  soils  made  alkaline  by  presence  of  carbonate  of  soda. 
Applied  to  soils  not  alkaline,  gypsum  sets  free  potash,  magnesia,  and 
ammonia,  which  may  be  present  in  insoluble  form;  and  it  also  causes 
potash  to  be  transferred  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  layers  of  the 
soil,  so  that  roots  can  everywhere  find  a  store  of  it.  Hence  its  special 
value  when  applied  to  deep-rooting  plants.  The  reason  why  gypsum 
is  so  capricious  in  its  action,  which  was  long  a  mystery,  is  now  held 
to  be  clear,  because  upon  soils  that  are  tolerably  rich  in  fixed  potash 
it  will  do  good  service,  while  upon  soils  poor  in  potash  it  will  not.  In 
any  event  gypsum  is  to  be  regarded  as  an  excitant  rather  than  as  a 
form  of  plant  food. 

Of  the  several  uses  of  gypsum,  probably  its  chief  value  lies  in  its 
power  as  an  absorbent.  If  added  to  manure  in  excess  it  delays  fermen- 
tation, and  it  is,  therefore,  not  a  desirable  addition  to  the  compost  heap. 
But  for  covering  fermenting  manures  or  scattering  around  moist  places 
in  horse  and  cow  stables  to  absorb  odors  and  fix  volatile  manurial 
substances  it  is  of  value.  Gypsum  does  not  correct  acidity  nor  does  it 
promote  decay  of  organic  matter  as  other  forms  of  lime  do. 

Marls. — Marl  is  a  calcareous  earth,  and  is  called  shell  marl,  rock 
marl,  earthy  marls,  etc.,  according  to  its  origin  and  mechanical  condi- 
tion. A  number  of  samples  from  different  parts  of  the  State  have  been 
analyzed  and  some  of  them  commended  for  local  application  to  soils 
needing  lime,  but  they  are  usually  not  valuable  enough  to  warrant 
hauling  far. 

BARNYARD    MANURE   AND    COMPOST 

Where  fruit  growing  is  carried  on  with  stock  growing,  there  are 
abundant  supplies  of  manure  available,  but  this  combination  is  not 
characteristic  of  California,  though  prevailing  to  some  extent,  and 
likely  to  be  more  prevalent  as  fruit  planting  extends  farther  from  the 
centers  which  are  wholly  given  to  it.  But  even  in  the  fruit  centers 


146  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW   TO   GROW    THEM 

there  are  certain  amounts  of  material  available  from  the  animals  that 
are  kept  for  cultivation  and  hauling,  or  to  be  had,  often,  for  the 
expense  of  hauling  from  adjacent  towns. 

As  already  stated,  coarse,  unrotted  manure  can  seldom  be  used  to 
advantage  in  this  State,  unless  it  be  plowed  under  in  the  fall  in  heavy 
soils  with  ample  rainfall,  or  on  lighter  soils,  perhaps,  if  well  irrigated. 
So  great,  however,  is  the  demand  for  humus-enrichment  of  soils  that 
all  available  supplies  of  stable -cleanings  are  readily  sold  in  towns  in 
the  citrus  districts  to  go  considerable  distances  by  rail  to  the  orchards. 
Thus  fresh  manure  is  largely  used,  although  either  finely  divided  or 
well-rotted  manure  is  superior.  Corral  scrapings,  which  are  usually 
the  first  resource  when  the  idea  of  manuring  springs  up  in  a  neighbor- 
hood, are  not  always  well  decomposed,  but  they  are  finely  divided,  and 
therefore  decompose  readily  as  compared  with  coarse  straw,  which, 
it  is  said,  has  been  found  practically  unchanged  even  after  lying  two 
years  in  a  dry,  loose  soil.  It  is,  therefore,  of  the  greatest  advantage  to 
prepare  barnyard  manure  with  care  for  use  in  this  State  by  some  such 
method  as  will  be  described  below,  which  includes  composting,  thereby 
turning  to  account  nearly  all  organic  material  likely  to  be  available. 
This  advice  is  obviously  for  the  use  of  the  orchardist  who  keeps  live- 
stock rather  than  for  the  large  commercial  grower. 

Clean  up  all  the  manure  on  hand  just  before  the  fall  rains,  putting  the  same 
on  the  land,  and  either  cultivate  it  in  or  plow  it  under.  What  manure  accumu- 
lates during  the  winter  pile  in  a  snug  heap  some  five  or  six  feet  in  depth,  and 
throw  it  over  some  three  or  four  times  during  the  winter  to  keep  it  from 
burning,  as  well  as  to  thoroughly  mix  it  and  thereby  hasten  decomposition. 
Put  horse,  cow,  hog,  chicken  and  every  other  kind  of  manure  that  can  be  had,  all 
together.  Never  burn  anything  that  will  rot,  but  haul  to  the  pile  corn-stalks, 
roots,  and  all  squash,  melon,  tomato,  and  potato  vines,  etc.,  as  well  as  weeds  of 
every  description ;  in  fact,  anything  and  everything  that  will  decay  and  make 
vegetable  matter.  Use  fresh  horse  manure  mostly  to  hasten  the  decomposition  of  said 
vines,  weeds,  etc.,  alternating  as  the  heap  is  made.  By  so  doing  there  will  not 
be  a  weed  seed  left  with  vitality  enough  to  germinate.  It  is  well  to  have 
manure  piles  under  a  roof  to  avoid  leaching  during  the  longest  and  most 
excessive  rains,  but  so  situated  that  some  of  the  rain  falling  on  the  barn  can 
be  easily  conducted  to  the  piles,  giving  them  just  the  amount  of  water  necessary 
to  wet  thoroughly  without  leaching,  and  no  more. 

Treatment  of  Manure  Without  Composting. — Even  when  com- 
posting all  refuse  vegetable  matter  with  the  manure  is  not  thought 
worth  the  time  and  trouble,  it  is  just  as  important  to  properly  treat  the 
manure  when  stored  alone.  This  can  be  easily  done  by  some  such  plan 
as  is  described  below  by  an  owner  of  a  small  fruit  farm : 

Collect  the  stable  manure  in  a  large  bin  and  keep  it  wet  enough  to  prevent 
burning  or  "fire-hanging."  With  a  bin,  say  ten  or  twelve  feet  square  and  five  or 
six  feet  high,  built  convenient  to  the  barn,  the  manure  can  be  placed  therein  and 
watered  from  time  to  time  with  much  less  trouble  than  it  can  be  composted  with 
other  material.  This,  of  course,  presupposes  the  ability  to  run  the  water  through 
a  hose  or  by  natural  flow.  Care  must,  of  course,  be  taken  that  too  much  water 
be  not  supplied,  causing  the  substance  to  be  leached  from  the  pile.  But  in  my 
own  experience  I  find  the  danger  is  at  the  other  extreme,  and  when  I  open  my 
pile  I  sometimes  wish  I  had  used  more  water.  In  filling  the  bin  leave  one  end 
or  side  open  as  long  as  possible,  for  convenience  of  filling. 

Barnyard  manure  and  compost  carefully  prepared  in  some  such 
way  as  described,  and  applied  before  the  rains  or  early  in  the  rainy 


SHEEP   AND    POULTRY    MANURE  147 

season,  to  be  turned  under  at  the  first  plowing,  will  be  in  condition 
to  be  readily  assimilated,  and  will  not  injure  any  soil.  Where  no 
composting  is  undertaken  it  is  rational  to  apply  the  manure  during 
the  rainy  season  directly  to  the  land  if  the  rainfall  is  not  large  and 
the  land  fit  to  haul  over.  During  the  dry  season  the  manure  can  be 
spread  in  the  corral  and  tramped  into  dust  by  the  stock  because  as  long 
as  it  remains  dry  no  losses  by  fermentation  can  occur.  Near  the  end 
of  the  dry  season,  the  corral  should  be  scraped  and  all  the  material 
spread  on  the  land.  In  this  way  the  cost  and  trouble  of  manure  piles 
can  be  avoided. 

Sheep  Manure. — The  proximity  of  the  orange  orchards  of  South- 
ern California  to  extensive  sheep  ranges  led  to  large  use  of  the  manure 
from  sheep  corrals  until  supplies  were  practically  exhausted.  After- 
wards large  deposits  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  were  opened  and  the 
material  which  has  shown  value  by  analysis  in  one  case  of  above  $14 
per  ton,  is  finally  ground  and  placed  upon  the  market  in  a  business 
way.  One  deposit  mined  for  several  years  by  George  C.  Roeding 
&  Co.,  of  Fresno,  was  several  acres  in  extent,  and  at  some  points  the 
material  was  ten  feet  deep.  Such  deposits  can  seldom  be  found  now 
except  in  remote  parts  of  the  State. 

Sheep  manure  is  usually  counted  richer  and  quicker,  though  not  so 
lasting  in  its  effects,  as  stable  manure.  Being  highly  nitrogenous,  too 
free  use  of  sheep  manure  tends  to  excessive  growth  of  wood,  especially 
on  young  trees.  Old  bearing  trees  may  be  benefited  by  such  a 
stimulant. 

Poultry  Manure. — Poultry  keeping  on  fruit  farms  is  a  good 
combination  providing  the  fowls  are  not  confined  on  too  small  areas 
for  this  is  apt  to  render  the  soil  sour  and  foul  and  may  cause  trees  to 
be  unthrifty.  Poultry  manure  can  be  used  to  advantage  with  fruit 
trees  if  applied  sparingly,  for  it  is  a  concentrated  manure,  as  is  sheep 
manure.  On  the  average  clear  hen  manure,  free  from  dirt  and  trash, 
may,  when  fresh,  average  about  1  per  cent  nitrogen,  0.80  per  cent 
phosphoric  acid,  and  0.40  per  cent  potash;  in  other  words,  20  pounds 
nitrogen  per  ton,  16  pounds  phosphoric  acid,  and  8  pounds  potash. 
This  contains  55  per  cent  moisture  and  when  thoroughly  dried  might 
contain  about  half  as  much,  which  would  make  the  amounts  of  plant 
foods  just  double  what  is  stated  above.  At  the  values  usually  given 
for  these  plant  foods,  such  manure  might  be  worth  about  $10  per  ton. 


VARIOUS    WASTE    PRODUCTS 

The  care  advised  in  saving  and  treating  barnyard  manure,  hen 
manure,  bones,  ashes,  etc.,  should  be  extended  to  other  waste  products 
of  the  farm.  Soapsuds  should  be  allowed  to  run  to  adjacent  trees 
unless  used  in  the  flower  garden,  but  not  too  long  upon  the  same  trees, 
for  it  may  kill  them.  Peelings  and  corings  of  fruit,  cut  for  drying, 
should  be  fed  to  pigs,  and  the  resulting  manure  secured.  It  is  not  wise 
to  corral  the  swine  in  a  dry  run  in  the  summer  and  allow  the  manure 
to  be  sluiced  out  by  the  winter  rise  of  the  stream. 


148  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW   TO   GROW    THEM 

Prunings. — Prunings  of  the  orchard  and  vineyard  should  be 
burned  between  the  rows,  in  small  piles,  so  as  to  distribute  the  ashes 
well.  Danger  to  adjacent  trees  may  be  avoided  by  using  the  portable, 
home-made  tin  shields  on  the  sides  of  the  fires.  It  is  not  wise  to  carry 
all  the  prunings  to  the  side  of  the  highway  and  burn  them  there  and 
allow  the  ashes  to  be  lost.  Vineyard  prunings  are  sometimes  cut  up 
with  an  arrangement  like  a  straw-cutter,  which  reduces  them  to  bits 
about  an  inch  in  length.  They  are  then  scattered  over  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  turned  under  at  the  next  plowing,  and  soon  decay.  The 
use  of  cut  prunings  on  the  lemon  orchard  has  already  been  mentioned 
in  the  chapter  on  Pruning.  Where,  through  lightness  of  soil  and  short 
rainfall,  the  woody  fiber  does  not  readily  decay,  burning  upon  an  iron 
sled  about  ten  feet  long  are  practiced.  At  its  front  is  a  V-shaped  iron 
rod,  to  which  a  horse  can  be  hitched.  On  the  sled  are  flaring  sheet-iron 
sides  and  perforated  bottom.  This  is  filled  with  brush,  a  fire  kindled, 
and  as  the  horse  moves  forward  fresh  brush  is  added,  while  the  ashes 
by  its  motion  are  sifted  out  very  evenly  all  over  the  vineyard. 

Refuse  from  Wineries. — The  fermented  husks,  stems,  and  seeds, 
all  containing  valuable  fertilizing  properties,  are  often  spread  on  the 
road  and  in  holes,  where  it  is  of  no  account  whatever.  If  scattered 
over  the  vineyard,  much  valuable  substance  would  be  returned  to  the 
soil.  Professor  J.  L.  Burd,  of  the  University  of  California,  estimates 
the  contents  and  value  of  this  somewhat  variable  substance  as  follows, 
value  increasing  as  water  percentage  decreases : 

Water  Potash.     Phosphoric     Nitrogen.        Value. 

%.  Acid. 

Sweet  pomace 50.00  12.6  2.80  19.1  $4.59 

Fermented  pomace    (impressed) . . .  70.59  7.4  3.98  9.6  2.49 

Fermented  pomace  (pressed) 54.92  16.6  5.0  17.6  4.60 

Mixed  barnyard  manure 75.00  11.4  6.0  11.4  3.15 

Grape  pomace  (old)    21.00  21.4  17.90  33.60  8.67 

The  figures  of  potash,  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen  are  the  num- 
bers of  pounds  of  each  in  a  ton  of  pomace,  and  the  value  is  that  of  a 
ton.  The  barnyard  manure  is,  of  course,  inserted  for  comparison. 
Grape  pomace,  particularly  when  fresh,  is  likely  to  be  acid,  and  it  is 
desirable  that  the  acidity  be  neutralized  with  freshly  slaked  lime.  The 
use  of  large  quantities  of  fresh  grape  pomace  without  this  preliminary 
treatment  might  act  unfavorably  upon  soil  and  plants. 

Other  Waste  Products. — There  are  available  from  various  manu- 
factories different  waste  products  which  can  not  be  specified.  When 
any  such  material  comes  to  the  notice  of  the  fruit  grower,  he  should 
seek  advice  from  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  at  Berkeley, 
as  to  the  probable  value  of  the  material,  and  its  special  uses. 

CAUTION    IN    USE   OF    FERTILIZERS 

Besides  the  injunction  already  given  against  application  of  fertiliz- 
ers when  the  soil  is  already  quite  rich  enough  to  produce  good  fruit 
and  plenty  of  it,  it  should  be  noted  that  manures  unduly  rich  in  animal 
matter  should  be  used  with  caution,  as  they  may  over-stimulate  the 


METHODS    OF    APPLYING    FERTILIZERS  149 

plant,  delay  or  reduce  fruiting,  injure  the  quality  of  the  fruit,  and 
possibly  engender  disease  in  the  tree  or  vine.  Monstrous  size  and 
puffiness  of  oranges  is  clearly  due  in  some  cases  to  excess  nitrogenous 
manures.  Excessive  use  of  soluble  fertilizers  like  nitrate  of  soda  may 
kill  plants  or  trees  outright. 

The  effect  of  excessive  use  of  stable  manures,  or  other  manures 
very  rich  in  nitrogen,  upon  the  products  of  the  vine  has  been  frequently 
noted  as  destructive  to  bouquet  and  quality. 


METHODS    OF   APPLYING    FERTILIZERS 

Suggestions  concerning  proper  application  of  barnyard  manures, 
both  to  young  trees  at  planting  and  to  bearing  trees  and  vines,  have 
already  been  given.  The  same  conditions  which  cause  slow  decomposi- 
tion of  stable  manures  apply  to  any  fertilizing  material  which  is  not 
readily  soluble  in  water.  All  such  material  should  be  in  a  finely  divided 
state.  Surface  applications  of  ground  bone  will,  in  the  dry  climate  of 
California,  lie  practically  unchanged  for  a  long  period.  Ground  bone 
should  be  plowed  in  as  deeply  as  can  be  done  without  injury  to  the 
roots  of  trees  and  vines,  and  then,  if  the  surface  is  kept  cultivated,  it 
will  lie  in  moist  strata  and  decompose,  or  be  seized  by  the  searching 
rootlets.  On  the  other  hand,  super-phosphate,  or  other  really  soluble 
chemical  fertilizers,  will  produce  immediate  results,  and  can  be  most 
economically  used  on  light  and  easily  permeable  soils,  on  which  falling 
water  sinks  and  does  not  flow  over  the  surface.  In  leachy  soils  a  part 
of  such  fertilizers  might  be  carried  down  beyond  the  reach  of  shallow- 
rooting  plants,  but  there  is  little  danger  of  this  in  the  case  of  trees 
and  vines. 

When  superphosphate  is  used  on  irrigated  ground,  it  is  sometimes 
drilled  in  to  prevent  its  being  carried  along  with  the  running  water. 
One  way  is  to  run  a  chisel-tooth  cultivator  ahead  of  the  drill  and  to 
drill  in  the  fertilizer  as  deep  as  feasible  to  do  without  injuring  the 
roots.  Spring  application  of  fertilizers  are  conveniently  made  by 
spreading  upon  the  vegetation  which  is  plowed  under  at  that  season. 

Manures  with  Irrigation  Water. — Distribution  of  fertilizers  by 
using  the  flow  of  irrigation  water  is  described  by  A.  S.  Chapman, 
as  follows: 

We  shovel  sheep  manure  into  the  irrigating  ditches,  allowing  each  tree  to 
receive  about  twenty-five  pounds  at  each  separate  irrigation.  Our  basins  cover 
the  entire  surface  of  the  ground.  We  make  no  effort  to  choke  such  weeds  as 
clover,  alfilerilla,  and  the  like;  but  the  irrigator  with  his  hoe  destroys  the 
obnoxious  nightshade,  hoarhound,  and  nettle. 

In  the  fall  of  the  year  we  follow  with  copious  liming — about  three  barrels  of 
unslacked  lime  to  the  acre — applied  in  the  following  manner  at  the  head  of  our 
irrigating  ditch :  We  plant  a  box  (about  three  feet  wide,  six  feet  long,  two 
feet  deep)  six  inches  under  the  surface  of  the  running  water.  In  it  we  place  a 
barrel  of  the  lime.  It  slacks  and  swells  to  twice  its  original  bulk.  A  man  stands 
on  this  with  his  hoe  and  sees  that  the  water  carries  it  off  evenly.  With  an 
irrigating  head  such  as  we  use,  a  man  will  run  into  the  ditch  four  barrels  a  day, 
or  about  three  barrels  to  the  acre.  We  have  a  considerable  fall,  and  the  water 
runs  very  rapidly;  but  it  takes  up  all  the  lime  and  the  water  runs  white,  like 
milk. 


150  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW   TO   GROW   THEM 

We  now  leave  the  orange  orchard  till  spring,  when  we  plow  under  the 
weeds,  manure  and  lime.  We  thus  aim  to  supply  our  soil  with  nitrate  of  lime, 
potash  and  magnesia.  Carbonic  acid  gas  is  absorbed  by  the  water  and  attacks 
the  inert  plant  food  in  the  soil;  hard-pan  is  prevented  both  by  the  mechanical 
effects  and  the  vegetable  matter  and  the  lime. 

The  basin  method  of  irrigation,  to  which  allusion  is  made,  will  be 
more  fully  described  in  the  following  chapter. 


FERTILIZING   MATTERS    IN    IRRIGATION    WATER 

Water  used  for  irrigation  may  carry  in  solution  injurious  sub- 
stances, as,  for  example,  alkali,  as  will  be  noted  in  the  following 
chapter;  or  it  may  carry  very  valuable  fertilizing  properties.  These 
facts  can  only  be  determined  by  analysis.  Professor  Hilgard  has 
found  that  the  water  of  one  creek  in  Alameda  county  carries  to  the 
land  it  irrigates  about  half  a  grain  of  potash  in  each  gallon,  which 
means  that  if  twelve  inches  of  such  water  were  used  on  the  ground 
during  the  season,  each  acre  would  receive  therefrom  about  twenty 
pounds  of  fully  available  potash.  At  Riverside  a  crop  of  oranges 
requires  about  forty-two  pounds  of  potash  per  acre,  of  which  the 
amount  the  irrigation  water  used  in  that  case  contained  thirty-five 
pounds,  beside  other  matters  required  by  plants.  These  things  have 
a  definite  cash  value  in  the  market ;  and  this  value  the  irrigator  gets 
as  a  free  gift  in  addition  to  the  water.  Even  in  the  case  of  the  Nile,  the 
sediment  is  only  part  of  the  sum  of  fertility  conveyed  by  the  river. 


GREEN    MANURING   OR    COVER    CROPS 

Green  manuring  consists  in  plowing  under  a  growth  of  weeds  or  a 
sown  crop  to  secure  by  its  decay  a  contribution  of  humus  to  the  soil. 
Plants  grown  for  this  purpose  are  currently  called  "cover  crops" 
because  they  cover  the  soil  instead  of  allowing  it  to  remain  bare  in 
"clean  culture"  of  orchard  or  "bare  fallow"  of  grain  fields. 

All  plants  by  their  decay  in  the  soil  add  organic  matter  to  it,  and 
this  matter  is  of  nitrogenous  character,  but  leguminous  plants  do  this 
and  a  great  deal  more,  through  their  exclusive  ability  to  use  atmos- 
pheric nitrogen  gathered  by  the  bacteria  which  cause  nodules  upon 
their  roots.  There  is  also  special  value  in  deep-rooting  legume  in  soil 
amelioration.  As  has  already  been  stated,  where  moisture  is  ample 
for  both  alfalfa  and  trees  this  plant  is  being  used  for  a  permanent 
cover  of  orchard  ground  as  a  substitute  for  clean  culture.  This  is 
being  successfully  done  to  some  extent  with  almonds  and  walnuts,  as 
with  other  fruits  also.  In  the  San  Jose  districts  apricot  trees  have 
been  grown  for  several  years  in  irrigated  alfalfa,  with  a  gain  in  the 
product  of  the  trees.  Alfalfa  can  be  used  for  a  certain  time  even  when 
its  permanent  stand  is  not  desirable,  for  it  is  not  difficult  to  destroy 
alfalfa  with  a  well-sharpened  plow,  although  the  roots  may  have 
attained  considerable  thickness.  Of  course  this  practice  depends  upon 
moisture  supply ;  where  that  is  not  abundant,  clean  culture  for  moisture 
conservation  is  unavoidable.  But  where  moisture  in  excess  of  the 


COVER-CROPS   OF   GREEN    MANURES  151 

needs  of  the  trees  is  available  it  will  be  used  in  future  indirectly  for 
their  benefit  in  ways  we  are  only  just  beginning  to  discern,  and  one  of 
these  is  likely  to  be  the  summer  growth  of  legumes  in  the  orchard. 
Cow  peas  on  moist  or  irrigated  lands  may  be  used  in  this  way. 

A  summer  cover  crop  in  California,  however,  except  where  irriga- 
tion water  is  cheap,  may  never  be  practicable.  The  wider  problem 
is  to  secure  the  best  leguminous  plant  which  will  make  a  heavy  growth 
during  the  winter  months,  so  that  it  can  be  plowed  in  early  in  spring 
and  the  ground  put  in  shape  for  the  thorough  surface  pulverization 
to  prevent  evaporation  of  moisture  during  our  long,  dry  summer. 
For  this  reason  we  can  not  use  many  plants  which  are  used  for  green- 
manuring  in  humid  climates.  Crimson  clover,  cow  peas,  etc.,  do  not 
make  good  winter  growth  unless  the  temperature  is  relatively  high 
and  frosts  few  and  light.  They  make  exuberant  growth  for  a  time  in 
the  spring  when  heat  is  adequate  and  moisture  abundant,  but  at  that 
time  it  is  too  late  to  grow  crops  for  plowing  under  because  the  soil  is 
too  dry  for  their  decay  and  their  presence  tends  otherwise  to  the  loss 
of  moisture  and  makes  it  very  difficult  to  secure  a  good  surface  tilth. 
The  greatest  care  must  be  had  not  to  allow  a  growth  either  of  cover 
crop  or  of  weeds  to  stand  too  long  or  its  covering  will  do  more  harm 
than  good.  Hardy  legumes  are  therefore  the  desideratum  both  for 
winter  forage  and  green-manuring.  The  common  "burr  clover" 
(Medicago  denticulate,)  is  proving  very  satisfactory  in  some  parts  of 
the  State,  the  "Canadian  field  pea,"  the  winter  vetch,  the  hairy  vetch 
and  fenugreek  are  coming  into  quite  wide  use  in  orchards  in  different 
parts  of  the  State.  Which  plant  is  best  in  any  locality  must  be  deter- 
mined by  its  local  behavior.  In  some  places  native  lupines  make  a 
good  natural  cover  crop.  If  local  conditions  do  not  favor  growth  of 
legumes,  a  good  winter  cover  of  rye  or  other  hardy  grain  may  be 
grown.  It  will  serve  the  same  purposes,  though,  perhaps,  to  a  less 
degree. 

A  Matter  of  Local  Study. — The  recourse  to  cover  crops  in  the 
orchard  or  vineyard  should  be  approached  with  a  disposition  to  careful 
study  and  experiment.  Unless  it  is  done  in  the  right  way  it  is  likely 
to  be  disappointing  and  the  right  way  involves  both  the  selection  of 
the  best  legumes  and  the  best  ways  to  grow  them.  Scant  growth, 
cloddy  soil,  loss  of  moisture  and  condemnation  of  the  practice  are  likely 
to  result  from  ill-considered  methods.  On  the  other  hand,  success 
with  cover  crops  results  in  such  numerous  and  important  advantages 
that  the  wide  introduction  of  them  must  be  looked  upon  as  one  of  the 
most  important  advances  in  California  horticulture  during  the  last 
decade. 

Nothing  more  emphatic  can  be  stated  in  support  of  green  manuring 
under  the  proper  conditions  than  a  description  of  the  role  played  by 
organic  matter  in  soils.  Professor  C.  B.  Lipman,  of  the  University  of 
California,  prepares  such  a  description  as  follows : 

1.  By  its  binding  action  on  the  soil  particles  and  by  its  sponge-like 
absorptive  power,  organic  matter  makes  sandy  soils  more  retentive  of 
moisture. 


152  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO   GROW    THEM 

2.  By  its  light,  yet  bulky  mass,  it  prevents  the  extremely  fine  par- 
ticles of  clay  soils  from  running  together  and  becoming  cemented,  and 
improves  the  essential  feature  of  aeration  in  heavy  soils. 

3.  Organic  matter  contains  most  of  the  nitrogen  found  in  soils 
and  all  plants  except  the  legumes  are  absolutely  dependent  on  it  for 
their  supply  of  that  essential  element. 

The  greater  ease  of  tillage  of  soils  enriched  with  organic  matter  is 
a  matter  of  universal  experience.  Besides  such  a  contribution,  cover 
crops  may  be  claimed  to  confer  such  specific  benefits  as  these : 

4.  Organic  matter  is  the  source  of  energy  and  the  laboratory  in 
which  the  important  beneficial  soil  bacteria  manufacture  available  plant 
food  and  bring  about  other  changes  of  importance  to  plants. 

5.  Through  its   decomposition  by  soil  micro-organisms,   organic 
matter  acts  as  a  source  of  carbonic  acid  and  other  weak  acids  which 
help  to  dissolve  and  make  available  the  mineral  matter  necessary  to 
the  growth  of  plants. 

While  growing  they  probably  assist  in  preventing  the  radiation  of 
heat  from  the  ground  in  time  of  a  freeze.  They  do  away  with  the 
cultivation  of  the  ground  during  the  winter  months. 

Each  of  these  reasons  suggests  a  chapter  of  discussion  and  explana- 
tion which  can  not  be  indulged  in.  Every  reader  should  keep  himself 
up  to  date  in  this  progressive  subject  by  thoughtful  reading  of  our 
horticultural  journals,  proceedings  of  our  horticultural  assemblies, 
and  the  publications  of  the  University  of  California  Experiment  Station. 


CHAPTER   XV 
IRRIGATION    OF   FRUIT   TREES    AND    VINES 

Whether  fruit  shall  be  grown  with  irrigation  or  not  is  a  local  and 
specific  question,  and  it  must  be  answered  with  due  regard  for  several 
conditions,  among  which  are:  First,  the  minimum  local  rainfall; 
second,  the  depth  and  character  of  the  soil  and  subsoil;  third,  the 
situation  and  environment  of  the  ground  on  which  the  fruit  is  to  be 
grown ;  fourth,  the  kind  of  fruit  which  it  is  desired  to  produce. 

These  conditions  are  all  correlated,  and  a  knowledge  of  them  all  is 
necessary  to  an  intelligent  decision  as  to  correct  practice  in  any  given 
locality.  For  example,  the  amount  of  rainfall  which  is  adequate  in  one 
locality,  or  in  one  situation,  even,  may  be  quite  insufficient  in  another, 
because,  first,  one  soil  may  be  deep  and  fairly  retentive,  into  which 
roots  can  penetrate  and  find  abundant  moisture;  second,  another  soil 
may  have  sufficient  depth,  but  be  so  porous  as  to  lose  its  moisture  by 
evaporation,  or  so  leachy  as  to  lose  it  by  drainage;  third,  still  another 
may  be  shallow,  and  quickly  dried  out  under  a  fervid  sun,  or  quickly 
drained  by  reason  of  a  sloping  substratum  of  rock  or  hardpan,  while 
another  similar  soil,  differently  situated,  may  receive  abundant  moisture 
from  the  drainage  of  the  slope  above  it ;  fourth,  possibly  in  all  the  soils 
cited  there  might  be  adequate  moisture  for  deciduous  fruits,  but  citrus 
fruits  would  require  irrigation;  or  enough  for  young,  but  not  for 
bearing  trees. 

Thus  it  appears  that  even  to  decide  whether  a  location  has  sufficient 
rainfall  for  the  growth  of  fruit  without  irrigation,  one  must  pass 
judgment  upon  all  the  conditions  first  mentioned.  It  is  hardly  worth 
while,  then,  to  discuss  such  a  topic  upon  theoretical  grounds,  or  to 
attempt  to  answer  the  general  question,  Shall  irrigation  be  employed 
in  the  growth  of  fruit  ?  The  true  guide  is  enlightened  local  experience, 
and  the  true  test  is  the  growth  of  the  tree  and  the  excellence  of  its 
fruit.  So  long  as  the  grower  is  able  to  secure  every  year  a  generous 
amount  of  good-sized  and  excellent  fruit  by  natural  rainfall,  he  need 
concern  himself  very  little  about  irrigation;  if  his  tree  shows  distress, 
and  his  fruit,  even  when  properly  thinned  out,  is  not  up  to  market 
standards  every  year,  he  may  do  well  to  provide  himself  with  irriga- 
tion facilities,  either  for  constant  use  or  to  supplement  rainfall  when 
it  is  occasionally  deficient. 

Of  course  it  is  not  commended  that  the  grower  wait  until  the  tree 
shows  signs  of  distress  before  applying  water.  This  is  a  very  bad  plan 
of  proceeding,  but  the  visible  language  of  the  tree  is  mentioned  as  indi- 
cating that  the  tree  needs  help,  either  at  regular  intervals  or  occasion- 
ally, and  after  such  a  warning  the  grower  should  be  able  to  tell  by 
examination  of  the  soil  and  by  study  of  the  local  rainfall  record  when 
this  need  will  occur,  and  apply  his  water  in  advance  of  the  need. 

Recent  experience  has  enabled  fruit  growers  in  all  parts  of  Cali- 
fornia to  arrive  at  a  truer  conception  of  the  relation  of  irrigation  to  the 
153 


154  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS  I    HOW    TO   GROW    THEM 

growth  of  fruits.  Many  who  long  scouted  the  suggestion  that  irriga- 
tion was  necessary  for  deciduous  fruit  trees  in  their  districts,  have 
found  that  water,  in  addition  to  the  rainfall,  was  very  profitable,  either 
to  enable  large,  bearing  trees  to  produce  larger  fruit,  or  to  maintain  in 
full  vigor  their  later  summer  growth  and  to  make  strong  fruit  buds, 
which  insure  the  following  year's  production.  It  has  also  been  widely 
demonstrated  that  a  tree  which  is  adequately  supplied  with  water,  no 
matter  whether  it  be  directly  from  the  clouds  or  through  the  irrigating 
stream,  yields  fruit  of  better  size,  aroma,  flavor  and  carrying  quality 
than  a  tree  which,  from  any  cause,  falls  even  a  little  short  of  an  ade- 
quate supply.  It  is  clear  then  that  neither  irrigation  nor  non-irrigation 
are  in  themselves  principles,  but  are  merely  methods  to  be  employed 
when  conditions  demand  the  one  or  the  other. 

Several  claims  against  irrigated  products  may  be  stated  and  opposed 
in  this  way : 

(1)  The  claim  that  nursery  trees  grown  by  irrigation  are,  from 
that  mere  fact,  inferior  is  based  upon  experience  in  transplanting  trees 
unduly  forced  by  over-irrigation.    Immense  growth  from  the  bud  in  a 
single  season  of  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter  and  ten  feet  in  height 
tempted  buyers  who  wanted  to  get  as  much  as  possible  for  their  money. 
The  result  of  setting  out  such  trees  created  a  strong  prejudice  against 
irrigated  nursery  stock.     It  is  now  clearly  seen  that  moderate,  thrifty 
growth  is  the  ideal  in  a  young  tree,  and  if  the  soil  does  not  hold  rainfall 
enough  to  secure  this,  water  enough  to  secure  it  must  be  applied. 

(2)  The  claim  that  irrigated  fruit  lacks  aroma  and  flavor  is  based 
upon  observation  of  monstrous,  insipid  fruit  forced  into  such  abnormal 
character  by  excessive  irrigation.     Growers  who  concluded  therefrom 
that  irrigated  fruit  was  necessarily  inferior,  denied  water  to  their  trees 
and  gathered  small,  tough,  unmarketable  fruit,  because  there  was  not 
enough  rainfall  to  enable  the  trees  to  perform  their  proper  function. 
As  it  is  now  conceded  that  the  highest  quality,  including  the  delicate 
aromas  and  flavors,  can  be  secured  only  by  adequate  moisture,  it  matters 
not  how  long  since  it  fell  from  the  clouds  nor  by  what  route  it  reaches 
the  roots  of  the  trees. 

(3)  The  claim  that  irrigated  fruit  could  not  endure  shipment  was 
based  upon  the  bruising  and  collapse  of  fruit  which  was  unduly  inflated 
by  over-irrigation.    The  best  fruit  for  shipping  is  the  perfect  fruit  and 
that  is  secured  as  just  stated.     The  fact  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
fresh  fruit  shipped  across  the  continent  from  California  has  been  more 
or  less  irrigated,  according  to  the  needs  of  different  localities,  has 
settled  the  point  beyond  further  controversy. 

(4)  The  claim  that  canners  objected  to  irrigated  fruit  was  based 
upon   the   early   experience   with   over-irrigated   fruit,   which   lacked 
quality  and  consistency.     At  present  the  canners  encourage  irrigation 
and  all  other  arts  of  growing  which  bring  the  product  up  to  the 
standards  they  insist  upon. 

(5)  The  claim  that  irrigated  fruit  is  inferior  for  drying  has  the 
same  foundation  as  the  preceding  claims  and  is  just  as  clearly  based 
upon  misapprehension.     Watery  fruit  is  obviously  inferior  for  drying 
but  such  fruit  is  the  fault  of  the  irrigator,  not  of  irrigation.     One  of 


QUANTITY   OF    WATER   REQUIRED  155 

the  plainest  deductions  from  experience  is  that  small,  tough  fruit  makes 
unprofitable  dried  fruit,  and  that  the  best  development  of  the  fruit  is 
essential  to  the  best  results  from  drying.  Many  comparative  weighings 
have  shown  that  the  greatest  yield  in  dried  form  has  been  secured 
from  trees  which  have  had  water  enough  to  produce  good,  large  fruit. 
Even  to  bear  fruit  for  drying,  then,  the  tree  must  have  moisture  enough 
to  develop  size  and  quality.  If  lacking  moisture,  the  tree  serves  its  own 
purpose  in  developing  pit  and  skin  and  reduces  the  pulp,  in  which  lie 
the  desirability  and  value  of  dried  fruits. 

Of  course  the  water  should  be  applied  at  proper  times,  in  proper 
amount,  and  in  a  proper  way. 

HOW  MUCH  WATER  SHOULD  BE  USED? 

This  is  by  its  very  nature  an  elusive  question  and  any  attempt  to 
answer  it  by  a  definite  prescription  is  more  apt  to  produce  folly  than 
wisdom.  For  as  it  appears  that  whether  irrigation  is  at  all  needed  or 
not  depends  upon  several  conditions  which  must  be  ascertained  in 
each  place,  so  the  amount  of  water,  which  is  really  an  expression  of  the 
degree  of  that  need,  depends  also  upon  local  conditions  of  rainfall,  of 
soil  depth. and  retentiveness,  of  rate  of  waste  by  evaporation,  of  the 
particular  thirst  of  each  irrigated  crop,  etc.  The  result  secured  by  the 
use  of  water  is  really  the  ultimate  measure  of  the  duty  of  water  in  each 
instance.  In  the  case  of  fruit  trees  and  vines,  then,  whatever  amount 
of  water  secures  thrifty  and  adequate  wood  growth  and  strong,  good- 
colored  foliage,  but  not  excessive  or  rank  growth;  and  abundance  of 
good-sized  and  rich,  but  not  monstrous  and  watery  fruit,  is  the  proper 
amount  for  that  place  and  that  product, — and  to  the  ascertainment  of 
that  amount  by  local  experience  of  himself  and  others,  the  grower 
should  employ  his  most  earnest  thought  and  his  keenest  insight. 

During  recent  years  the  writer  has  continually  renewed  his  data 
of  the  irrigation  practice  of  California  fruit  growers  by  systematic 
inquiry  and  has  prepared  four  bulletins*  which  have  been  published 
by  the  Irrigation  Investigations  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

A  study  of  local  practice  shows  that  infinite!  variety  exists  and  in 
the  nature  of  the  case  must  exist,  and  that  any  definite  prescription 
of  the  duty  of  water  under  various  conditions  is  impossible.  In  some 
cases  the  amount  of  water  at  each  irrigation  must  be  small,  and  appli- 
cations frequent  because  the  soils  are  shallow,  overlying  bedrock,  and 
a  small  amount  saturates  them.  In  other  places  an  acre-foot  of  water 
is  readily  absorbed  and  retained  in  the  deep  soil.  The  annual  rainfall 
also  has  little  relation  to  the  amount  of  irrigation,  because  neither  fine 
shallow,  nor  deep  coarse  soils,  can  retain  the  volume  of  water  which 
falls  upon  them  during  the  rainy  season.  Then  the  varying  rate  of 
evaporation,  the  character  of  the  tilth,  etc.,  enter  as  factors  and  it 
becomes  clear  that  he  is  fortunate  who  knows  how  much  water  to  use 
on  his  own  place. 

*Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  116,  "Irrigation  in  Fruit  Growing;"  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  138, 
"Irrigation  in  Garden  and  Field;"  Bulletin  of  Experiment  Stations  No.  108,  "Irrigation  Prac- 
tice Among  Fruit  Growers  of  the  Pacific  Coast;"  annual  report  of  irrigation  and  drainage 
investigations,  1904,  "Relation  of  Irrigation  to  Yield,  Size,  Quality,  and  Commercial  Suitability 
of  Fruits." 


156  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO   GROW    THEM 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  results  of  close  inquiry  by  the  Irrigation 
Investigations  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  to  ascertain  the 
amounts  of  water  used  by  measurement  of  water  running  in  main 
ditches  and  by  estimate  of  the  acreage  to  which  the  water  is  applied, 
do  not  agree  closely  with  the  growers'  estimates  of  the  amounts  of 
water  which  they  actually  use.  There  are,  of  course,  always  issues 
between  water-purveyors  and  water-buyers  which  can  not  be  entered 
upon  in  this  connection.  A  rough  conclusion  from  data  secured  from 
the  ditch  flow,  etc.,  is  that  from  12  to  30  acre-inches  of  water  are  used 
annually  in  irrigated  orchards  and  vineyards,  according  to  local  condi- 
tions involved.  It  is  quite  clear  that  the  amounts  chiefly  used  would 
not  be  the  average  but  would  tend  toward  the  lower  figure.  The 
details  of  these  inquiries  are  found  in  the  publications  on  irrigation  of 
the  Office  of  Experiment  Station,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.* 


RELATION    OF   RAINFALL   TO    IRRIGATION 

The  amount  of  rain  and  the  time  it  falls  are  clearly  the  most 
important  factors  in  determining  the  necessity  for  irrigation.  Absence 
of  rainfall  makes  a  desert  of  the  richest  soils  at  all  elevations  and  at 
all  exposures.  Its  only  remedy  is  irrigation.  But  there  are  degrees  of 
poverty  in  rainfall,  and  thorough  tillage  will  often  lessen  the  ill  effects 
of  a  scanty  supply,  so  that  an  oasis  may  be  made  to  appear  without 
water  beyond  that  supplied  from  the  clouds.  This  is  the  triumph 
of  tillage  in  the  arid  region  which  is  to  be  considered  in  another 
connection. 

The  line  between  adequate  and  insufficient  rainfall  can  not  be 
closely  drawn.  In  the  growth  of  common  orchard  fruits,  irrigation  is 
not  resorted  to  at  a  number  of  points  where  the  local  rainfall  sometimes 
is  as  low  as  15  or  16  inches,  but  with  less  than  that  amount,  unless 
the  soil  receive  additional  moisture  by  underflow,  it  is  essential.  On 
the  other  hand,  irrigation  is  regularly  practiced  in  some  localities  where 
the  rainfall  sometimes  rises  to  45  inches.  Under  average  conditions 
of  soil  depth  and  retentiveness,  the  amount  of  rainfall  which  may  be 
considered  adequate  for  deciduous  orchard  trees  under  good  cultivation 
is  about  20  inches.  So  definitely  is  this  amount  fixed  in  the  minds  of 
some  California  growers  as  meeting  the  needs  of  the  tree  for  satisfac- 
tory growth  and  fruitage  that,  when  rainfall  for  a  season  is  less  than 
that  amount,  irrigation  is  at  once  resorted  to  to  supply  the  shortage. 

But  owing  to  local  conditions  of  soil  and  climate,  the  rainfall,  no 
matter  how  large,  may  not  be  relied  upon  to  carry  the  trees  through 
the  dry  season.  The  fact  is  that  the  soil  is  not  capable  either  of  re- 
ceiving the  heavy  rainfall  or  of  long  retaining  such  portions  as  actually 
enter  it.  There  is,  then,  a  considerable  part  of  the  rainfall  which  is 
worse  than  worthless,  because  it  does  injury  by  soil  washing  and  soil 
leaching,  and  places  where  extremely  heavy  rainfall  occurs  may  be 
actually  worse  off  than  other  places  with  less  rainfall.  Some  localities 
of  large  rainfall  lead  in  amounts  of  water  supplied  by  irrigation.  The 

*Definite  citation  is  not  made  because  these  publications  are  continually  appearing  with 
additional  data  on  the  effective  use  of  water.  The  whole  series  should  be  examined. 


WATER-REQUIREMENTS    OF   DIFFERENT   TREES  157 

converse  is  also  true,  for  some  localities  of  light  rainfall  report  success 
with  deciduous  fruit  trees  with  a  minimum  amount  of  irrigation  water. 

Deciduous  Fruits. — Without  making  too  much  of  individual 
reports  there  appear  instances  enough  to  warrant  the  conclusion  that 
the  deciduous  fruit  tree  can  winter  successfully  with  a  small  moisture 
supply  and  is,  in  fact,  in  less  danger  from  lack  of  moisture  than  from 
over-supply  at  this  time  of  the  year.  If  there  be  enough  moisture  to 
prevent  injury  from  evaporation,  the  tree  will  start  good  growth  as  the 
season  advances  and  continue  it  if  irrigation  is  given  promptly  and  in 
sufficient  quantity.  There  must  always  be  a  determination  of  what  is 
an  adequate  supply  by  reference  to  local  conditions,  but  as  an  estimate 
of  necessary  rainfall  has  been  made  at  20  inches,  it  is  evident  that  ade- 
quate irrigation  may  be  very  much  less  than  that.  The  rainfall  of  20 
inches  is  distributed  through  six  or  seven  months.  Some  of  it  consists 
of  light  rains,  with  long,  dry  intervals,  where  there  is  slight  penetration 
and  quick  evaporation.  Some  of  it  is  lost  by  run  off  and  by  drainage. 
It  is  not  surprising,  then,  that  some  growers  having  deep  valley  loams 
to  render  their  irrigation  effective,  report  success  with  deciduous  trees 
with  8  or  10  inches  of  water  applied  just  at  the  time  of  the  tree's 
greatest  needs  and  used,  no  doubt,  with  maximum  efficiency.  It  seems 
to  be  a  warranted  deduction,  from  all  data  known  to  the  writer,  that 
10  inches  of  water,  applied  at  the  right  time  to  soils  of  good  depth  and 
fair  retentiveness,  and  accompanied  by  good  tillage  for  conservation,  is 
an  adequate  supply  for  five  months  of  growth  and  fruiting  even  when 
the  rainfall  is  only  about  enough  to  prevent  drying  out  during  the 
winter  season.  Some  growers  report  use  of  less  than  this.  Certainly 
less  will  do  for  young  trees  under  favorable  conditions,  and  some  of 
the  least  amounts  are  reported  from  the  newly  planted  regions.  As 
the  trees  advance  in  age  and  bearing,  larger  amounts  will  be  required. 
Instances  of  greatest  frequency  of  application  may  be  taken  as  indicat- 
ing soils  lacking  retentiveness,  either  through  shallowness  or  coarse- 
ness, or  either  of  these  accompanied  by  extreme  summer  heat  and 
aridity. 

Citrus  Fruits. — As  these  trees  are  evergreens,  and  as  their  habit 
is  to  make  their  chief  fruit  growth  in  the  autumn  after  the  work  of  the 
deciduous  tree  has  been  finished  for  the  season,  the  irrigation  season 
for  them  is  much  longer.  As  they  are,  in  fact,  almost  always  active 
and  sustaining  uninterrupted  evaporation  from  their  leaf  surfaces, 
they  must  always  be  provided  with  moisture  or  ill  will  result  to  tree 
or  fruit.  They  thus  require  more  water  than  do  deciduous  trees. 
There  is  the  same  relation  between  irrigation  and  rainfall  with 
citrus,  as  with  deciduous  fruit  trees,  but  the  degree  of  relation  is 
different.  Many  trials  have  shown  that  it  is  practically  impossible 
to  grow  satisfactory  citrus  fruits  without  irrigation,  unless  there  be 
underflow,  and  this  is  attended  by  the  usual  difficulties  of  high 
ground  water  and  undesirable.  There  is  no  combination  of  heavy 
rainfall,  or  winter  irrigation,  and  soil  retentiveness  which  will  sup- 
ply the  summer  and  autumn  thirst  of  the  orange  or  lemon  in  Cali- 
fornia. Irrigation,  too,  must  be  maintained  both  summer  and  win- 
ter wherever  the  rainfall  is  not  well  distributed  and  adequate.  In 


158  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

the  chief  citrus  regions  of  the  State  rainfall  is  seldom  adequate  ex- 
cept during  January  and  February,  and  not  always  then.  Under 
such  conditions  an  estimate  of  the  average  requirements  of  citrus 
fruit  trees  in  bearing  would  be  about  20  inches  of  irrigation,  irre- 
spective of  rainfall,  although  there  are  localities  of  larger  rainfall 
and  more  retentive  soils  where  crops  of  these  fruits  can  be  made 
with  10  inches  used  at  just  the  right  time. 

RELATION  OF  SOIL  TO  IRRIGATION 

As  already  stated,  the  desirability  of  irrigation  is  unquestion- 
ably, in  many  cases,  conditioned  upon  soil  depth  and  character. 
This  relation  has  received  careful  attention  from  soil  physicists, 
and  an  understanding  of  it  involves  problems  of  plant  growth  and 
the  movement  of  water  in  soils,  the  leading  facts  of  which  are  avail- 
able in  popular  form.* 

Analysis  of  such  phenomena  can  not  be  undertaken  in  this  con- 
nection but  a  few  striking  contrasts  in  existing  practice  are  very 
suggestive. 

On  the  famous  river-bank  fruit  land  of  the  Sacramento  Valley, 
with  loams  of  great  depth  and  good  retentiveness,  and  with  an  aver- 
age rainfall  of  approximately  20  inches,  irrigation  is  resorted  to  only 
in  years  of  minimum  rainfall,  when  the  precipitation  is  perhaps  only 
about  half  the  average.  At  nearly  the  same  level,  as  already  cited, 
where  the  soil  is  shallow  and  overlies  hardpan,  irregular  irrigation 
is  required.  But  still  more  marked  contrast  is  found  in  the  foothills 
within  sight  of  these  valley  fruit  lands,  where  with  twice  the  aver- 
age rainfall  irrigation  must  begin  early  in  the  summer  and  continue 
until  autumn  is  well  advanced,  because,  first,  the  slope  is  so  rapid 
that  much  rainfall  is  lost  by  run  off;  second,  the  soil  is  too  shallow 
above  bed  rock  to  hold  much  water.  Even  here,  however,  there 
comes  in  a  local  variation  of  measurable  effect.  When  the  soil  lies 
upon  vertical  plates  of  bed  rock  much  water  is  retained  between 
them,  and  is  capable  of  being  reached  by  tree  roots,  while  soil  lying 
upon  flat  plates  of  rock  has  no  such  subterranean  reservoir.  In  the 
foothill  region  there  also  occurs  exceptional  exposure  from  slopes 
facing  the  midsummer  sun  in  an  atmosphere  whose  dryness  is  but 
slightly  ameliorated  by  the  influence  of  air  currents  from  the  coast. 

In  the  valley  and  foothill  contrast,  just  cited,  the  unirrigated 
valley  looks  up  to  the  irrigated  foothills.  There  are  also  places 
where  unirrigated  hillslopes  look  down  upon  irrigated  valleys.  The 
uplands  of  San  Diego  County  are  nearer  the  coast  than  those  above 
the  Sacramento  Valley.  They,  too,  have  a  rainfall  usually  ample 
for  deciduous  fruits  suited  to  their  elevation.  Their  rolling  plateaus 
of  deep  soil,  free  from  excessive  heat  and  evaporation  which  occur 
on  the  highlands  farther  inland  and  500  miles  farther  north,  produce 
very  successfully  without  irrigation.  In  this  region,  however,  the 

*Relations  of  soils  to  climate,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Weather  Bureau  Bui.  3.  Water  as  a 
factor  in  the  growth  of  plants,  Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  1894,  p.  165.  Some  interesting 
soil  problems,  Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  1897,  p.  429.  The  movement  and  retention  of  water 
in  soils,  Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  1898,  p.  399.  The  mechanics  of  soil  moisture,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.,  Division  of  Soils,  Bui.  10. 


CULTIVATION    AND    IRRIGATION  159 

rainfall  in  the  valleys  below  is  often  less  than  the  needs  of  even  the 
deciduous  fruit  trees,  and  waters  flowing  from  mountain  snows 
through  a  region  of  unirrigated  uplands  must  be  used  to  irrigate 
them. 

Still  another  striking  contrast,  and  one  involving  another  and 
wholly  different  factor,  is  found  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley.  Near 
Visalia  2  feet  above  river  bottom  and  4  feet  above  the  surrounding 
plains,  there  is  a  large  area  of  deep  alluvial  soil  with  much  decayed 
vegetable  matter.  The  land  is  moistened  by  underflow  from  the 
river,  and,  though  the  rainfall  is  but  7]/2  inches,  deciduous  fruits  are 
grown  without  irrigation.  In  the  same  county,  and  only  18  miles 
distant,  there  are  areas  of  rich  loam  mixed  with  granitic  sand  16  to 
18  feet  deep.  In  this  locality,  though  the  rainfall  is  11*4  inches,  irri- 
gation is  practiced  freely,  as  the  loss  of  moisture  in  summer  is  very 
great. 

RELATION  OF  TILLAGE  TO  IRRIGATION 

Tillage,  particularly  during  the  dry  season  of  the  year,  under 
some  conditions,  directly  determines  the  need  of  irrigation,  and  is 
to  a  certain  extent,  as  the  popular  phrase  goes,  a  substitute  for  irri- 
gation. Under  all  conditions  surface  tillage  by  promoting  con- 
servation of  soil  moisture,  is  determinative  of  the  actual  duty  of 
water,  whether  it  be  from  rainfall  or  irrigation.  The  effect  of  fre- 
quent surface  tillage  has  been  accurately  determined  by  investiga- 
tion and  experiment,  both  in  humid  and  arid  regions.  These  experi- 
ments fully  support  the  view  taught  by  the  experience  of  about  half 
a  century  in  California,  in  accordance  with  which  thorough  tillage 
has  been  so  widely  practiced  in  the  arid  sections  as  an  essential  to 
successful  fruit  growing1. 

As  already  maintained  in  Chapter  XIII,  the  relations  of  tillage  to 
soil  moisture  include  both  reception  and  conservation.  For  the  re- 
ception of  moisture,  deep  work  with  the  plow,  and  sometimes  with 
the  subsoiler  also,  is  almost  indispensable.  To  retain  this  moisture 
and  to  prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  its  escape  into  the  thirsty  air  of 
the  arid  region  by  surface  evaporation,  less  depth  and  more  thor- 
ough surface  pulverization  are  required.  Recent  practice  has  been  tend- 
ing toward  deeper  summer  cultivation,  so  that,  as  previously  claimed,  5 
or  6  inches  of  loose,  finely  divided  soil  is  now  obtained  where  formerly 
half  that  depth  was  considered  adequate.  It  has  also  been  shown 
that  frequent  stirring  of  this  fine  surface  layer  checks  evaporation, 
even  when  no  water  is  applied  to  compact  the  surface  or  where  no 
weeds  grow  to  draw  upon  the  soil  moisture.  In  a  word,  the  aim 
of  tillage  in  the  arid  region,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  moisture  supply 
in  the  soil  consists  in  opening  the  soil  to  rain,  or  to  irrigation,  and 
in  subsequently  closing  it  to  evaporation.  These  are  the  principles 
which  were  recognized  and  applied  in  California  half  a  century  agt> 
and  are  now  enjoying  somewhat  sensational  renaissance  in  the  "dry 
farming"  agitation  in  the  interior  of  the  United  States. 

A  Negative  Declaration. — It  is  interesting  that  current  practice 
affords  full  demonstration  of  the  foregoing  claims  both  positively 


160  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

and  negatively.  The  negative  argument  in  favor  of  moisture  con- 
servation by  clean  summer  cultivation  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
growers  in  regions  of  heaviest  rainfall  approve  the  growth  of  cover 
crops,  like  clover,  after  the  trees  reach  bearing  age,  and  also  that 
others  employ  scant  summer  cultivation,  or  cultivation  for  a  short 
period  only.  The  idea  of  these  growers  is  that  such  practices  relieve 
the  soil  of  excessive  moisture,  either  by  the  growth  of  the  cover 
crop  or  by  facilitating  surface  evaporation,  and  so  prevent  the  tree 
from  being  stimulated  to  too  large  wood  growth,  or  maintaining 
growth  so  late  in  the  season  as  to  enter  the  frost  period  in  too  active 
a  condition  and  with  new  wood  not  properly  matured.  Quite  in 
contrast  with  this  is  the  practice,  which  is  gaining  ground  in  the 
hottest  parts  of  the  irrigated  region,  of  growing  alfalfa  as  a  cover 
crop  for  the  purpose  of  shading  the  soil  and  thus  reducing  soil  tem- 
perature and,  perhaps,  of  avoiding  the  ill  effects  of  the  reflection  of 
burning  sun  heat  from  a  smooth  surface  of  light-colored  soil,  or  the  ill 
effect  of  "burning  out  of  humus"  by  clean  summer  culture.  In  such 
cases  more  irrigation  is  needed  to  supply  enough  water  for  the  growth 
of  both  trees  and  cover  crop.  But  at  present  these  exceptions  are  of 
rare  occurrence. 

Cultivation  Not  Determined  by  Irrigation. — The  adoption  of  a 
policy  of  clean  cultivation  in  the  dry  season  is  not  conditioned  upon  the 
amount  of  moisture  available  either  by  rainfall  or  irrigation.  It  is 
pursued  both  where  irrigation  is  practiced  and  where  it  is  not,  and  also 
where  the  rainfall  is  greatest  and  where  it  is  least.  It  prevails  in  the 
humid  region  where  rainfall  may  rise  to  60  inches  or  more,  and  in  the 
arid  region  where  it  may  not  exceed  one-tenth  as  much.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  there  does  not  appear  to  be  a  good  fruit  soil  so  deep  and  re- 
tentive that  it  can  retain  enough  even  of  a  very  heavy  rainfall  to  effect 
good  tree  growth  and  fruit  bearing  if  it  is  forced  to  sustain  the  loss  by 
evaporation  from  a  compact  surface  during  the  long  dry  season  follow- 
ing. There  may  be,  it  is  true,  soils  weak  in  capillary,  in  which  water 
can  not  rise  from  a  great  depth  and  in  which  deep-rooting  plants  may 
find  ample  water  in  the  subsoil,  providing  it  is  held  there  by  impervious 
underlying  strata.  There  are  many  more  instances  where  loss  by 
natural  drainage  is  added  to  loss  by  evaporation.  But,  disregarding 
exceptions,  the  loss  of  moisture  by  both  drainage  and  evaporation  dur- 
ing the  dry  season  is  so  great  that  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  several  feet 
loses  practically  all  the  water  which  is  available  for  plant  growth,  and 
the  trees  fail  or  become  unprofitable.  Loss  by  drainage  can  not,  prac- 
tically, be  prevented,  but  loss  by  evaporation  can  be  so  reduced  that  trees 
and  vines  will  be  adequately  supplied  in  spite  of  the  loss  by  drainage. 
Because,  therefore,  the  soil  can  not  retain  enough  water  in  its  natural 
state,  no  matter  how  much  it  may  receive,  clean  summer  cultivation, 
involving  quite  complete  and  more  or  less  frequent  stirring  to  the  sur- 
face to  the  depth  of  5  or  6  inches,  as  discussed  in  Chapter  XIII,  is  the 
almost  universal  practice,  irrespective  of  local  rainfall  or  of  irrigation. 

Cultivation,  However,  Determines  Success  of  Irrigation. — The 

prevailing  motive  for  cultivation  in  the  dry-summer  region  is  moisture 
retention.  In  this  respect  good  surface  tilth  is  so  effective  that,  though 


WHEN    TO    USE    IRRIGATION  161 

enough  moisture  can  not  be  retained  without  it,  so  much  can  be  retained 
with  it  that,  even  where  irrigation  or  rainfall  is  moderate  in  amount, 
it  may  serve  all  purposes  of  the  tree  or  vine.  Thus  cultivation  enters 
into  the  fruit-growers'  practice  in  the  region  under  consideration,  not 
to  make  large  rainfall  effective  as  it  does  in  some  parts  of  the  region, 
but  to  make  moderate  rainfall  effective,  or  to  make  small  irrigation 
effective,  by  increasing  the  duty  of  water  which  is  applied.  It  becomes 
not  only  a  ruling  consideration  in  the  effectiveness  of  a  certain  amount 
of  rainfall,  as  has  already,  been  suggested  in  another  connection,  but  it 
also  determines  the  success  of  irrigation  and  the  amount  of  water  re- 
quired; for,  although  it  was  an  early  and  crude  practice  to  rely  upon 
irrigation  to  support  uncultivated  fruit  trees  and  to  irrigate  more  and 
more  frequently  as  the  ground  became  harder  from  its  use,  this  policy 
has  now  no  standing  in  commercial  fruit  growing.  Not  only  was  it 
wasteful  of  water,  but  it  was  otherwise  detrimental  to  the  thrift  of  trees. 
Cultivation  and  Irrigation  Work  for  Soil  Improvement. —-Thor- 
ough cultivation,  both  in  winter  and  summer,  has  other  very  important 
ends  in  view.  It  opens  the  soil  and  promotes  aeration ;  it  encourages 
deeper  rooting  and  thus  encourages  the  tree  to  take  possession  of  a 
greater  soil  mass  both  for  moisture  and  other  plant  food.  It  is  part  of 
the  very  valuable  policy  of  increasing  humus  by  plowing  under  the 
natural  growth  of  weeds  or  specially  sown  legumes,  which  is  discussed 
in  Chapter  XIV.  This  affords  opportunity  to  use  water,  beyond  the 
amount  the  trees  require,  for  soil  improvement. 


WHEN  TO  IRRIGATE 

When  to  irrigate  is  governed  by  local  conditions  and  the  needs  of 
different  fruits,  and  can  not  be  stated  in  general  rules.  There  are,  how- 
ever, some  principles  involved  which  may  be  hinted  at. 

Winter  Irrigation. — On  lands  with  sufficient  depth  of  fairly  re- 
tentive soil,  the  grower  may  artificially  supplement  a  scanty  rainfall  by 
thoroughly  soaking  the  land  by  winter  irrigation  and  then  by  careful 
summer  cultivation  he  will  be  able  to  conserve  enough  water  in  the  soil 
to  carry  deciduous  fruit  trees  or  vines  through  bearing  and  autumn  bud 
formation  without  further  water  supply.  But  there  are  other  situa- 
tions in  which  no  amount  of  winter  irrigation  nor  rainfall  will  suffice 
for  these  ends.  There  are  foothill  orchard  areas  in  which  the  winter 
rainfall  is  two  or  three  times  as  great  as  in  the  valley  situations  where 
fruit  is  successfully  grown  without  irrigation,  and  yet  water  must  be 
applied  in  summer  on  those  foothills  or  the  fruit  would  be  unmarket- 
able and  the  trees  in  distress.  The  forty  or  more  inches  of  rainfall 
falling  on  a  shallow  soil  underlaid  by  sloping  bedrock  in  some  cases 
nearly  sluices  the  cultivated  soil  from  its  foothold,  and  yet  the  over- 
saturation  in  winter  avails  nothing  for  summer  growth,  because  most 
diligent  cultivation  can  not  retain  moisture  enough  in  shallow  soil  thus 
situated  to  sustain  bearing  trees  in  good  crops  of  full-sized  fruit.  The 
same  is  true  of  valley  soils  underlaid  by  hardpan.  In  such  cases  winter 
irrigation  could  add  nothing  but  distress  to  the  soil  over-soaked  by  rain- 
fall, and  summer  irrigation,  well-timed  and  adequate,  is  the  secret  of 


162  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW   TO   GROW    THEM 

success  in  the  orchard.  The  same  conclusion,  although  for  very  differ- 
ent reasons,  must  hold  for  soils  underlaid  by  gravel  or  sand,  and  thus 
too  rapidly  dried  by  leaching. 

But  even  this  generalization  must  be  accepted  only  for  situations 
endowed  with  conditions  which  justify  it.  There  may  be  sloping  hills 
with  shallow  soil  where  winter  rainfall  does  not  amount  to  saturation, 
Then  winter  irrigation  to  supply  such  irrigation  is  desirable,  and  then, 
too,  summer  irrigation  in  proper  amount  and  at  proper  intervals,  will 
also  be  demanded.  Among  the  foothills,  also,  there  may  be  localities 
with  depth  of  retentive  soil  in  which  water  enough  can  be  applied  hi 
winter  to  carry  trees  through  the  year.  Thus  we  come  again  to  the 
only  safe  generalization  which  can  be  made,  and  that  is,  that  every- 
where water  must  be  adequate  to  the  demands  of  the  tree  at  the  time  il 
is  needed,  and  whether  it  can  best  be  applied  in  summer  or  winter,  or 
both,  or  whether  it  is  not  necessary  to  make  any  artificial  application 
at  all,  depends  upon  existing  conditions  which  the  grower  must  ascer- 
tain, and  to  which  his  policy  and  practice  must  conform.  It  is  a  fact, 
however,  that  all  soils,  which  under  good  cultivation  are  fairly  reten- 
tive, winter  irrigation,  when  water  is  most  abundant,  and  usually  car- 
ries most  sediment,  can  be  made  to  go  far  toward  making  summer 
irrigation  unnecessary  for  all  deciduous  fruits. 

As  to  winter  irrigation,  practice  varies,  some  relying  upon  a  single 
heavy  flooding  by  using  checks  on  contour  lines,  by  which,  perhaps,  a 
foot  in  depth  or  more  of  water  is  allowed  to  soak  into  the  soil ;  others 
use  the  same  method  of  application  in  winter  as  in  summer,  and,  there- 
fore, give  a  number  of  irrigations  in  winter.  There  is,  of  course,  much 
less  danger  of  injury  by  water  to  deciduous  growths  in  winter,  because 
they  are  dormant,  though  an  eye  should  be  kept  on  drainage  for  exces- 
sive irrigation  as  for  excessive  rainfall.  The  grape  and  the  pear  are 
known  to  endure  long  submergence,  but  some  other  fruits  are  sensitive 
about  it. 

Summer  Irrigation. — When  this  shall  begin  and  when  end  are 
to  be  locally  determined.  In  some  places  even  the  earliest  fruits  can 
not  reach  satisfactory  size  and  quality  without  irrigation.  In  others 
rainfall  with  winter  irrigation  will  suffice  for  proper  development  of 
early  fruits,  but  not  for  late.  In  both  cases  the  fruit  may  be  satis- 
factory, but  the  tree  unable  to  hold  its  leaf  vigor  until  the  work  of  the 
growing  season  is  properly  completed.  It  is  then  apparent  that  local 
practice  must  vary  in  order  to  reach  the  universal  fact,  and  that  is  that 
all  through  the  active  season  the  tree  must  have  constant  and  adequate 
moisture  supply.  Many  evils  in  lack  of  bearing,  in  dying  back,  in  un- 
seasonable activity  and  the  like  are  due  to  inadequate,  intermittent  and, 
in  some  cases,  to  excessive  moisture  in  the  soil. 

Cultivation  and  Irrigation. — Although  the  relations  of  irrigation 
and  cultivation  have  been  freely  discussed,  it  must  be  remarked  in  this 
connection  that  with  such  an  extension  of  irrigation  practice  as  is  now 
realized,  there  is  danger  that  those  who  have  previously  trusted  so 
fully  upon  good  cultivation  may  swing  to  the  other  extreme  and  trust 
too  much  to  the  stream  of  water  and  too  little  to  the  plow  and  culti- 
vator. There  is  a  temptation  this  way  when  one  finds  that  he  can  run 


HOW    TO   APPLY    WATER  163 

water  in  large  amounts  very  cheaply.  Not  only  is  there  danger  of  over- 
irrigation  in  the  growth  of  tree  and  fruit,  but  the  ill  effects  of  water 
upon  the  soil,  when  unattended  by  good  cultivation,  are  constantly 
threatened.  The  tree  needs  air  as  well  as  water ;  it  needs  a  certain  free 
condition  of  the  soil  for  its  best  root  action.  These  needs  can  be  amply 
secured  when  adequate  application  of  water  is  quickly  followed  by 
soil-stirring.  Irrigated  soil  rightly  treated  is  delightfully  mellow  and 
free  and  of  condition  to  invite  the  fullest  activity  on  the  part  of  the  tree. 
Irrigated  ground  not  properly  treated  becomes  compacted,  fissured, 
cloddy  and  generally  hateful,  losing  moisture  rapidly,  setting  around 
the  roots  like  cement  and  tearing  them  by  its  subsequent  shrinkage. 
These  conditions  do  not  occur  on  the  lighter  soils,  and  yet  even  these 
are  best  when  cultivated  in  a  rational  manner. 


METHODS  OF  IRRIGATION 

There  are  various  methods  employed  in  California  for  the  convey- 
ance and  application  of  water  to  trees  and  vines.  Some  of  the  principal 
ones  will  be  described. 

As  this  writing  does  not  pretend  to  be  a  treatise  on  irrigation  engi- 
neering, no  -attempt  will  be  made  to  describe  the  more  ambitious  under- 
takings, which  should  never  be  entered  upon  without  the  engagement 
of  a  qualified  engineer.  Nor  is  it  possible  to  discuss  the  numerous 
devices  which  are  covered  by  patents.  Investment  should  always  be 
preceded  by  visits  to  irrigation  works  now  in  operation,  and  procedure 
should  be  guided  by  observation.  The  hints  presented  herewith  relate 
chiefly  to  things  the  irrigator  can.  do  for  himself. 

Free  Flooding. — Flooding — that  is,  the  free  flow  of  water  over 
the  whole  surface,  or  the  flow  between  rows  with  furrows  near  the 
trees  to  retain  the  water  in  the  interspaces — is  only  employed  on  some 
flat  lands  where  winter  irrigation  is  used  to  supplement  rainfall  when 
the  latter  is  occasionally  below  normal.  In  such  cases  water  is  available 
in  large  quantities,  and  the  lay  of  the  land  favors  quite  even  distribu- 
tion. Even  under  these  conditions  the  experience  of  growers  soon 
leads  to  the  adoption  of  deep  furrows  or  lateral  ditches,  or  some  simple 
check  system,  as  superior  to  flooding.  Summer  flooding  is  done  only 
by  those  who  are  unacquainted  with  better  methods  or  who  count  their 
trees  of  too  little  account  to  warrant  extra  effort.  It  seems,  therefore, 
a  fair  conclusion  that  flooding  is  only  resorted  to  as  a  temporary  expe- 
dient, and  has  little  standing. 

The  Check  System. — With  soils  of  such  character  that  vertical 
percolation  is  very  rapid,  flooding  in  checks,  by  which  water  is  held 
upon  a  particular  area  until  it  sinks  below  the  surface,  is  considered 
necessary.  There  is  a  tendency  to  change  from  this  method  to  a  furrow 
system  wherever  practicable,  because  the  former  requires  more  soil 
shifting,  a  larger  head  of  water  for  economical  operation,  more  labor 
to  handle  it,  more  working  in  water  and  mud,  and  more  difficult  culti- 
vation to  relevel  the  land  and  to  reduce  a  puddled  surface  to  satisfactory 
tilth.  For  these  and  other  reasons,  perhaps,  on  loams  of  medium  fine- 


164  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS  I    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

ness  one  may  find  two  adjacent  growers  pursuing  different  methods, 
while  on  coarse  porous  loams  the  check  system  prevails,  and  on  fine, 
retentive  loams,  the  furrow  system  is  without  rival. 

The  check  system  can  be  seen  on  the  most  extensive  scale  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  where  the  land  is  so  level  and 
water  so  abundant  that  the  checks  can  be  measured  by  acres  or  frac- 
tions of  acres.  In  its  most  perfect  form  it  is  found  in  Orange  County 
and  some  parts  of  Los  Angeles  County,  where  the  checks  are  measured 
by  feet,  rarely  by  rods.  Very  large  checks  are  chiefly  used  for  field 
crops,  although  also  employed  for  winter  irrigation  or  vineyards  and 
orchards  of  deciduous  fruits.  With  fruits,  however,  even  in  the  same 
district,  the  tendency  is  toward  using  smaller  checks  carefully  leveled 
before  planting.  With  the  large-check  system  permanent  levees,  either 
in  rectangular  form  or  on  the  contour  plan,  are  generally  used.  The 
small-check  system  is  chiefly  laid  off  with  temporary  levees,  quickly 
made  with  special  appliances  and  as  quickly  worked  back  to  a  level  as 
soon  as  the  ground  dries  sufficiently  after  irrigation,  and  the  whole 
surface  kept  well  cultivated  until  the  time  arrives  for  a  restoration  of 
the  levees  for  the  next  irrigation.  The  latter  is  the  leading  horticul- 
tural mod£.  It  is  carefully  described  by  Mr.  Sydmer  Ross,  of  Fuller- 
ton,  Orange  County,  California,  as  follows : 

The  check  system,  as  carried  out  in  the  best-handled  orchards,  entails  much 
hard  work,  but  after  you  are  through  with  an  irrigation  you  know  that  each 
and  every  tree  has  had  its  full  supply  of  water  or  you  know  the  reason  why. 
The  ground  must  be  cultivated,  say,  about  5  inches  deep,  so  as  to  have  plenty  of 
loose  soil  with  which  to  throw  up  a  high  ridge.  Then  a  four  or  six-horse 
"ridger"  should  be  run  once  each  way  through  the  rows,  if  it  is  a  citrus  or 
deciduous  orchard,  or  twice  should  the  trees  be  walnuts,  because  these  trees  are 
grown  about  40  feet  apart  After  this  is  done  the  ridger  should  be  run  entirely 
around  the  outside  of  the  piece  to  be  irrigated,  so  as  to  have  as  perfect  a  ridge 
as  possible  on  the  outside.  One  man  will  ridge  about  15  acres  in  a  day.  The 
ridger  should  be  built  with  a  steel  plate  extending  along  the  bottom  on  both 
sides,  bolted  to  the  inside  and  projecting  about  2  inches,  so-  as  to  take  good  hold 
of  the  ground.  Then  with  one  horse  attached  to  what  is  locally  known  as  a 
"jump  scraper/'  one  side  of  the  checks  should  be  closed  up,  for  the  ridger  in 
making  the  cross  ridges  breaks  down  the  first  ridge  at  its  intersection.  These 
repairs  were  at  first  made  with  a  shovel,  but  the  jump  scraper,  also  called 
locally  the  "horse  shovel,"  closes  up  the  gaps  very  quickly.  The  practice  gen- 
erally followed  is  to  close  up  the  high  side  of  the  checks  if  the  land  does  not 
cut  by  running  water,  but  if  it  cuts,  close  up  the  lower  side. 

After  closing  up  the  checks  the  ditches  are  plowed  out  and  then  the  V-shaped 
"crowder"  is  run  twice  through  them.  On  lands  inclined  to  cut  it  is  advis- 
able that  they  length  of  the  rows  to  be  irrigated  should  not  be  over  250  feet,  but 
in  heavy  land  this  distance  can  be , considerably  increased,  if  necessary,  without 
danger  of  cutting  the  ridges  bv  too  long  a  run  of  water. 

If  the  checks  have  been  closed  up  on  the  low  side  of  the  ridge,  it  is  better 
to  run  the  water  to  the  ends  of  the  ditch  and  water  the  last  row  first ;  but  if 
the  high  side  has  been  closed  up,  it  is  best  to  water  first  the  row  nearest  the 
gate  or  the  main  ditch,  as  the  case  may  be,  as  in  each  instance  dry  earth  will 
thus  be  available,  if  necessary,  to  close  up  the  checks.  The  water  is  run  down 
the, row  to  the  end  tree,  and  as  soon  as  the  last  check  is  filled  it  is  closed  up, 
and  so  on  till  all  are  filled  and  closed,  when  the  water  is  turned  down  the  next 
row. 

To  do  good  work  it  is  usual  to  allow  three  men  for  every  50  inches  of  water, 
but  in  our  own  practice  we  have  had  much  better  results  by  dividing  up  our 
water  and  running  from  35  to  40  inches  to  a  ditch  and  allowing  two  men  for 


THE    CHECK    SYSTEM  165 

such  streams.  In  doing  this  we  get  better  work  and  find  it  much  easier  for  the 
men.  If  everything  is  well  in  hand,  each  man  will  irrigate  about  30  acres  in  a 
day. 

For  turning  the  water  from  the  ditches  into  the  checks  metal  dams  or  tap- 
poons  are  used.  Some  of  these  have  a  gate  for  the  division  of  the  water  when 
the  stream  is  too  large  and  is  divided,  and  two  rows  are  watered  at  the  same 
time.  The  gate  is  not  a  great  success,  as  the  water  is  apt  soon  to  cut  its  way 
under  the  tappoon,  but  it  may  be  much  improved  by  having  a  shelf  for  the 
water  to  drop  on  after  it  passes  through  the  opening.  The  common  practice  for 
dividing  water  is  to  throw  a  tappoon  partly  across  the  ditch,  putting  a  gunny 
sack  on  the  opposite  side  to  prevent  cutting  by  the  water.  This  is,  on  the 
whole,  fully  as  satisfactory  as  using  the  tappoon  with  a  gate. 

All  who  follow  this  system  should  get  ready  for  the  water  before  it  comes. 
A  great  many  seem  to  think  that  if  they  ridge  up  their  land,  close  up  the  checks, 
and  plow  out  their  ditches,  everything  necessary  has  been  done.  Such  is  not  the 
case,  as  ditches  that  are  liable  to  cut  should  be  fixed  in  the  weak  places  with 
brush  or  burlaps.  Old  gunny  sacks  cut  open  and  spread  out  are  excellent  for 
this  purpose.  Occasionally  there  are  places  where  it  is  impossible  to  get  a 
perfect  ridge.  These  should  be  looked  up  and  fixed  with  a  shovel.  The  jump 
scraper  will  not  entirely  close  up  a  check ;  it  generally  requires  a  shovelful  or 
two  to  complete  it.  It  is  usual  after  the  water  is  turned  down  one  row  to 
fix  up  the  next  one,  but  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  have  a  few  rows  fixed  up 
ahead,  for  there  come  times  when  breaks  occur  and  there  is  not  time  to  make 
the  necessary  repairs,  and  when  water  once  gets  the  start  there  is  apt  to  be 
much  trouble  and  hard  work  before  it  can  be  put  under  control,  besides  doing 
poor  work. 

After  the  ground  is  dry  enough  to  work,  the  ridges  are  split  with  a  listing 
plow  or  furrower  attached  to  a  cultivator.  Then  the  ground  should  be  run 
over  with  a  harrow,  setting  the  teeth  to  go  well  in,  so  as  to  pulverize  the  surface 
thoroughly.  By  using  the  harrow  the  ground  can  be  worked  about  one  day 
earlier  than  with  the  cultivator,  and  it  also  prevents  the  ground  from  baking 
till  such  time  as  it  can  be  worked  with  the  latter  implement,  besides  doing  far 
better  work  than  with  the  cultivator  alone,  especially  when  there  is  much  land 
to  go  over,  as  some  of  it  is  certain  to  get  too  dry  before  it  can  be  reached,  and 
then  it  will  not  pulverize  well.  All  trees  should  be  worked  around  by  hand  with 
either  a  fork  or  hoe,  as  soon  after  irrigation  as  the  ground  becomes  dry  enough 
and  before  it  becomes  hard. 

Specifications  for  Homemade  Implements  for  the  Check  System. 

— The  following  implements,  used  in  preparing  the  ground  for  irriga- 
tion by  the  check  system,  were  made  on  the  fruit  ranch  of  J.  B.  Neff, 
Anaheim,  California,  with  the  tools  ordinarily  found  on  a  ranch,  and 
with  but  little  help  from  the  blacksmith : 

The  Ridger. — This  has  sides  of  2  by  16-inch  pine  7  feet  long,  stand- 
ing 18  inches  apart  at  the  rear  and  5  feet  apart  at  the  front  end.  The 
sides  may  be  made  of  two  2  by  8-inch  pieces  with  2  by  3-inch  battens 
bolted  on  securely.  The  front  crossbar  is  of  2  by  4-inch  pine  6  feet  2 
inches  long,  and  is  set  20  inches  from  the  end.  The  rear  crossbar  is 
of  2  by  4-inch  pine  4  feet  4  inches  long.  It  is  set  7  inches  from  the  end 
of  the  sides.  The  diagonal  braces  are  1  by  3-inch  pine  6  feet  10  inches 
long.  The  short  side  braces  are  2  by  3-inch  pine  15  inches  long.  The 
lower  inside  edge  should  be  protected  by  a  strip  of  steel  or  iron  y$  by 
2  inches  extending  to  and  around  the  front  ends,  which  should  be 
beveled  to  a  sharp  adge.  The  inside  should  also  be  lined  with  sheet 
iron  6  or  8  inches  above  the  %  by  2-inch  piece,  and  should  have  sheet 
iron  pieces  extending  16  inches  beyond  the  rear  end  of  the  sides,  tapered 
and  braced  in  the  manner  shown  in  the  cut,  for  the  purpose  of  making 


166 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS!    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


the  ridger  firmer  at  the  top.  Every  part  of  the  ridger  should  be  firmly 
bolted  with  ^-inch  bolts,  except  the  %  by  2-inch  iron,  which  should 
have  3-16-inch  bolts,  and  the  sheet-iron,  which  may  be  put  on  with 
nails.  The  hooks  on  sides  for  hitching  draft  chain  are  j£  by  lj/2  inches, 
and  the  draft  chain  is  3^-inch  cable  chain. 


The  "Ridger." 

For  levee  making  in  the  check  system  of  irrigating  trees  and  vines. 

The  V-shaped  Crozvder  or  Ditcher. — This  has  sides  of  2  by  12-inch 
pine  and  cross-brace  of  2  by  9-inch  pine.  The  long  side  is  7  feet  8 
inches  long  and  short  side  3  feet  6  inches  long.  This  is  also  protected 
by  a  piece  of  steel  or  iron  extending  entirely  around  the  ditcher  and 
bolted  with  3-16-inch  bolts.  The  sides  come  together  in  a  point  and 
stand  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees.  The  brace  is  placed  2  feet  10  inches 
from  the  point  on  short  side  and  3  feet  10  inches  from  the  point  on 
long  side.  It  also  has  two  handles,  as  shown  in  cut,  3  feet  long.  These 


The  "Crowder." 

Used  in  the  preparation  and  distribution  of  water  in  the  check  system. 

are  made  of  2  by  3-inch  pine  reduced  so  as  to  hold  conveniently.  The 
sloping  handle  is  bolted  to  the  short  side.  When  in  use  this  implement 
stands  with  the  short  side  elevated  at  an  angle  of  about  35  degrees, 
and  a  floor  is  placed  in  the  triangular  space  so  that  it  will  be  level  when 
in  use.  An  ordinary  wide  clevis  is  used  for  the  draft  and  is  placed  as 


IMPLEMENTS   FOR   CHECKING  167 

shown  in  the  cut.    A  vertical  hole  may  be  made  in  front  of  the  clevis 
pin  and  a  small  rod  driven  in  to  strengthen  the  hold  of  the  clevis. 

The  Jump  Scraper  or  Horse  Shovel. — This  is  used  for  filling  gaps 
in  the  ridges,  and  is  the  work  of  the  blacksmith.  The  beams  are  %  by 
\Y±  inches  and  30  inches  long  from  the  draft  ring  to  the  bend  down- 
ward. The  shovel  is  of  No.  16  sheet-iron,  24  inches  long  by  18  inches 
deep.  The  handles  are  those  used  on  any  cultivator.  The  beams  are 
bent  to  stand  6  inches  forward  of  a  square  placed  on  top  of  the  beams. 
The  braces  are  of  ^-inch  round  iron.  The  shovel  is  slightly  cupped  to 
make  it  hold  more  earth. 

The  Portable  Gate  or  Tappoon. — These  are  for  shutting  ditches, 
and  are  made  of  No.  16  sheet-iron  2  feet  wide  and  of  any  desired  length, 
but  usually  3  feet,  4  feet  or  5  feet  long.  The  corners  are  cut  off  to  a 
circle,  starting  about  1  foot  back  of  the  corner.  The  handles  are  made 


The  "Jumper/' 

Used  to  complete  levees  by  the  "ridger"  for  the  check  system. 

of  2  pieces  of  1  by  3-inch  pine,  12  inches  longer  than  the  gate,  and  are 
placed  one  on  each  side  of  the  sheet  iron  and  secured  by  Y^ -inch  bolts. 

The  Combined  Check  and  Furrow  Method. — An  effort  to  escape 
in  some  measure  the  puddling  of  the  surface  which  results  from  allow- 
ing water  to  sink  away  upon  finely  pulverized  soil,  lies  in  the  direction 
of  breaking  up  the  soil  roughly  in  the  bottoms  of  the  checks,  which 
facilitates  the  quick  passage  of  the  water  into  the  subsoil.  This  is  done 
by  running  a  small  plow  or  three  large  cultivator  teeth  attached  to  a 
single  frame  before  the  ridger  is  used  to  form  the  levees.  Mr.  A.  D. 
Bishop  of  Orange  County,  California,  uses  a  combined  furrow  and 
check  system,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram.  He  furrows 
the  land  first  with  a  three-tooth  furrower  at  right  angles  to  the  direc- 
tion in  which  the  water  is  to  flow,  and  then  uses  the  ridger  to  make 
levees  in  line  with  the  water,  laying  out  the  work  so  as  to  get  the 
closest  approximation  to  a  level.  When  the  levees  are  made,  the  jump 
scraper  is  used  and  the  end  of  each  third  or  fourth  furrow  bank  is  con- 
nected with  the  levees  at  alternating  sides  of  the  check  made  by  the 


168 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO   GROW    THEM 


levees.  This  causes  the  water  to  flow  through  the  furrows  from  side 
to  side  and  distribute  itself  evenly  over  the  whole  ground.  The  number 
of  furrows  which  can  be  passed  before  connecting  with  the  bank  de- 
pends upon  the  slope  of  the  land — the  nearer  level  the  land  the  greater 
the  distance  that  can  be  left  between  the  connections,  and  vice  versa.  In 
this  way  the  water  is  taken  slowly  down  a  grade  where  it  would  flow 
too  rapidly  were  it  admitted  to  furrows  in  the  direction  of  its  flow. 

Another  combination  of  the  check  and  furrow  system  is  found 
where  the  lowest  spaces  of  a  slope  irrigated  by  furrows  are  laid  off  in 
checks  to  catch  the  overflow  from  the  furrows  and  compel  its  percola- 
tion at  a  point  which  would  otherwise  receive  too  little  water.  The  parts 
of  a  furrow  system  which  lie  farthest  from  the  source  of  supply  are 


--i  6aRaatM:«ahS 
tac*a»tjws< 


Combined  check  and  furrow  irrigation. 


obviously  least  supplied,  because  long  flow  can  not  be  maintained  there 
without  much  loss  from  overflow.  Holding  the  water  in  checks  at  the 
lower  end — usually  for  two  rows  of  trees — is  quite  a  help  toward  even 
distribution. 

The  Basin  System. — The  term  basin  should  be  restricted  to  in- 
closures  which  do  not  aim  at  covering  the  whole  surface,  but  only  a 
small  area  immediately  surrounding  the  tree.  The  check  system  is 
clearly  a  more  rational  and  perfect  method  of  flooding.  When  basins 
were  used  on  ground  capable  of  irrigation  by  the  check  or  furrow  sys- 
tems, it  was  probably  due  to  a  misconception  which  has  prevailed  also 
in  the  practice  of  fertilization,  that  the  tree  derived  its  chief  benefit  from 
the  soil  immediately  surrounding  and  beneath  its  bole,  and  that  distant 
applications  were  likely  to  be  wasted.  Years  ago  it  was  held  that  the 
lateral  root  extension  of  a  tree  was  equal  to  the  spread  of  its  branches, 


CO 


. 


THE   BASIN    SYSTEM  169 

but  recent  investigations  have  shown  that  under  favorable  soil  condi- 
tions the  root  extension  is  vastly  greater.  It  is  not  reasonable  then  to 
restrict  water  or  other  plant  food  to  the  region  chiefly  occupied  with 
the  stay  roots  and  not  the  feeding  roots  of  the  tree,  and  it  is  a  frequent 
observation  that  basined  trees  do  not  do  so  well  and  that  they  show 
distress  sooner  than  those  under  systems  which  secure  more  complete 
water  distribution. 

To  the  basin  system  may,  however,  be  conceded  these  possibilities : 
( 1 )  Trees  may  be  grown  on  hillsides  too  steep  for  other  means  of  irri- 
gation unless  the  hillside  be  previously  terraced;  (2)  the  basins  afford 
an  opportunity  to  use  a  very  small  stream  of  water  by  allowing  it  to 
run  for  a  long  time  in  each  basin,  thus  making  a  miniature  reservoir  at 
the  base  of  each  tree;  (3)  for  young  trees  a  small  amount  of  water 
may  sustain  growth,  while  with  other  methods  the  same  amount  of 
water  would  be  almost  wholly  lost  by  evaporation  or  percolation,  or 
both;  (4)  the  expense  of  wider  application  of  water  and  the  necessary 
after-cultivation  is  obviated. 

In  planting  on  hillsides,  terracing  is  the  foundation  of  the  basin 
system.  Terraces  are  plowed  and  scraped  out  until  they  have  width 
enough  to  accommodate  a  line  of  basins  and.  a  ditch  at  the  foot  of  each 
bank  to  supply  them.  The  terraces  are  given  a  little  fall,  alternating  in 
direction  so  that  the  water,  starting  from  the  ridge  above,  is  dropped 
through  a  box,  or  otherwise  let  down,  from  the  low  end  of  one  terrace 
to  the  high  end  of  the  next,  and  so  on  until  the  stream  reaches  the  bot- 
tom of  the  slope.  As  a  basin  is  reached  it  is  filled  and  closed  and  the 
water  sent  along  to  the  next  and  so  on.  As  these  basins  are  usually 
small  and  shallow  thev  are  filled  two  or  three  times  in  succession  at 
each  irrigation. 

Wherever  water  can  be  handled  in  contour  ditches  or  furrows,  ter- 
racing should  seldom  be  undertaken  for  commercial  purposes.  With 
slopes  which  do  require  terracing,  basins  on  the  steeper  parts  are 
largely  made  by  hand  labor,  after  plowing  to  loosen  the  whole  surface, 
and  the  operation  consists  in  moving  the  earth  from  the  upper  side  of 
the  tree  so  as  to  form  a  circular  levee  on  the  lower  side,  until  the  tree 
stands  in  a  level,  roundish  pan  as  large  as  can  be  made  without  too  much 
excavation  and  filling.  As  the  slope  becomes  less  the  basins  enlarge 
and  reach  a  diameter,  finally,  where  the  sides  can  be  made  by  turning 
a  small  horse  or  mule  around  the  tree  with  a  plow,  the  rim  being  further 
raised  and  shaped  by  hand  so  as  to  hold  3  inches  or  more  of  water 
without  danger  of  breaking  away. 

The  basins  are  filled  with  a  small  stream  by  ditch  or  hose  or  pipe 
line,  according  to  the  ground  and  notion  of  the  irrigator.  They  are 
filled  at  such  intervals  as  the  water  supply  admits  or  the  growth  seems 
to  need.  The  basin  bottom  is  rarely  disturbed.  The  cracking  soil  is 
finally  given  another  dose  of  water  to  close  up  its  wounds ;  meantime  the 
frequent  surface  soaking  puddles  the  soil  and  the  conditions  unfavor- 
able to  growth  arrive  sooner  or  later,  according  to  the  disposition  of 
the  soil  to  run  together  by  water  settling.  Drying  and  cracking  is 
lessened  by  filling  the  basin  with  manure  or  rotten  straw  or  other  light 
rubbish,  or  by  a  layer  of  coarse  sand  on  the  bottom.  As  the  tree  grows 
the  foliage  shades  the  basin  and  thus  reduces  evaporation. 


170 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW   TO   GROW   THEM 


Where  the  surface  is  uneven  or  the  soil  too  leachy  to  carry  water 
well  in  a  ditch,  portable  and  adjustable  carriers  are  used  to  advantage. 
Of  these,  slip- joint  pipes  of  non-rusting  metal  or  of  wood,  are  most 
satisfactory  and  are  coming  to  be  largely  used. 

The  Furrow  System. — The  furrow  system  is  the  prevailing 
method  of  irrigating  fruit  lands  except  with  some  soils  which  can  be 
better  handled  with  less  water  by  the  check  system.  The  furrow  sys- 
tem has,  however,  a  very  marked  theoretical  advantage  in  the  escape 
from  saturating  the  surface  soil,  which  has  to  dry  out  again  before  it 
can  be  cultivated,  and  it  is  only  with  difficulty  reduced  to  fine  tilth 
after  such  puddling.  Another  advantage  is  in  saving  the  water  used 


SOUTH  FUKROW 


NORTH  F0KROW 


Large  furrow. 

Large  furrow  irrigation  of  orange  trees  at  Palermo,  Butte  County,   Cal. 


in  moistening  soil  which  has  to  be  dried  by  evaporation.  Other  theo- 
retical advantages  lie  in  the  even  distribution  of  the  water  with  the 
least  displacement  of  the  soil  and  the  introduction  of  the  water  to  the 
subsoil,  where  deep-rooting  plants  should  derive  their  chief  sustenance. 
It  is  becoming  quite  clear  that  all  these  theoretical  advantages  have  not 
been  realized  by  the  furrow  system  as  generally  practiced,  and  a  num- 
ber of  modifications  are  now  being  introduced  which  promise  their 
fuller  realization.  The  changes  now  taking  place  tend  toward  reduc- 
ing the  difference  between  what  are  known  as  the  "large-furrow"  and 
the  "small-furrow"  methods,  because  the  improvement  lies  chiefly  in 
introducing  the  water  more  deeply  in  the  soil,  as  will  be  shown  later, 
and  this  is  done  by  using  fewer  and  deeper  furrows. 


LARGE   IRRIGATION    FURROWS  171 

Irrigating  by  Large  Furrows. — Where  one  to  four  furrows  are 
used,  these  are  large  furrows,  while  the  small-furrow  system  uses  from 
five  to  eight  or  more  between  two  rows  of  trees.  Large  furrows  are 
made  with  the  double-moldboard  plow,  or  with  a  single  plow  followed 
by  the  "crowder,"  or  by  plowing-  out  dead  furrows  between  the  rows, 
etc.  Their  number  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  trees  and  the  fitness 
of  the  soil  for  lateral  seepage.  They  are  wide  enough  and  deep  enough 
to  carry  or  hold  a  large  stream  of  water.  This  method  is  used  chiefly 
for  winter  irrigation  on  land  which  is  so  nearly  level  that  the  water 
will  flow  slowly  into  the  furrows  and  stand  there  until  it  disappears  by 
percolation.  It  is  also  used  where  one  or  two  summer  irrigations  is  all 
that  is  required  to  carry  the  trees  through.  It  is  obviously  adapted  only 
to  land  of  slight  and  uniform  grade.  Irrigation  by  a  single  furrow  cut 
near  to  the  row  of  trees  is  a  widely  prevalent  method  with  young  trees. 
When  the  trees  are  larger,  or  when  inter-cultures  are  undertaken,  the 
large  furrows  are  multiplied.  In  this  case  the  water  is  admitted  to  the 
furrows  from  a  board  flume.  Large  furrows  are  often  used  in  a  bear- 
ing orchard,  the  furrows  being  filled  from  a  lateral  ditch,  this  lateral 
being  parallel  to  the  main  ditch.  In  this  case  the  board  dam  is  used 
to  divert  the  lateral  into  one  large  furrow  after  another,  and  when  the 
furrow  is  filled  dirt  is  thrown  in  to  prevent  the  reflow  of  the  water  into 
the  lateral. 

The  great  variety  in  large  furrow  practice  is  suggested  in  the  fore- 
going. A  systematic  manner  of  proceeding  is  that  of  Mr.  A.  Trost,  of 
Palermo,  California,  as  described  by  himself : 

The  soil  is  red,  gravelly  clay,  the  upper  12  inches  without  rocks;  below  this 
the  gravel  is  more  rock.  At  the  depth  of  3  or  4  feet  the  red  clay  changes 
into  a  whitish  one  and  water  enters  it  very  slowly.  My  orchard  is  12  acres — 
1,120  feet  long  from  north  to  south  and  510  feet  from  east  to  west.  The  north- 
east corner  is  the  highest.  Here  the  water  ditch  enters,  and  I  run  my  head 
ditch  along  the  east  side  from  north  to  south.  There  are  51  rows  of  trees  in 
that  direction,  the  north  and  south  outside  rows  being  olives.  There  are  23 
orange  trees  in  the  row  from  east  to  west  and  1  olive  tree  on  the  west  end.  All 
trees  are  20  feet  apart.  I  use  24  miner's  inches  per  day  for  5  days  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner :  I  use  4  furrows  about  5  or  6  inches  deep  and  about  3  feet 
apart  between  rows,  leaving  the  rows  nearest  the  trees  from  5  to  6  feet  from 
the  trunks.  The  4  lower  rows  on  the  west  side  I  cross  furrow  with  2  furrows 
between  the  trees.  I  divide  the  24  inches  into  51  equal  streamlets  by  using  one 
gate  for  each  4  rows.  First  turn  this  amount  into  the  furrow  south  nearest  to 
tree.  When  the  water  has  moved  to  the  olive  tree,  I  divide  the  water  between 
the  4  furrows  for  the  lower  6  trees  and  through  the  cross  furrows.  The  next 
morning  I  divide  the  water  at  the  tenth  tree  for  the  4  furrows.  On  the  third 
day  I  let  only  one-half  the  water  go  down  in  the  furrow  south  of  tree,  the 
other  in  the  one  north  nearest  to  tree.  On  the  fourth  day  I  turn  part  of  it  in 
the  middle  furrows  near  the  head  ditch,  and  by  the  fifth  day  I  have  my  place 
equally  wet  from  one  end  to  the  other,  taking  care  that  the  top  soil  near  the 
trunks  of  trees  remains  dry  on  the  surface.  I  keep  the  soil  around  the  trunks 
of  the  trees  about  2  inches  higher  for  a  width  of  3  feet.  In  this  way  I  use  all 
the  water  without  running  any  off,  and  lose  only  the  evaporation.  The  whole 
amount  of  water  used  is  120  inches,  equal  to  10  inches  or  130,000  gallons  per 
acre,  or  4.5  acre-inches,  or  1,200  gallons  per  tree. 

I  irrigate  about  every  four  weeks,  running  the  water  five  days  and  turning 
it  on  again  three  weeks  after  it  is  taken  off.  I  have  irrigated  as  early  as  the 
1st  ^  of  April  and  as  late  as  the  middle  of  October,  depending  on  late  rains  in 
spring  and  early  rains  in  fall ;  usually  from  five  to  six  irrigations  per  year.  After 
four  or  five  days  I  cultivate  14  feet  wide  between  the  trees  from  6  to  8  inches 


172  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS  I    HOW   TO   GROW    THEM 

deep;  for  this  I  use  a  7-foot  cultivator  and  four  horses.  Near  the  trunk  of 
the  tree  I  work  about  two  inches  deep  and  a  little  farther  away  4  inches  deep, 
using  the  three-cornered  orchard  plow  with  a  cultivator  4  feet  wide  and  two 
horses. 

Irrigation  by  Large  Furrows  Without  Summer  Cultivation. — An 

exception  to  the  continuous  cultivation  of  orchard  ground  which  is 
prevalent  in  the  irrigated  regions  of  the  Pacific  Coast  is  found  in  the 
foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  in  California,  where  furrows  are  made 
at  the  beginning  of  each  irrigating  season  and  used  continuously  during 
that  summer.  The  ensuing  winter  plowing  and  early  spring  cultivation 
are  relied  upon  to  keep  the  soil  in  good  condition.  Although  this  con- 
stitutes an  exception  and  the  practice  is  widely  followed  for  what  seems 
to  the  growers  of  the  region  to  be  a  good  and  sufficient  reason,  it  does 
not  militate  against  the  truth  of  the  continuous  summer  cultivation 
policy  which  elsewhere  prevails,  nor  does  it  follow  that  this  policy 
would  not  be  better  in  some  respects  even  in  the  region  where  it  is 
abandoned.  It  is  a  district  of  very  large  water  supply,  and  the  arrange- 
ments of  the  water  company  are  such  that  the  grower  must  pay  for  a 
certain  number  of  inches  of  water  by  the  year,  and  is  entitled  to  this 
amount  of  continuous  flow.  He  has  to  use  it  or  neglect  it  as  it  flows, 
and  can  not  get  more  at  one  time  by  not  using  it  at  another.  For  this 
reason  he  has  not  the  motive  for  close  observation  which  prevails  under 
other  conditions,  and  to  escape  the  cost  of  summer  cultivation  and  fresh 
furrowing  out  he  has  recourse  to  frequent  flows  in  the  old  furrows. 
The  following  interesting  account  of  the  prevailing  method  was  pre- 
pared by  Mr.  W.  R.  Fountain,  of  Newcastle : 

Water  is  supplied  almost  exclusively  by  one  company,  which  has  met  require- 
ments up  to  date,  and  seems  fixed  to  supply  in  excess  of  demand.  It  is  supplied 
by  the  miner's  inch ;  price  $45  per  inch  per  season  for  a  constant  supply.  The 
inch  is  measured  under  6-inch  pressure. 

Beginning  May  1st,  five  months  is  called  the  irrigating  season,  but  the  pur- 
chaser can  have  the  water  twelve  months  per  annum  if  he  wants  it.  The 
water  company  collects  monthly.  The  purchaser  cannot  start  the  season  with 
little  and  increase  at  pleasure,  except  upon  payment  for  the  full  season  on  the 
basis  of  the  largest  amount  used  at  any  time. 

With  this  constant  supply  we  use  it  constantly,  piping  to  high  points  and 
moving  it  from  place  to  place.  When  no  fruit  is  ripening  it  is  attempted  to 
water  a  block  of  trees  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  water  is  not  checked  back, 
but  is  run  in  ditches,  mostly  in  one,  but  occasionally  in  two,  along  each  row  of 
trees  or  vines.  When  a  variety  of  fruit  is  rioening  more  water  is  given  the 
trees,  while  after  a  variety  is  picked  and  before  any  other  is  nearly  ripe  the 
effort  is  made  to  water  each  tree  every  ten  or  twelve  days.  Level  land  and  low 
spots  stand  a  good  chance,  as  a  rule,  to  get  too  much  water,  and  a  larger  stream 
is  used  per  row  to  force  the  water  through  quickly.  Then  it  is  taken  off  in  a 
shorter  time  than  it  would  be  where  the  trees  are  on  a  side-hill  and  have  a  good 
drainage. 

About  1  inch  for  each  8  acres  is  generally  used.  This  is  for  deciduous  fruits. 
The  citrus  fruits  and  berries  require  watering  about  once  a  week ;  if  there  is 
good  drainage  they  would  prosoer  if  watered  every  three  days.  In  such  ground 
I  have  not  heard  of  their  getting  either  too  much  water  or  too  much  fertilizer. 
The  general  practice  is  to  plow,  cross  plow,  and  then  after  each  rain  cultivate, 
with  no  cultivation  whatever  after  beginning  the  use  of  water.  I  think  an 
occasional  cultivation  after  watering  would  help. 

There  is  a  tendency  for  the  ditches  to  become  packed  after  water  has  been 
flowing  through  them  for  some  time,  in  which  case  but  little  water  soaks  into 
the  ground.  When  this  occurs  I  dig  a  pot  hole  in  the  ditch  to  allow  the  water  to 


APPLICATION    OF    WATER   ON    HILLSIDES  173 

soak  in,  or  else  loosen  the  ground  about  the  trees  with  a  spade  and  carry  the 
ditch  through  this  loosened  ground.  I  block  out  my  ditches  so  that  I  can  get 
my  stream  through  the  last  tree  in  about  sixteen  hours.  Where  the  water  has 
not  reached  the  end  of  some  of  the  ditches,  I  turn  the  water  into  it  from  a 
stream  that  is  flush,  and  by  keeping  a  man  with  a!  hoe  constantly  with  the  water, 
I  manage  to  get  it  over  the  field  at  about  4  p.  m.  I  wet  about  350  trees  in  a 
block  on  hillsides;  on  a  flat  I  wet  less,  using  more  water  in  each  stream,  and 
changing  it  about  every  twelve  hours  instead  of  every  twenty-four  hours.  My 
trees  grow  about  130  to  an  acre. 

Systematic  Distribution  of  Water  on  Hillsides. — The  Common 
method  of  carrying  water  in  pipes  to  the  various  high  points  of  several 
slopes  or  "irrigated  faces"  from  which  it  can  be  admitted  to  large  fur- 
rows crossing  or  descending  those  faces  is  open  to  some  difficulties  and 
disarrangements.  P.  W.  Butler,  of  Penryn,  has  had  in  successful  opera- 
tion for  several  years  a  system  of  zigzag  ditches  for  carrying  and  dis- 
tributing and  for  catching  outflow  and  redistributing  on  a  lower  face. 
This  is  also  a  system  which  makes  ditches  and  furrows  but  once  a  year, 
and  dispenses  with  summer  cultivation.  Mr.  Butler's  account,  as  illus- 
trated by  the  accompanying  diagram,  is  as  follows : 

The  amount  of  water  generally  used   in  this   section  for  the  irrigation  of 
deciduous  fruit  trees  is  1  inch  to  5  acres  of  orchard  (miner's  inch  under  6-inch 
pressure),  and  is  applied  to  each  row  of  trees  by  one  stream  of  water  of  sufficient 
quantity  to  just   reach   the   end   of  the   row.     Much  of  the   water   is   thus 
wasted  because  of  inability  to  properly  adjust  its  distribution.     It  is  usually 
run   twenty-four  hours,   then  changed  to  other  parts  of  the  orchard  until 
the  whole  is  covered,  which  takes  about  three  weeks'  time,  when  the  process 
is  repeated,  continuing  throughout  the  summer,  or  from  May  1  until  October 
1.     There  is  no  cultivation  in  the  meantime,  and  at  each  irrigation  the  water 
is   run   in   the   same   ditches.     This    system   is   followed    in    nearly   all   the 
orchards  of  Penryn  and  vicinity,  some  on  quite  steep  hillsides,  which  suffer 
when  the  water  is  thus  applied.     I  have  never  liked  this  method,  and  for 
many  years   have  used  a   different   system  in  irrigating  all   orchards   over 
which  I  have  had  control.     In  my  home  orchard  I  have  a  reservoir  on  the 
highest  land,  from  which  water  can  be  conveyed  as  desired  to  every  part. 
My  ditches  are  run  on  a  grade  with  a  fall  from  2  to  3  inches  to  the  rod  and 
from  5  to  8  feet  apart.     At  each  irrigation  the  water  is  run  about  thirty-six 
hours  before  changing.     The  round  of  the  orchard  is  made  in  ten  to  four- 
teen days.     None  of  my  small  ditches  exceeds  400  feet  in  length.     When  I 
begin  to  irrigate  a  section  I  turn  on  from  the  reservoir  water  sufficient  to 
cover  the  section  in  a  few  hours,  then  lessen  it  until  it  just  reaches  the  end 
of  each  row,  but  see  that  it  reaches  the  end  of  each  row  if  a  little  surplus 
passes  over.     This  surplus  I  take  up  in  a  main  ditch,  to  be  again  used  on 
lower  ground.     This   is   continued  until   the   lowest  part  of  the  orchard  is 
reached,  and  very  little  water  is   ever  wasted.     By  running  on  a  grade  that 
is  so  nearly  level  the  water  is  applied  uniformly,  even  on  the  driest  parts  of 
the  hill  slopes.     I  run  the  main  distributing  ditches  in  a  zigzag  manner,  tak- 
ing water  from  these  ditches  to  cover  the  lower  sections.     I  formerly  used 
pipes  to  lead  the  water  down  the  steepest  grades,  but  this  system  I  have 
abandoned  and  now  use  open  zigzag  ditches  for  mains.     From  the  main 
zigzag  ditches  I  do  not  take  the  water  at  the  turning  point,  as  there  is  more 
liability  of  breakage  than  if  taken  when  running  straight,  or  at  whatever 
point  is  necessary  to  keep  the  distributing  ditches  on  an  average  of  8  feet 
apart.     The  length  of  the  zigzag  ditches  varies  according  to  the  slone  of  the 
hillside.     When  steep,  the  ditch,  before  turning,  must  be  of  greater  length 
than  where  the  ground  is  more  level.     (See  diagram.)     I  use  no  gates,  but 
bush  the  openings  with  coarse  swale  hay.     I  also  bush  the  turning  points  of 
ditches  as  they  are  in  permanent  use  throughout  the  season,  and  after  the 
first  few  days'  use  require  but  little  care  to  keep  them  in  order.     These 


174 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS  I    HOW    TO   GROW   THEM 


ditches  are  torn  up  during  the  season  of  cultivation  and  have  to  be  renewed 
every  year. 

I  use*  a  level  set  on  a  frame  8.25  feet  long  and  about  2.5  feet  high  (one 
leg  longer  than  the  other)  to  make  any  grade  desired.  Then  I  drag  its 
length  on  the  ground  after  getting  the  level,  and  can  mark  the  linq  of  ditch 
nearly  half  as  fast  as  a  man  can  walk. 

During  the  last  ten  years  I  have  used  many  thousand  feet  of  pipe!  in  irri- 
gating, but  have  found  it  too  expensive  to  be  practicable,  and  it  frequently 
gets  clogged,  causing  much  trouble.  '  The  zigzag  method  of  taking  the  water 
down  hills  on  the  dry  ridges,  distributing  to  right  and  left,  picking  it  up 
again  in  zigzag  ditches  at  the  end  of  the  rows  or  system,  to  be  used  again 
on  lower  ground,  brings  into  use  the  largest  quantity  where  it  is  most  needed 
and  utilizes  it  all  without  waste. 


Zigzag  ditches. 

Large  furrow  system  on  hillsides  with  zigzag  ditches  for  distribution,  catchment, 

and  redistribution. 


Irrigating  by  Small  Furrows. — It  has  already  been  suggested 
that  recently  the  small  furrow  method  of  irrigation  is  undergoing  cer- 
tain modifications.  The  occasion  for  the  change  is  that  in  certain  of  the 
heavier  soils,  particularly,  the  use  of  water  in  many  shallow  furrows 
followed  by  cultivation  results  in  the  formation  of  a  compact  layer,  and 
this  prevents  the  percolation  of  the  water  into  the  subsoil.  This  dis- 
covery led  many  Southern  growers  to  resort  to  fewer  and  deeper  fur- 
rows, and  to  new  devices  to  enable  the  tree  to  get  the  benefit  of  the 
water.  There  has  been  wide  use  of  the  subsoil  plow,  with  a  wedge- 
shaped  foot  attached  to  a  slim  standard  rising  to  the  ordinary  beam. 
The  standard  opposes  its  thin  edge  to  the  soil  so  as  to  cleave  it  with 
the  least  difficulty,  and  the  foot,  passing  through  or  beneath  the  hard- 
pan,  lifts  and  breaks  it.  The  result  of  the  subsoiling  is  to  open  a  way 


METHODS   OF   FURROW    IRRIGATION  175 

for  the  water  to  sink  and  spread  below  the  hardpan.  It  is  usual  to  run 
this  plow  once  through  the  center  of  the  interspace  between  the  rows  of 
trees,  sometimes  at  right  angles  to  the  irrigation  furrows.  When  this 
is  done  the  water  is  admitted  to  the  furrows  as  usual,  but  instead  of 
flowing  along  smoothly  it  drops  into  the  track  of  the  subsoiler  and  runs 
there  a  long  time  before  rising  again  to  continue  its  course  down  the 
furrow.  It  is  the  experience  of  some  growers  that  the  water  has  taken 
five  or  six  days  to  reach  the  lower  end  of  the  furrows,  a  distance  which 
would  have  been  covered  in  twenty-four  hours  if  the  subsoiler  had  not 
intervened.  This  has  been  shown  to  result  in  much  water  for  the  sub- 
soil and  a  notable  invigoration  of  trees  which  had  been  famishing, 
although  shallow-furrow  irrigation  had  proceeded  regularly. 

Recent  changes  in  the  furrow  method  at  Riverside,  California,  are 
described  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Reed  as  follows  : 

The  handling  of  the  water  in  the  orchard  has  materially  changed  in  recent 
years.  Instead  of  flooding  up,  basining,  or  using  shallow  furrows,  deep  furrows, 
from  3  to  5  feet  apart,  are  most  generally  used.  In  heavy  adobe  soils  more 
furrows  are  used  than  in  the  more  porous  granite  soils.  The  most  usual  length 
of  furrows  is  40  rods.  Every  precaution  is  taken  to  have. the  surface  wetted  as 
little  as  possible. 

The  amount  of  water  run  at  a  time  is  materially  lessened.  Formerly  the  com- 
mon practice  was  to  run  3  inches  per  acre  for  twenty-four  hours  each  thirty 
days.  Now,  2  inches  continuous  run  for  seventy-two  hours  is  found  to  serve  a 
much  better  purpose,  except  on  loose  soils.  The  general  practice  in  the  valley  is 
to  irrigate  once  each  thirty  days.  A  few  of  the  most  careful  orchardists  had 
found  that  by  intelligent  and  thorough  manipulation  of  the  soil  they  obtained  as 
favorable  results  from  the  application  of  water  every  sixty  days  or  more,  using 
the  same  amount  as  they  formerly  did  at  intervals  of  half  that  time.  The  writer 
has  watched  with  much  interest  an  eight-year-old  orchard  that  during  the  three 
years  preceding  the  present  received  in  all  but  ten  irrigations,  the  usual  amount 
of  water  being  used  only  at  each  four  irrigations  the  first  year  and  three  irriga- 
tions each  the  second  and  third  years,  with  results  comparing  favorably  with 
those  on  trees  of  the  same  age  on  the  same  soil  in  neighboring  orchards  that 
received  the  ordinary  thirty-day  irrigations.  While  there  are  few  orchardists 
who  .have  the  skill  and  patience  required  to  secure  such  results,  they  show  the 
possibilities  of  improved  cultivation  in  conserving  moisture.  So  long  as  water  is 
abundant  and  not  expensive,  more  frequent  irrigations  will  probably  be  generally 
practiced ;  but  the  advantage  of  running  the  water  for  a  longer  time,  in  furrows 
as  deep  as  possible,  covering  the  saturated  bottoms  as  soon  as  practicable  and 
keeping  the  surface  perfectly  pulverized  and  in  loose  condition,  is  being  generally 
recognized. 

The  usual  practice  is  now  to  have  six  deep  furrows  in  20-foot 
spaces.  The  number  varies  according  to  the  character  of  the  soil,  but 
is  in  any  case  less  than  in  the  small,  shallow  furrow  system  which 
formerly  prevailed. 

The  recourse  to  deeper  furrows  and  to  the  subsoil  plowing  has 
been  made  in  several  citrus  fruit  districts  of  Southern  California.  Its 
success  depends  upon  conditions.  There  are  cases  in  which  too  deep 
use  of  the  subsoiler  has  admitted  the  water  at  a  point  too  low  for  best 
results  to  the  tree  which  grows  on  a  leachy  subsoil,  and  the  cutting  of 
roots  by  the  subsoiler  has  in  some  cases  brought  shallow-rooting  trees 
into  temporary  distress.  The  general  conclusion,  however,  is  that 
deeper  introduction  of  water  favors  deeper  rooting  and  is  very  econom- 
ical of  water  by  preventing  the  loss  by  evaporation  from  the  surface, 


176  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS  I    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

which,  theoretically,  is  dry,  but  which  actually,  with  shallow  furrows 
over  an  irrigation  hardpan,  becomes  too  often  saturated  over  nearly 
the  whole  space  between  the  trees. 

Cement  Pipes  and  Flumes  for  the  Furrow  System. — The  use  of 

cement  in  the  construction  of  flumes,  pipes  and  outlets  for  distribution 
has  advanced  so  rapidly  during  recent  years  that  in  nearly  all  districts 
local  cement  works  can  be  found,  at  which  irrigation  structures  and 
appliances  of  latest  design  can  be  studied.  Other  devices  are  first  de- 
scribed and  afterwards  regularly  advertised  in  our  horticultural  jour- 
nals. Analysis  of  them  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  treatise,  but  they 
are  none  the  less  important  and  all  who  contemplate  laying  out  irriga- 
tion systems,  both  large  and  small,  should  consider  them  carefully. 
It  is  the  function  of  this  work  to  deal  chiefly  with  home-made  appli- 
ances. 

The  Board  Flume  and  the  Furrow  System. — Although  in  the  older 
regions  the  cement  flume  is  advancing  in  popularity,  important  service 
will  always  be  rendered  by  the  home-made  board  flume  where  suitable 
lumber  is  cheap.  A  detailed  account  of  its  construction  and  operation 
will  be  widely  useful.  The  following  is  contributed  by  Mr.  A.  S. 
Bradford,  of  Orange  county: 

I  consider  the  board  flume  best  because  it  is  in  many  places  cheapest  and 
because  it  will  last  fifteen  or  twenty  years  in  California  if  made  of  good  soft 
redwood.  The  common  redwood  lumber  is  generally  so,  but  the  so-called  flume 
lumber  is  hard,  generally,  and  will  warp  the  flume  out  of  shape.  Even  in  the 
common  redwood  lumber  hard  pieces  will  be  found,  and  these  should  be  avoided. 
My  first  flume  has  been  in  use  nine  years  and  is  apparently  as  good  as  ever. 

The  first  thing  to  be  considered  is  getting  a  flume  put  in  properly,  as  this 
alone  will  cause  much  trouble  if  not  done  right.  A  flume  should  run  nearly  on 
a  level.  It  should  be  placed  about  two-thirds  in  the  ground  at  the  commence- 
ment, and  as  soon  as  it  comes  out  of  the  ground  to  about  two-thirds  of  its 
height,  there  should  be  a  drop  made  of  1,  2,  or  3  inches,  if  necessary,  and  then 
carried  along  as  before,  so  as  to  keep  the  entire  length  of  flume  practically  on  a 
level. 

Sixteen-foot  lumber  is  better  than  longer,  as  it  is  lighter  to  handle.  I  prefer 
8-inch  sides  with  18-inch  bottom,  or,  in  some  cases,  10-inch  sides  with  16-inch 
bottom.  The  first  section,  however,  should  be  about  2  feet  wide,  narrowed  to  the 
size  of  the  flume,  so  as  to  control  the  stream.  Collars  should  be)  put  around  the 
flume  everv  8  feet  of  distance;  that  is,  one  in  the  center  and  one  to  cover  the 
joints  at  each  end.  These  collars  should  be  2  by  3  inch  stuff  on  th  bottom  and 
sides  and  1  by  three  inches  on  top.  This  makes  a  strong,  durable  flume.  The 
length  of  the  flume  should  be  divided,  so  that  the  stream  will  decrease  as  it  goes 
along.  The  width  should  be  decreased  also,  say  from  16  inches  to  14,  12,  10,  and 
8  inches,  the  sides  being  the  same  throughout  or  reduced  so  as  to  have  10-inch 
sides  on  the  16-inch  bottom  and  8-inch  sides  on  the  rest,  nailed  to  the  side  of  the 
bottom,  making  7  inches  depth  inside.  Two-inch  holes  should  be  about  30  inches 
apart  and  2-inch  gates  placed  on  the  inside  instead  of  outside,  as  they  will  col- 
lect less  trash,  the  hole  through  the  wood,  if  uncovered,  making  a  ''lodgment  for 
leaves,  etc.  In  the  narrow  and  flat  flume  it  is  much  easier  to  fix  the  gates. 

From  8  to  9  furrows  for  trees  set  24  feet  apart  is  sufficient.  The  streams 
should  be  run  from  one-eighth  to  one-half  the  capacity  of  the  holes  in  the  flume, 
according  to  the  soil  and  fall  of  ground.  I  commence  the  stream  small  and 
increase  it  if  necessary  later  on.  The  streams  should  be  kept  as  near  together 
as  possible,  and  when  the  end  is  reached  the  gate  should  be  nearly  closed  down, 
so  as  to  allow  the  stream  to  just  trickle  to  the  end.  In  this  manner  the  soil  will 
become  thoroughly  wet  from  one  end  to  the  other.  The  streams  should  be  run 
very  slowly  on  most  of  our  soils.  A  great  many  failures  have  been  made  on 


IRRIGATION    BY    SPRINKLING  177 

hard  soils  by  running  the  stream  too  large  and  then  reducing  it.  This  seems  to 
"slick"  or  cement  the  soil  so  that  it  will  not  take  the  water,  and  the  consequence 
is  a  poor  and  unsatisfactory  irrigation.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  streams  are 
started  small  and  allowed  to  soak  the  ground  as  they  go  along,  it  is  simply 
astonishing  how  much  water  can  be  put  in  the  ground.  On  sandy  soils  the 
streams  should  be  larger.  A  little  practice  would  give  any  one  the  desired 
information. 

About  three  rows  of  trees  at  the  lower  end  should  be  blocked  up,  provided 
one  has  no  place  where  the  overflow  water  could  be  used.  This  last  provision 
is  the  better,  however,  as  there  would  be  only  about  10  inches  of  water  run  over 
the  last  three  or  four  hours,  and  a  thorough  job  would  be  done  from  one  end 
to  the  other. 

I  making  furrows  I  have  an  extension  made  for  my  cultivator  to  bolt  on 
each  side  andj  use  four  plows.  With  this  extension  I  can  wet  the  whole  ground 
thoroughly.  The  furrows  will  extend  under  the  limbs  of  the  trees,  and  by 
making  a  slight  curve  around  each  tree  the  ground  will  become  wet  ins  the  rows 
as  well  as  between. 

As  compared  with  the  check  system,  the  furrow  method,  properly  handled, 
makes  the  soil  light  and  loose,  while  the  check  system  is  apt  to  packj  the  soil, 
rendering  it  lifeless  and  leaving  it  so  thatvit  will  not  retain  moisture  long.  Be- 
sides, the  cost  of  ridging  and  extra  labor  in  handling  water  in  checks  for  one 
season  will  nearly  pay  for 'the  flume,  by  which  one  man  can  do  the  irrigating. 
Two  horses  will  furrow  out  10  acres  in  half  a  day,  and  a  little)  hand  labor  at 
the  flume  will  connect  the  furrows.  In  'the  check  system  generally  a  disk  is  run 
first  where  the  ridges  are  to  be  made,  and  then  the  ridger  is  run  with  four 
horses;  then  jump  scraper  is  run  to  stop  up  one  side  of  the  blocks;  then  ditches 
must  be  made ;  then  from  2  to  3  men  are  required  to  handle  the  water  by  shut- 
ting up  the  checks  when  'filled.  Afterwards  the  ridges  must  be  plowed  down 
before  the  ground  can  be  harrowed  and  got  in  condition  to  cultivate.  At  a 
glance  one  can  see  that  it  costs  fully  three  times  !as  much  to  irrigate  by  the  check 
system  as  by  the  furrow  system,  and  with  the  latter  the  soil  acts  more  as  it 
does  after  a  rain. 

OVERHEAD    IRRIGATION 

Although  Californians  have  always  been  strongly  impelled  by  the 
desire  to  get  irrigation  water  away  from  contact  with  the  air  and  into 
the  soil  as  directly  as  possible,  to  escape  losses  by  evaporation  and  to 
maintain  a  loose  soil-surface,  sprinkling  methods  have  recently  become 
matters  of  considerable  expenditure.  Such  systems  are  in  operation 
in  the  orange  orchards  of  Robert  Baird  of  Porterville  and  R.  D. 
Williams  of  Exeter.  The  former  has  overhead  perforated  pipes  sup- 
ported on  redwood  posts ;  the  latter  has  underground  pipes  with  a 
stand-pipe  rising  through  the  center  of  each  fourth  tree  and  sur- 
mounted with  a  revolving  sprinkler.  The  cost  of  installation  in  each 
case  is  about  $150  per  acre.*  The  desirability  of  such  sprinkling 
methods  is  still  to  be  demonstrated.  In  both  cases  the  water  is  forced 
into  the  pipes  by  pumps. 


DEVELOPMENT   AND    STORAGE    OF   WATER 

It  is,  obviously,  beyond  the  limitations  of  this  work  to  attempt  an 
extended  review  of  irrigation  enterprises  and  practices.  The  enter- 
prises undertaken  by  capitalists,  or  by  co-operation  among  settlers, 

^Details  are  given  in  the  Pacific  Rural  Press,  July  13,   1912. 


178  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS  I    HOW    TO   GROW    THEM 

require  the  services  of  competent  engineers.  All  these  matters  are  too 
great  in  extent  and  variety  to  be  discussed  in  this  work.  As,  however, 
it  has  been  the  aim  of  the  writer  to  aid  the  inexperienced  planter  to 
help  himself  in  small  efforts,  a  little  space  will  be  given  to  suggestions 
as  to  how  a  planter  may  develop  and  use  such  small  water  supply  as 
may  be  derived  from  spring,  small  creek  or  well,  on  his  own  land 
without  employing  an  engineer. 

Running  Lines  for  Irrigating  Ditches. — How  far  to  go  up  a 
creek  in  order  to  bring  water  out  upon  a  given  piece  of  land  is  a  ques- 
tion which  frequently  arises  in  individual  practice.  There  is  also  doubt 
as  to  how  much  fall  should  be  given  to  the  ditch.  The  fall  required 
by  a  ditch  or  canal  depends  upon  the  amount  of  water  which  it  is 
desired  that  it  shall  discharge,  and  upon  the  width  and  depth  with 
which  it  is  intended  that  the  water  should  flow.  It  may  also  be 
dependent  upon  the  character  of  the  soil  in  which  the  ditch  is  to  be 
constructed,  and  upon  the  peculiarities  of  the  water  itself.  A  strong 
current  in  soft  soil  may  cause  mischievous  erosions.  Water  carrying 
much  sediment  must  never  be  allowed  to  move  sluggishly,  as  clear 
water  sometimes  may.  It  is  best  to  state  the  requirements  to  a  compe- 
tent engineer  and  act  on  his  suggestion,  or  secure  the  counsel  of  a 
neighbor  who  has  had  experience  with  similar  soil  and  water. 

Having  decided  what  fall  to  give  the  ditch,  the  nearest  point  of 
which  water  can  be  taken  out  of  the  creek  to  be  brought  to  a  certain 
piece  of  land  is  found  by  commencing  with  the  point  at  which  the 
water  is  to  be  delivered  (generally  the  highest  point  of  the  land  to  be 
irrigated),  and  running  up  stream  a  line  which  has  the  inclination 
intended  for  the  ditch. 

To  stake  out  this  line  when  no  special  hindrances  are  in  the  way, 
use  a  home-made  leveling  instrument  constructed  as  follows: 

With  sound,  straight-edged  lumber  a  triangle  is  made,  as  indicated  in  the 
sketch.  The  three  pieces,  A  B,  6  feet  long,  B  C,  12  feet  long,  and  C  A,  4  feet 
long,  are  made  fast  to  each  other  at  A  B}  and  C.  The  board,  A  D,  is  fastened 
to  the  triangle  at  right  angles  to  B  C.  Near  A}  on  the  board,  A  D,  a  plumb-line 
is  made  fast.  The  plumb,  like  a  mason's  plumb,  hangs  in  a  hole  at  'F,  so  that 
when  A  D  is  vertical,  the  string  hangs  very  near  the  surface  of  the!  board,  A  D. 

It  will  be  seen  that  when  A  D  is  exactly  vertical,  B  C  is  'exactly  horizontal, 
if  the  angles  at  D  are  true  right  angles.  An  ordinary  carpenter's  square  used  in 
the  construction  of  the  apparatus  will  insure  sufficient  accuracy  in  the  position 
of  A  D. 

In  marking  on  the  board,  A  D,  however,  the  line  in  which  the  string  of  the 
plumb  will  hang  when  B  C  is  exactly  horizontal,  more  care  is  required.  Two 
pegs  are  driven,  as  far  apart  as  B  and"  C,  for  these  points  to  rest  on.  The  high- 
est one  'is  driven  into  the  ground  until  the  plumb-line  follows  about  the  center 
line  of  the  board,  A  D.  Having  marked  this  ^osition  of  the  plumb-line,  the 
triangle  is  reversed  so  that  the  end  B  rests  on  the  peg,  where  before  we  had  the 
end  C,  and  vice  versa.  Should  the  plumb-line  be  in  a  position  at  variance  with 
the  first  one  marked  on  the  board,  then  the  correct  position  for  the  B  C  horizon- 
tal will  be  exactly  in  the  middle  between  the  two  found  by  the  aid  of  the  two 
pegs. 

It  will  frequently  be  found  convenient  to  have  a  scale  of  feet  marked  off  on 
B  C.  Holes  in  the  pieces  A  B  and  C  A  at  E  E,  or  handles,  will  make  the  triangle 
convenient  to  carry.  Only  two  men  are  necessary  in  using  it. 


RUNNING   LINES   FOR   DITCHES 


179 


To  use  this  instrument  for  locating  the  line  of  the  ditch,  calculate 
the  amount  which  your  line  should  rise  between  each  two  pegs.  Drive 
a  peg  at  the  starting  point  with  its  top  say  six  inches  from  the  general 
surface  of  the  ground.  Hold  one  end  of  the  leveling  apparatus  above 
this  peg  by  exactly  that  amount  which  the  line  arises  per  each  instru- 
ment length  (B  C),  and  swing  the  other  end  around  into  the  direction 
from  which  the  ditch  is  to  come,  until,  when  level,  it  is  just  six  inches 
above  the  ground.  Drive  a  peg  here,  which  will,  like  the  first,  be  six 
inches  high,  and  proceed  as  before.  Care  should  be  taken  to  give  the 
top  of  each  peg  exactly  the  correct  elevation.  The  level  must  be 
horizontal  when  resting  on  any  peg,  and  raised  exactly  that  amount 
which  the  line  rises  per  level  length,  above  the  preceding  peg.  It  will 


A  home-made  leveling  instrument. 


be  found  convenient  to  use  a  carefully  prepared  block  to  hold  on  the 
top  of  each  stake  at  the  rear  end  of  the  level  instead  of  trusting  to 
measurement  each  time. 

Locating  Contour  Lines  for  Checks  or  for  Distributing  Ditches. 

— This  work  can  be  done  with  the  aid  of  the  level  above  described. 
For  instance,  to  locate  a  contour  (a  line  of  equal  elevation),  as 
required  in  the  construction  of  a  check  levee,  drive  a  peg  until  its  top 
has  a  convenient  elevation  from  the  ground,  say  one  foot.  Rest  one 
end  of  the  triangle  on  this  peg  and  swing  the  other  around  until,  when 
B  C  is  horizontal,  this  other  end  has  exactly  the  same  elevation  from 
the  ground  as  the  top  of  the  peg.  At  this  point  drive  a  second  peg  and 
proceed  as  before.  If  the  tops  of  the  pegs  be  chosen  as  the  height  of 
the  levee,  they  may  be  retained  as  grade  stakes  as  well  as  line  stakes 
for  the  embankment. 

Storing  Water  from  Small  Sources. — For  individual  uses  quite 
a  respectable  water  supply  can  sometimes  be  developed  from  apparently 


180  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS  I    HOW   TO   GROW    THEM 

mean  sources.  This  can  be  done  by  clearing  out  and  opening  up  hill- 
side springs,  and  often  by  tunneling  into  the  hillside  to  intercept  sub- 
terranean water-flows,  or  by  pumping  from  a  well.  Even  a  small 
spring,  yielding  but  two  quarts  per  second,  would  be  sufficient  to 
irrigate  several  acres  in  fruit  trees.  To  derive  the  greatest  benefit  from 
small  springs,  however,  a  reservoir  is  necessary,  in  which  the  flow  of 
twelve  to  twenty-four  hours,  or  even  a  longer  period,  can  be  accumu- 
lated, and  then  discharged  as  required.  It  is  by  using  water  in  driblets 
that  many  springs  are  wasted.  A  spring  supplying  even  one  and  a  half 
inches  of  water  would  be  wholly  swallowed  up  by  a  thirsty  soil  within 
two  hundred  feet  of  its  source,  when,  by  arresting  the  flow  and  accumu- 
lating it  in  a  reservoir  and  discharging  at  intervals  in  a  volume  four 
times  as  large,  it  would  more  than  cover  eight  times  the  surface.  A 
spring  flowing  two  quarts  per  second  will  discharge  forty-three  thou- 
sand two  hundred  gallons  in  twenty-four  hours.  This  would  require 
a  reservoir  forty  by  twenty  feet,  and  seven  feet  deep,  or  double  that 
width  if  the  depth  is  decreased  one-half.  The  shallower  it  can  be 
made  the  better,  for  many  reasons,  but  especially  on  account  of  the 
temperature  of  the  water.  That  of  springs  is  generally  too  low  in 
summer  for  immediate  use,  and  its  value  is  greatly  enchanced  by  being 
raised  to  an  equal  or  greater  temperature  than  that  of  the  air.  This 
is  quickly  done  by  exposure  in  a  shallow  pond.  A  reservoir  can  be 
constructed  entirely  in  the  ground  where  the  slope  will  admit  of  it, 
and  by  lining  the  bottom  and  sides  with  clay  well  puddled,  will  answer 
for  most  purposes.  Some  are  built  of  adobe,  backed  with  earth  and 
plastered  on  the  inner  side  with  hydraulic  cement.  Concrete  of  lime, 
sand,  and  broken  stone,  is  however,  the  best  material,  where  lime  can 
be  readily  obtained,  and  any  person  with  ordinary  mechanical  skill  can 
construct  them.  The  following  hints  on  a  dirt  reservoir  may  be 
suggestive : 

A  reservoir  should  be  built  on  the  highest  part  of  the  tract  sought  to  be  irri- 
gated by  scraping  the  earth  from  the  outside  and  from  such  a  large  area  as  not 
to  affect  the  utility  of  the  land  from  which  it  is  taken.  With  a  levee  all  around 
5  feet  high,  5  feet  of  water  could  be  carried  safely.  The  slopes  ought  to  be 
two  to  one  on  the  inside.  A  reservoir  20  feet  square  and  4  feet  deep  would  hold 
12,000  gallons.  With  the  slopes  as 'above  the  reservoir  should  be  measured  two 
feet  from  the  bottom,  or  half  way  up  the  4  feet  of  water ;  consequently  to  lay  out 
a  reservoir  to  hold  12,000  srallons,  put  the  stakes  12  feet  square  and  build.  For 
any  other  size  one  take  8  feet  off  the  same  as  this :  A  reservoir  25  feet  square 
will  hold  18,750  gallons  and  would  be  17  feet  square  at  the  bottom;  one  30  feet 
square  would  hold  27,000  gallons  and  would  be  22  feet  at  the  bottom ;  one  35 
feet  square — 27  at  the  bottom — will  hold  36,000 '  gallons ;  one  40  feet  square — 32 
on  the  bottom — will  hold  48,000  gallons.  This  spread  upon  the  surface  of  an 
acre  would  be  a  little  more  than  1^4  inches  'of  rainfall. 

Almost  any  loam  or  soil  will  hold  water  with  a  little  puddling.  The  cheapest 
way  to  puddle  is  to  build  a  pen  the  size  of  the  intended  reservoir,  including 
at  least  a  portion  of  that  to  be  under  the  embankment,  wet  it  very  wet,  put  some 
hogs  in  the  pen  and  Iceep  feeding  them  barley,  a  little  at  a  time,  so  as  to  make 
them  not  only  walk  around,  but  root  for  the  barley.  A  half  sack  of  barley  fed 
to  eight  or  ten  hungry  hogs  in  half  a  day  will  make  a  good  puddle.  If  it  did 
not  work  satisfactorily,  the  water  could  be  taken  off  and  the  bottom  covered 
about  an  inch  deep  with  coarse  sand'  mixed  one  part  to  five  with  Portland  cement, 
put  in  dry,  and  let  it  be  covered  slowly.  A  barrel  of  cement  may  be  counted  at 
about  4  cubic  feet  and  '  with  the  mixture  above  would  cover  the  first-named 


LIFTING   WATER   FOR    IRRIGATION  181 

reservoir  about  1^4  inches.  This  would  make  it  tight.  The  supply  pipe  should 
come  up  from  the  bottom,  so  that  the  lift  would  never  be  tnore  than  the  height 
of  the  surface. 

Loss  of  Water  by  Seepage. — The  great  loss  of  Water  by  seepage 
during  a  long  run  has  led  to  the  cementing  of  ditches,  and  to  the  use 
of  miles  of  large  wooden,  concrete  and  iron  pipe  by  the  irrigation 
companies  of  Southern  California;  also,  where  the  slope  is  rapid, 
paving  ditches  with  rock  has  been  resorted  to.  Similar  efforts  naturally 
suggest  themselves  to  the  user  of  a  small  water  supply  to  save  his 
flow  from  loss.  The  lining  of  ditches  to  prevent  seepage  is  being 
tested  by  the  California  Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley,  and  publica- 
tion of  results  is  being  made.*  Where  lumber  is  cheap  the  use  of  a 
board  flume  is  an  available  means  of  saving  water,  when  the  soil  is 
coarse  and  leachy. 

Irrigation  from  Flowing  Wells. — A  considerable  area  of  orchard 
is  irrigated  from  flowing  wells  in  different  parts  of  the  State.  Nearly 


End  view  of  irrigating  wheel. 

everywhere  in  the  artesian  districts  there  are  local  well-borers  who 
have  kept  records  of  the  strata  traversed  in  their  work,  and  can 
estimate  closely  the  cost  of  securing  water  by  this  method. 

Lifting  Water  from  Flowing  Ditch  or  Stream. — Where  a  stream 
has  a  rapidity  of  two  miles  or  more  per  hour,  and  a  lift  to  a  height  of 
six  to  sixteen  feet  will  give  head  enough  to  distance  the  water  over 
a  considerable  area,  there  is  nothing  cheaper  than  the  current  wheel 
which  is  largely  used  in  this  State.  The  engraving  gives  an  end  view 
of  such  a  wheel.  Eight  pairs  of  arms,  carrying  flat  buckets  like  those 
of  a  steamboat  paddle-wheel,  extend  from  a  hub  rotating  on  metal 
bearings.  At  either  end,  or  both  ends,  of  each  bucket  are  fixed  wooden 
or  tin  water  boxes  which  fill  themselves  on  entering  the  water,  and 
on  being  brought  to  the  highest  point  of  rotation  empty  themselves 
into  a  receiving  trough.  This  trough  supplies  the  distributing  ditches, 

*Bulletin  188  and  Circular  114,  University  of  California  Experiment  Station,  Berkeley. 


182  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS  I    HOW    TO   GROW    THEM 

etc.,  and  its  inner  end  is  so  placed  that  it  comes  under  the  projecting 
buckets  of  the  wheel  without  interference  with  the  motion  of  the  arms. 
The  current  of  water  in  the  channel  underneath  forces  the  buckets 
down  stream,  the  latter  delivering  in  the  opposite  direction  at  the  top. 
By  using  a  double  set  of  boxes,  one  at  each  end  of  each  bucket,  the 
water  may  be  delivered  on  both  sides  simultaneously.  A  little  experi- 
menting will  indicate  the  proper  size  boxes,  which  depends  upon  the 
velocity  and  volume  of  water  in  the  channel,  as  well  as  to  the  amount  to 
be  delivered. 

At  the  Fancher  Creek  Nursery,  in  Fresno  county,  a  wheel  is  used 
eighteen  feet  in  diameter,  and  carries  sixteen  buckets,  which  empty 
into  a  trough  sixteen  feet  above  the  ditch.  The  wheel  lifts  about  one 
cubic  foot  in  two  seconds. 


PUMPING   FOR   IRRIGATION 

The  use  of  pumps  for  irrigation  is  continually  increasing.  The 
capacity  of  pumps,  their  ease  and  cheapness  of  operation  in  this  land 
of  oil  wells  and  of  ponderous  waterfalls  whose  power  can  be  trans- 
formed into  electric  energy,  warrant  the  conclusion  that  in  many  places 
water  can  be  lifted  from  below  more  cheaply  than  it  can  be  brought 
long  distances  by  ditch;  and  that  the  supply  is  more  constant  and 
subject  to  the  users'  command  and  convenience.  In  all  parts  of  the 
State  well-boring  and  digging  and  pump  construction  have  advanced 
very  rapidly.  Pumping  plants  of  all  capacities,  from  the  greatest  of 
the  gasoline  class,  lifting  five  thousand  gallons  per  minute  from  a 
depth  of  twenty-five  feet,  down  to  the  plant  with  a  throw  of  three 
hundred  gallons  per  minute,  all  styles  of  motors  and  pumps  are  being 
constantly  multiplied.  These  plants  are  being  placed  upon  wells  in 
the  orchard  or  in  the  vicinity,  or  upon  adjacent  streams  or  ponds. 
Many  new  designs  by  California  inventors  are  coming  into  use.  It 
would  require  a  volume  to  contain  any  adequate  account  California's 
recent  progress  in  these  lines.  Economic  pumping  is  governed  by  so 
many  considerations  that  no  general  statement  would  be  conclusive  in 
any  specific  case.  Each  orchardist  must  ascertain  his  own  conditions 
and  then  confer  with  trustworthy  manufacturers  or  their  agents  as  to 
what  will  meet  his  requirements.* 


WATER  MEASUREMENT 

The  Miner's  Inch. — Although  the  miner's  inch,  as  commonly 
measured,  is  open  to  objection  because  of  inaccuracy,  from  an  engi- 
neer's point  of  view,  it  is  so  easily  applied  that  it  must  remain  a  popular 
recourse.  It  consists  in  causing  the  water  to  flow  through  an  opening, 


*Full  details  of  the  cost  and  flow  from  pumps  drawing  from  various  depths  and  operated 
by  various  motors  are  given  in  the  publications  of  the  irrigation  investigations  to  which  refer- 
ence has  previously  been  made.  Also,  Circular  117,  California  Experiment  Station:  "The 
Selection  and  Cost  of  a  Small  Pumping  Plant,"  by  B.  A.  Etcheverry. 


HOW   TO    MEASURE    MINERS   INCHES 


183 


the  capacity  of  which  is  known,  and  which  is  readily  capable  of  adjust- 
ment to  the  flow  in  any  case.  A  simple  form  of  this  device  and  its 
use  is  shown  in  the  illustration,  which  represents  a  board  1  inch  thick, 
12  inches  wide,  and  about  8  feet  long.  The  opening  is  1  inch  wide  and 
50  inches  long,  and  the  distance  from  the  top  of  the  board  to  the  center 
of  the  opening  is  exactly  4  inches  on  the  up-stream  side.  On  the 
down-stream  side  the  opening  is  beveled  so  that  the  hole  presents  sharp 
edges  to  the  stream.  A  sliding  board  is  hung  upon  the  top  of  the 
first  board,  with  a  strip  screwed  along  its  upper  edge,  this  sliding 
board  being  wide  enough  to  cover  the  opening  on  the  up-stream  side. 
In  the  slot  there  is  a  closely-fitting  block,  made  to  slide  on  the  beveled 
edges  and  fastened  by  a  screw  to  the  sliding  board.  It  is  obvious, 


.  'r 


Measuring  miner's  inches  in  a  small  stream  or  ditch. 


then,  that  when  the  sliding  board  is  moved  backward  or  forward,  by 
means  of  its  end,  which  is  extended  for  a  handle,  the  block  moves  in 
the  slot  and  determines  the  length  of  the  opening. 

In  operation  the  board  is  placed  in  the  stream  as  shown  in  the 
figure,  so  as  to  dam  the  flow  completely,  and  the  sliding  board  is 
moved  backward  and  forward  until  the  water  is  all  passing  through 
the  slot,  the  water  being  kept  up  to  the  top  of  the  board,  or  4  inches 
above  the  center  of  the  opening.  The  length  of  the  opening  measures 
the  number  of  miner's  inches  of  water  flowing  through.  If  the  flow 
is  too  great  to  pass  through  the  opening  1  inch  wide,  the  opening  may 
be  made  wider,  the  water  still  to  be  kept  4  inches  above  the  center  of 
the  opening.  The  laws  of  several  States  provide  that  in  devices  for 
measuring  water  for  sale  by  the  miner's  inch  the  opening  shall  be  6 
inches  high  and  shall  be  provided  with  a  slide  as  shown  in  the  picture. 
The  number  of  miner's  inches  then  discharged  is  equal  to  the  number 
of  square  inches  in  the  opening.  The  assumption  made  that  the  dis- 
charge is  proportional  to  the  size  of  the  opening  is  not  true,  but  the 


184  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

error  in  measuring  small  quantities  is  not  great  enough  to  be  taken 
into  consideration.  By  converting  the  results  of  measurements  in 
miner's  inches  to  gallons,  cubic  feet,  or  some  other  familiar  unit,  it 
may  be  determined  how  long  it  will  take  the  stream  to  fill  a  reservoir 
or  cover  a  given  field  with  the  necessary  depth  of  water.  This  unit 
is  readily  convertible  into  cubic  feet  or  gallons  or  acre-inches  of  water, 
according  to  the  time  the  water  flows. 

The  following  data  will  be  helpful  in  computations:  One  miner's 
inch,  as  described  above,  equals  0.1496  gallons  per  second,  8.976  gal- 
lons per  minute,  538.56  gallons  per  hour,  12,925.44  gallons  per  day; 
0.02  cubic  foot  per  second,  1.2  cubic  feet  per  minute,  72  cubic  feet  per 
hour.  One  acre-inch  of  water  (that  is,  1  inch  in  depth  over  an  acre 
of  surface)  equals  27,152  gallons,  or  3,630  cubic  feet,  and  1  miner's 
inch  will  supply  this  quantity  in  about  50.4  hours.  Thus  a  simple 
calculation  shows  that  a  little  stream  of  5  miner's  inches  will  supply 
enough  water  to  cover  an  acre  2.3  inches  deep  in  about  23  hours — a 
fair  amount  for  one  irrigation  of  soil  of  average  character  if  it  has 
not  been  allowed  to  become  too  dry  before  the  application.  In  fact  this 
is  an  average  amount  actually  used  for  an  irrigation  of  shallow-rooted 
plants  like  most  field  and  garden  crops. 

Weir  Measurement. — The  term  "weir"  is  not  always  understood 
by  those  who  use  it.  The  term  can  properly  be  used  only  for  structures 
designed  to  allow  the  water  to  flow  over  the  crest  with  a  considerable 
fall  on  the  down  stream  side.  There  are  a  large  number  of  forms  of 
weirs,  taking  their  names  from  the  shape  of  the  weir  notch,  or  the 
form  of  crest.  The  triangular  weir  has  a  V-shaped  notch.  The 
rectangular  weir  has  a  horizontal  crest  with  vertical  sides.  Both  of 
these  forms  of  weir  are  good,  when  used  by  the  expert  irrigator  or 
engineer  who  understands  the  principles  and  factors  which  enter  into 
their  calculations.  In  order  to  avoid  the  variable  factors  which  enter 
into  the  calculations  for  the  flow  of  water  over  weirs,  Cipoletti  invented 
the  form  of  weir  which  has  taken  his  name  and  which  is  in  general 
use  throughout  the  irrigated  sections  of  the  world. 

The  Cipoletti  Weir. — The  Cipoletti  Weir  has  a  thin  horizontal 
crest,  the  sides  of  the  weir  notch  sloping  back  from  the  vertical  at  an 
angle  equal  to  one  inch  in  horizontal  for  every  four  inches  in  vertical. 
This,  for  each  additional  inch  in  depth  the  weir  notch  widens  on  each 
side  one-fourth  of  an  inch,  or  a  total  addition  of  width  of  one-half 
inch.  A  weir  having  a  length  of  crest  of  one  foot,  and  designed  to  be 
eight  inches  in  depth,  will  have  a  top  width  of  notch  of  16  inches. 

When  the  weir  box  is  placed,  care  should  be  taken  to  have  the 
bottom  of  the  notch  or  crest,  level.  An  ordinary  carpenter's  spirit 
level  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  When  the  crest  is  horizontal, 
one  end  of  the  spirit  level  is  placed  on  the  center  of  the  crest,  and 
when  level  the  other  end  will  mark  the  point  for  the  zero  of  the  weir 
gauge.  In  rough  work  a  nail  may  be  driven  part  way  into  the  side  of 
the  box,  the  top  of  the  nail  being  level  with  the  crest  of  the  weir.  A 
thin  plate  of  brass  is  to  be  preferred  to  a  nail.  In  other  cases  gauges 
are  inserted  on  the  sides  of  the  flumes  and  properly  marked  in  tenths 


DETAILS    OF    WEIR    MEASUREMENT 


185 


of  feet  or  inches.  At  other  times  a  post  from  1  to  2  inches  square  is 
placed  in  the  center  of  the  box  and  several  feet  above  the  weir  board. 
The  top  of  this  post  is  on  a  level  with  the  crest.  This  is  the  method 
shown  in  the  accompanying  sketch. 

How  to  Measure  Water  Over  Weirs. — The  method  to  follow 
can  best  be  shown  by  examples.  Let  us  suppose  that  a  farmer  has 
made  and  placed  a  box;  similar  to  the  one  shown  in  the  drawing,  after 
turning  in  the  water  and  allowing  it  some  time  to  attain  a  uniform 
flow  he  proceeds  to  the  weir  box  and  with  an  ordinary  rule  measures 
the  depth  of  water  flowing  through  the  weir  notch.  Bear  in  mind  that 


Weir  box  in  operation  showing  post  from  which  to  measure  depth  of  stream. 


this  measurement  is  not  made  at  the  weir  board,  but  at  the  regular 
gauge,  whether  it  be  a  nail,  brass  plate  or  post,  as  already  described. 
We  will  assume  that  the  depth  as  found  by  the  rule  is  3^2  inches. 
Now  by  referring  to  the  table  below  he  follows  down  the  first  column 
until  3J/2  is  reached.  The  weir  used  is  one  foot,  and  under  the  column 
marked  "1-foot  weir"  and  opposite  the  figure  3^  already  found,  he 
finds  the  cubic  feet  per  minute  or  the  gallons  per  minute  flowing  over  a 
1-foot  weir  when  the  depth  of  water  is  Zl/2  inches.  The  equivalent 
flow  in  gallons  per  minute  for  any  given  length  of  weir  and  depth  of 
water  over  the  crest  was  obtained  from  the  accompanying  table : 


186 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS  I    HOW   TO   GROW    THEM 


Discharge  over  Cipoletti  Weirs 


Depth  of  water 
on  crest. 

1-foot  weir. 

1}4  -foot  weir. 

2-foot  weir. 

3-foot 

weir. 

$ 

$ 
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0.34 

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itt  

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0.26 

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0.62 

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0.34 

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0.68 

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0.25 

113 

0.38 

169 

0.50 

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0.75 

338 

2y4  

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123 

0.41 

184 

0.55 

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0.82 

368 

23/s  

0.30 

133 

0.44 

199 

0.59 

266 

0.89 

399 

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0.32 

144 

0.48 

215 

0.64 

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0.96 

431 

25/8  

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0.52 

231 

0.69 

309 

1.03 

464 

234  

0.37 

166 

0.55 

248 

0.74 

332 

1.11 

497 

27/8  

0.39 

177 

0.59 

262 

0.80 

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1.18 

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3     

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189 

0.63 

283 

0.84 

378 

1.26 

566 

3^  

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201 

0.67 

301 

0.90 

402 

1.34 

602 

3y4  

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213 

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319 

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426 

1.42 

639 

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338 

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451 

1.51 

676 

3^  

0.52 

238 

0.80 

357 

1.06 

476 

1.59 

714 

35/8  

0.56 

251 

0.84 

376 

1.12 

502 

1.68 

753 

33/4  

0.59 

264 

0.88 

396 

1.18 

528 

1.76 

792 

3%  

0.62 

277 

0.93 

416 

1.24 

554 

1.85 

832 

4 

0.65 

291 

0.97 

436 

1.30 

582 

1.94 

872 

4^  

0.68 

304 

1.02 

456 

1.36 

609 

2.04 

913 

4^4  

0.71 

319 

1.07 

478 

1.42 

637 

2.13 

956 

43^  

0.74 

333 

1.11 

499 

1.48 

665 

2.22 

998 

4y2  

0.77 

347 

1.16 

521 

1.55 

694 

2.32 

1,041 

45/8  

0.81 

362 

1.20 

543 

1.61 

723 

2.42 

1,084 

43/4  

0.84 

376 

1.26 

564 

1.68 

753 

2.52 

1,129 

4%  

0.87 

391 

1.31 

587 

1.74 

782 

2.62 

1,174 

5 

0.91 

406 

1.36 

609 

1.81 

813 

2.72 

1,219 

5^  

0.94 

422 

1.41 

633 

1.88 

843 

2.82 

1,266 

554  

0.97 

437 

1.46 

656 

1.95 

874 

2.92 

1,31.2 

53/6  

1.01 

453 

1.51 

679 

2.02 

906 

3.03 

1,359 

sy2  

1.05 

469 

1.57 

703 

2.09 

938 

3.13 

1,407 

55/8  

1.08 

485 

1.62 

727 

2.16 

970 

3.24 

1,455 

534  

1.12 

501 

1.68 

752 

2.23 

1,002 

3.35 

1,503 

V/8  

1.15 

517 

1.73 

776 

2.31 

1,034 

3.46 

1,553 

6    

1.20 

534 

1.79 

801 

2.38 

1,069 

3.57 

1,603 

eys  

2.46 

1,102 

3.68 

1,653 

fr/4  

2.53 

1,136 

3.80 

1,704 

63/6  

> 

2.61 

1,170 

3.91 

1,755 

6J4  

2.68 

1,205 

4.03 

1,807 

65/6  

2.76 

1,240 

4.14 

1,859 

634  

2.84 

1,275 

4.26 

1,912 

67/8  

2.92 

1,310 

4.38 

1,966 

7    

.  .  . 

3.00 

1,346 

4.50 

2,020 

HINTS    ON    IRRIGATION  187 

RANDOM    SUGGESTIONS 

Without  attempting  an  impossible  thing,  to-wit,  to  furnish  explicit 
directions  for  the  practice  of  irrigation,  for  much  of  it  every  man  must 
learn  for  himself  by  experience,  a  few  suggestions  may  be  noted,  even 
though  more  important  ones  do  not  come  to  mind. 

Usually  water  should  be  prevented  from  actual  contact  with  the 
trunk  of  the  tree.  Citrus  trees  are  especially  sensitive  to  'such  contact, 
and  resent  it  by  "gum  disease,"  which  was  formerly  far  more  preva- 
lent in  the  State  than  now.  Care  must,  therefore,  be  taken  not  to  set 
trees  which  are  to  be  irrigated,  too  low.  It  is  better  to  raise  them  up 
a  little  and  draw  the  earth  up  around  them  to  prevent  approach  of 
the  water,  but  this  must  not  be  overdone. 

If  possible,  the  ditch  should  be  run  on  the  shady  side  of  the  tree, 
because  reflected  sunshine  from  the  water  surface  may  burn  the  bark. 

In  examining  soil  to  ascertain  dryness,  one  must  dig  deeply,  for 
often  an  upper  layer  will  be  fairly  moist,  if  well  cultivated,  while  lower 
layers,  where  the  feeding  rootlets  are,  will  be  arid.  Therefore,  when 
trees,  or  vines  are  suffering,  dig  far  down  in  examining  the  soil. 

In  irrigating,  thorough,  deep  soaking  is  necessary,  and  examination 
must  be  made  to  see  if  an  artificial  hardpan  which  prevents  the  descent 
of  the  water  has  been  formed. 

Be  careful  not  to  continue  irrigation  too  late  in  the  season.  It  will 
prevent  the  proper  dormancy  of  deciduous  trees,  and  if  more  fall 
irrigation  is  given  citrus  trees  than  they  need  for  perfecting  the  fruit, 
the  trees  will  continue  growing  tender  shoots  until  they  are  injured 
by  severe  frosts.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  often  desirable  to  give  decid- 
uous trees  a  draft  of  water  after  the  fruit  has  been  gathered,  if  the  soil 
is  so  dry  that  the  tree  is  likely  to  drop  its  leaves  too  soon,  and  wake 
from  its  dormancy  with  the  first  rains.  Many  times  the  fall  blooming 
of  deciduous  trees,  which  is  very  undesirable,  may  be  prevented  by 
keeping  them  growing  later  in  the  summer  by  moderate  irrigation. 

If  trees  or  vines,  in  regions  usually  irrigated,  are  to  be  grown 
without  irrigation,  it  is  important  that  the  grower  be  more  than  usually 
thorough  and  constant  with  his  summer  cultivation.  In  trying  the 
non-irrigation  experiment,  one  should,  of  course,  begin  with  young 
trees  which  have  not  been  irrigated,  and  not  usually  expect  success 
by  withdrawing  the  water  from  trees  which  have  been  accustomed  to 
it,  and  have  developed  a  root  system  accordingly. 

While  waiting  for  an  "irrigating  system,"  young  trees  can  be  kept 
going  with  a  water  wagon.  With  a  galvanized  tank  on  a  wagon  three 
men  went  over  a  60-acre  orchard  three  times,  taking  four  days  for  each 
irrigation,  each  day's  expense  being  less  than  $10.  This  made  twelve 
days,  or  $120,  or  $2  per  acre.  One  man  went  ahead  to  scoop  out 
around  each  tree,  and  after  the  water  was  put  on  he  covered  it  up, 
to  keep  the  soil  loose  and  prevent  loss  by  evaporation.  He  could  keep 
ahead  because  of  the  loss  of  time  of  the  team  going  after  water  and 
returning.  From  the  tank  ran  two  large  hose,  the  water  being  siphoned 
off  at  the  basin  near  each  tree  till  about  four  or  five  gallons  of  water 
were  put  on.  Then  the  hose  was  bent  back  so  the  water  could  not  flow 
out,  and  they  advanced  to  the  next  tree. 


188  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS!    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

SUB-IRRIGATION    IN    CALIFORNIA 

The  word  "sub-irrigated"  is  freely  used  in  California  to  describe 
land  which  is  moistened  below  by  underflow  or  seepage  from  streams 
or  springs,  or  from  open  irrigation  ditches,  traversing  higher  levels. 
This  land  is  sub-irrigated,  it  is  true,  but  there  is  no  system  about  it, 
except  the  natural  distribution  of  water,  which  is  to  seek  its  level. 
Some  of  our  most  productive  lands  are  of  this  character,  and  where 
the  soil  and  subsoil  are  fitted  to  the  movement  of  this  living  water, 
and  not  apt  to  retain  it  up  to  the  point  of  saturation,  most  satisfactory 
growth  of  deep-rooting  field  crops  and  of  trees  and  vines  are  secured. 
But  this  is  not  sub-irrigation  in  the  ordinary  signification  of  the  term. 

Several  systems  of  sub-irrigation  by  subterranean  pipes  have  been 
devised  by  California  inventors,  but  none  have  passed  beyond  the 
experimental  stage,  and  no  acreage  has  been  continually  operated. 

DRAINAGE   IN    CALIFORNIA 

There  was  for  a  long  time  a  very  erroneous  popular  generalization 
that  California  soils  do  not  need  drainage ;  that  in  a  dry  state  the  aim 
should  be  to  retain  the  moisture,  not  to  part  with  it.  It  is,  of  course, 
true  that  we  have  vast  areas  of  naturally  well-drained  soil,  upon  which 
any  money  spent  for  drainage  would  be  in  a  great  part  thrown  away, 
but  we  have,  also,  both  in  the  valley  and  on  the  hillsides,  localities 
where,  by  peculiar  character  and  conformation  of  the  subsoil,  water  is 
held  in  the  soil  until  evaporated  from  the  surface,  and  the  result  is  a 
boggy,  miry  condition,  which  prevents  proper  winter  cultivation,  and 
at  the  same  time  injures  the  roots  of  the  trees  or  vines.  This  defective 
cultivation,  added  to  the  puddling  effect  of  standing  water,  makes  the 
soil  dry  out  completely  under  the  fervid  sun  of  summer,  and  the  result 
is  that  the  wettest  soil  of  the  winter  is  the  driest  in  the  summer,  and 
plants  which  are  injured  by  soaking  in  winter  suffer  again  from  lack 
of  moisture  and  sustenance  in  summer.  Thus  it  is  a  fact,  clearly 
proven  by  observation  and  experience,  that  thorough  under-drainage 
removes  surplus  water  in  winter,  and  ministers  to  the  retention  of 
moisture  in  summer.  More  than  this,  a  soil  puddled  by  standing  water 
can  not  present  its  contents  in  available  form  for  plant  nutrition,  and 
besides,  it  loses  the  fertilizing  effects  of  atmospheric  currents,  which 
pass  through  an  open,  well-dried  soil.  Wet  land  is  cold  and  late  in 
spring,  and  hot  as  a  baked  brick  under  the  summer  sun ;  it  is  no  fiction 
of  the  imagination  to  say  that  well  drained  land  is  warm  in  winter 
and  cool  in  summer — that  is,  cool  to  a  degree  which  favors  quick  and 
free  root  growth,  and  cool  enough  to  escape  the  parching  effect  of 
deeply  baked  soil. 

These,  and  a  host  of  similar  considerations,  which  have  made 
under-drainage  popular  in  older  countries,  are  of  weight  in  California. 
Possibly,  as  a  rule,  because  of  our  vast  area  of  deep,  kind  loams,  the 
proportion  of  land  needing  drainage  in  this  State  is  less  than  else- 
where, and  yet  there  is  a  vast  extent  of  country  to  be  improved  by 
tilling.  There  have  been  large  losses  of  trees  from  planting  upon  soils 


IMPORTANCE   OF   DRAINAGE  189 

defective  in  this  respect.  The  evil  has  resulted  from  excessive  rainfall 
and  excessive  irrigation,  either  direct  or  by  underflow  from  adjacent 
irrigations.  In  some  places  this  latter  movement  of  water  has  brought 
alkali  to  assist  in  the  ruin  of  the  trees  and  vines.  The  cure  is  drainage 
to  sufficient  depth  and  with  good  outlet  for  the  drainage  water. 

Information  on  the  construction  of  under-drains  is  too  available 
through  other  sources  to  call  for  its  presentation  in  this  connection. 

Drainage  and  Irrigation. — A  special  importance  attaches  to  com- 
plete and  systematic  drainage  in  connection  with  irrigation.  There 
is  pressing  need  of  such  provision  where  the  soil  has  become  overloaded 
by  seepage  water  from  irrigation  ditches,  and  it  is  well  that  people  in 
such  situations  are  waking  up  to  the  need  of  coupling  drainage  outlets 
with  their  irrigation  inlets.  Another  matter  closely  allied  to  this  is  the 
action  of  alkali  on  soils  thus  artificially  watersoaked.  This  has  been 
made  the  subject  of  a  special  publication,  to  which  allusion  has  already 
been  made  in  Chapter  III.  Drainage  is  plainly  essential,  both  in 
individual  farms  and  in  districts  where  the  water  level  is  rising  too 
high,  and  the  striking  statements  given  below  by  Professor  Hilgard 
should  incite  all  to  give  immediate  attention  to  the  needs  of  vines  and 
trees  in  this  regard. 

The  following  summary  of  drainage  needs,  and  the  advantage  of 
providing  drainage  when  needed,  is  made  by  Professor  Hilgard : 

In  the  valleys  and  plains  of  the  arid  irrigation  countries  the  soils  are  pre- 
dominantly of  a  light,  sandy  or  silty  nature,  easily  penetrated  to  great  depths 
by  water  and  air.  With  these  the  roots  of  plants  also  reach  to  such  depths, 
drawing  therefrom  not  only  moisture,  but  also  plant  food,  which  in  these  soils 
is,  as  a  rule,  very  abundant.  The  plants  of  the  arid  region  thus  are  enabled  to 
utilize  nearly  as  many  feet  of  soil  mass  as  in  the  regions  of  summer  rains  inches 
would  be  drawn  upon ;  and  it  is  evident  that  this  advantage,  which  postpones  for 
a  long  time  the  need  of  fertilization,  should  not  be  lightly  thrown  away.  Each 
farm  in  the  arid  region  has  several  similar  ones  underground,  which  with  proper 
management  can  be  fully  utilized. 

But  this  presupposes  that  the  water,  air  and  roots  can  all  penetrate  under  irri- 
gated culture  as  they  do  in  the  natural  condition.  It  means  that  the  ground 
water  level  shall  not  be  allowed  to  rise  to  such  an  extent  as  to  prevent  the  pene- 
tration and  healthy  life  of  the  roots  in  the  depths  of  the  soil  mass.  If  by  inten- 
tional or  careless  over-irrigation,  or  by  leakage  from  the  ditches,  the  water 
level  is  allowed  to  rise  within  a  few  feet  of  the  surface,  the  wonderfully  pro- 
ductive lands  of  the  arid  valleys  are  reduced  to  the  same  condition  as  are  those 
of  the  humid  countries;  a  shallow  layer  of  surface  soil,  within  which  alone  the 
roots  can  exercise  their  functions  of  plant  nutrition.  The  natural  result  is  that 
this  layer  soon  becomes  exhausted,  and  copious  artificial  fertilization  is  required 
to  maintain  profitable  production. 

And  even  this  is  the  most  favorable  case.  When,  in  addition,  the  upward 
movement  of  the  soil  water  carries  with  it  the  entire  mass  of  salts  of  various 
kinds  which  exist  in  all  arid  soils,  and  brings  them  within  reach  of  surface 
evaporation,  these  "alkali"  salts  impregnate  the  soil  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
render  the  cultivation  of  many  crops  unprofitable,  or  sometimes  altogether 
impossible. 

Summarizing  the  advantages  of  systematic  land  draining  it  may  be  said  that : 

1.  It  prevents  the  drowning  out  of  the  deeper  roots  of  plants  by  the  rise  or 
fluctuations  of  the  ground  water,  by  which  the  vineyards  and  orchards  are  so 
frequently  rendered  unprofitable. 

2.  It  prevents,  or  at  least  limits  definitely,  the  shallowing  of  the  soil  caused 
by  high-lying  ground  water,  resulting  in  the  need  of  early  and  copious  fertiliza- 


190  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS  I    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

tion,  which  would  otherwise  not  have  been  called  for  in  many  years.     The  annual 
cost  of  such  fertilization  would  soon  exceed  the  first  cost  of  drainage. 

3.  Drainage  does  away  definitely  with  the  alkali  evil.  When  drainage  is 
established  the  land  can  easily  be  so  handled  as  either  to  remove  all  the  alkali, 
or  to  leave  in  the  soil  so  much  of  it  as  n:ay  be  rationally  considered  beneficial,  on 
account  of  its  usual  content  of  valuable  and  highly  available  plant  food.  To 
prevent  the  waste  of  much  of  this  soluble  plant  food,  the  use  of  gypsum  is  also 
valuable ;  but  subsequent  swamping  of  the  land  would  cause  a  return  of  the  black 
alkali  unless  drainage  were  provided  for. 

In  view  of  the  facts  that  water-logged  lands  are  still  being  sold 
to  the  unwary  for  fruit  planting ;  that  sometimes  lands  are  offered  with 
the  attractive  promise  of  an  irrigation  supply  when  they  actually 
need  a  drainage  system ;  that  on  such  lands  every  year  of  large  rainfall 
brings  areas  of  trees  into  distress  and  inflicts  considerable  losses,  these 
declarations  of  Professor  Hilgard  should  be  most  carefully  kept  in 
mind. 


PART  THREE:  ORCHARD  FRUITS 


CHAPTER  XVI 

COMMERCIAL    FRUIT    VARIETIES 

What  fruit  to  plant,  or  what  kind  of  a  bearing  orchard  to  buy  as 
an  investment,  are  questions  which  can  not  be  answered,  in  this  treatise. 
The  planters  on  new  land  and  the  investors  in  improved  land  must 
answer  them  for  themselves — forming  their  judgments  after  securing 
facts  which  seem  to  them  a  proper  basis  for  such  a  business  decision. 
It  is  the  conviction  of  the  writer  that  all  fruits  which  have  demonstrated 
commercial  suitability  in  California,  when  properly  placed  under  the 
soil,  temperature  and  moisture  conditions  which  favor  their  best 
growth  and  productiveness,  may  be  counted  as  yielding  nearly  equal 
net  returns,  considering  the  investment  in  land,  water,  waiting  for 
bearing  and  handling  of  the  product.  So  far  as  the  writer  has 
observed,  all  our  commercial  fruits  have  reached  maximum  and  mini- 
mum returns  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  which  are  practically 
identical.  Therefore  to  plant  good  fruit  in  the  best  place  for  it,  to 
handle  the  trees  and  products  most  intelligently,  both  in  production 
and  marketing,  holds  out  substantially  equal  promise  of  profit.  If  it 
could  be  demonstrated  that  any  particular  fruit  had  the  especial 
advantage  over  others  in  net  returns,  this  advantage  would  imme- 
diately disappear  because  planters  would  rush  to  it  and  take  away  this 
advantage  by  undue  increase  of  its  acreage.  Therefore  the  choice 
of  fruits  must  remain  an  open  question  for  each  one  to  determine  by 
his  own  experience  and  observation,  at  least  to  the  extent  of  determin- 
ing his  own  line  of  production. 

It  is  one  of  the  purposes  of  this  treatise,  as  they  will  be  disclosed  in 
succeeding  chapters,  to  impress  upon  the  local  planters  the  conviction 
that  their  clearest  path  toward  satisfactory  income  lies  in  choosing 
varieties  which  have  demonstrated  two  fundamental  characters,  viz. : 
adaptation  to  the  locality  and  to  the  uses  of  the  fruit  trade — rather 
than  in  choosing  novelties,  no  matter  how  alluring  they  may  be. 

It  may  surprise  the  casual  reader  to  find  that  our  production 
proceeds  so  largely  upon  old  standard  varieties.  Anyone,  however, 
who  is  acquainted  with  commercial  fruit  growing  knows  that  it  is 
neither  wise  nor  easy  to  revolutionize  an  established  and  profitable 
industry  by  the  substitution  of  new  varieties  for  the  old  standards.  It 
takes  several  years  to  determine  whether  a  new  variety  is  really  trust- 
worthy and  suitable,  and  it  takes  much  longer  to  get  a  large  acreage 
in  bearing  either  by  grafting  or  new  planting  because  people  are  slow 
and  conservative  in  making  changes.  As  the  period  of  trial  of  each 
novelty  passes,  however,  new  varieties  are  accepted,  if  for  any  good 
reason  found  suitable,  and  become  prominent  as  their  merits  justify. 

Another  reason  why  new  varieties  do  not  figure  more  largely 
in  California  fruit  growing  is  the  smallness  of  the  amateur  interest. 
191 


192  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO   GROW    THEM 

There  is,  in  fact,  almost  an  absence  of  pure  amateurs — enthusiastic 
critical,  discriminating,  athirst  for  novelties.  Even  suburban  planters 
follow  the  lead  of  commercial  orchardists  and  plant  chiefly  that  which 
has  shown  adaptations  to  local  growing  conditions,  and  few  are  averse 
to  making  what  they  can  by  sale  of  small  surpluses.  The  result  is 
that  California  fruit  growing  is  almost  wholly  commercial  in  spirit, 
policy  and  point  of .  view,  which  is  perhaps  only  natural  in  a  state 
where  the  fruit  products  reach  an  annual  aggregate  value  of  something 
like  one  hundred  millions  of  dollars.  The  effect  is  to  concentrate 
attention  upon  varieties  which  have  achieved  fame  for  profit,  and  to 
repress  amateur  devotion  and  indulgencies. 

At  the  same  time  there  is,  and  has  always  been,  quite  a  disposi- 
tion toward  trial  of  novelties  among  commercial  growers,  especially 
manifested  in  search  of  specific  characters  which  are  seen  to  be  desir- 
able rather  than  desire  for  newness  for  its  own  sake,  which  is  often 
a  point  of  pride  among  amateurs.  To  this  enterprising  and  discrimin- 
ating search  is  due  the  prominence  of  some  of  the  leading  varieties, 
which  are  chance  seedlings  recognized  as  meeting  special  requirements 
and  having  grown  great  because  they  really  did  so.  The  California 
grower  is,  therefore,  quite  certain  that  he  needs  not  varieties  new 
throughout  and  of  startling  characters,  but  improved  varieties  which 
hold  the  good  points  of  the  old  and  add  other  points.  For  instance, 
he  calls  for  trees  resistant  to  disease,  for  improvement  of  the  fruit  in 
beauty,  flavor  and  keeping  qualities ;  for  varieties,  similar  in  kind, 
which  fill  gaps  in  the  ripening  season  so  that  he  can  employ  help 
continuously,  and  shippers  and  canners  agree  with  him  so  that  they 
can  keep  the  cars  moving  and  the  cannery  plants  at  work.  The 
grower  says  he  must  be  careful  not  to  plant  something  different  from 
what  is  already  growing  and  selling  well  in  his  region,  t  nd  this  is 
also  the  advice  of  the  trade  to  him.  He  can  not  risk  much  on  varieties 
of  entirely  different  types,  although  most  growers  are  always  doing  a 
little  experimenting.  Nor  should  he  undertake  too  many  varieties, 
because  a  profitable  orchard  is  not  a  pomological  museum.  There 
must  be  a  large  quantity  of  uniform  fruit  to  make  any  district  commer- 
cially prominent. 

For  these  reasons  the  number  of  varieties  now  planted  is  but  a 
fraction  of  what  it  was  a  third  of  a  century  ago,  and,  stopping  at  this 
point,  one  might  get  the  idea  of  the  California  grower  was  a  monu- 
ment of  conservatism  and  lacking  in  enterprise  and  adventure.  Subse- 
quent chapters  will,  however,  show  that  he  has  very  definite  ideas  of 
the  suitability  and  desirability  of  the  varieties  which  he  chooses  for 
planting. 

It  should  therefore  be  noted  by  the  reader  that  the  preference  for 
certain  varieties,  which  is  embodied  in  this  statement,  does  not  involve 
pomological  standards  as  a  leading  factor.  The  claim  is  distinctly  not 
made  that  these  varieties  are  chosen  exclusively  on  the  basis  of  quality, 
beauty,  hardiness  or  health.  In  the  case  of  nearly  all  the  fruits,  there 
are  other  varieties  which  might  equal  or  even  surpass  them  in  one  or 
more  of  these  respects.  The  choice  is  made  because  they  are  most 
profitable  to  grow ;  not  alone  because  they  are  good,  but  because  they 


CALIFORNIA'S  MOST  POPULAR  VARIETIES  193 

are  good  for  something.  This  particular  suitability  or  serviceability 
may  involve  pomological  considerations  and  commercial  and  manu- 
facturing considerations  as  well.  The  planter  must  use  these  lists  in 
connection  with  what  he  may  find  about  the  varieties  in  subsequent 
chapters,  without  neglecting  to  confer  also  with  older  growers  in  the 
district  in  which  he  may  plan  to  plant. 

Perhaps  an  intelligent  use  of  the  statement  can  be  concretely  sug- 
gested by  briefly  discussing  the  first  group  of  varieties  mentioned — the 
apples  most  approved  in  California.  First  comes  the  yellow  Newton 
Pippin,  and  that  means  that  most  apples  commercially  grown  are 
winter  apples  and  this  variety  is,  on  the  whole,  the  most  profitable  of 
them.  But  a  planter  in  a  hot  interior  valley  should  usually  reject  them, 
for  all  winter  apples  are  apt  to  be  unsatisfactory,  and,  if  he  plants 
apples  at  all,  should  choose  early  varieties,  because  they  ripen  early, 
thus  escaping  the  highest  heat  and  at  the  same  time  being  ready  for 
the  early  market.  Similar  comments  might  be  made  upon  the  varieties 
of  other  fruits. 

During  the  year  1914  the  writer  had  the  advantage  of  revising  all 
his  earlier  data  on  varieties  through  association  with  Professor  B.  B. 
Pratt,  J.  E.  Coit,  F.  T.  Bioletti  and  R.  E.  Smith  as  a  committee  of  the 
California  Experiment  Station  to  assist  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry 
in  a  revision  of  the  variety  list  of  the  American  Pomological  Society, 
and  desires  to  gratefully  acknowledge  benefits  from  such  association. 

The  varieties  grouped  below  are  arranged  not  according  to  ripening 
season  but  in  the  order  in  which  the  greatest  number  of  growers  con- 
sider them  worth  planting : 

Apples. — Newtown  Pippin,  Bellflower,  E.  Spitzenberg,  W.  W. 
Pearmain,  Gravenstein,  Red  Astracan,  W.  Astracan,  R.  I.  Greening, 
Rome  Beauty,  Jonathan,  Winesap,  White  Astracan,  Delicious,  Arkan- 
sas Black,  Baldwin,  Tompkins  Co.  King. 

Apricots. — Royal,  Blenheim,  Moorpark,  Tilton,  Hemskirk, 
Peach,  Newcastle. 

Cherries. — Royal  Ann,  Black  Tartarian,  Bing,  Black  Republican, 
Lambert,  Chapman,  Purple  Guigne,  May  Duke,  Centennial,  Black 
Bigarreau. 

Peaches. — Muir,  Elberta,  Phillips,  Lovell,  Salway,  Early  Craw- 
ford, Tuskena,  Foster,  Late  Crawford,  Orange  Cling,  Susquehanna, 
Sellers,  Lemon,  St.  Johns,  Henrietta,  Hales,  Alexander,  Heath. 
Triumph. 

Pears.— Bartlett,    Winter    Nelis,    Easter,  Du    Cornice,    Glout 
Morceau,  Hardy,  Barry,  Comet,  Seckel,  Winter  Bartlett,  Wilder. 

Plums. — Wickson,  Burbank,  Climax,  Hungarian,  Tragedy, 
Kelsey,  Yellow  Egg,  Red  June,  Giant,  Washington,  Satsuma,  Jeffer- 
son, Grand  Duke,  Santa  Rosa,  Clyman,  Formosa. 

Prunes. — French,  Imperial,  Sugar,  Robe  de  Sergeant,  Italian, 
German,  Standard,  Silver,  Splendor. 

Raisin  and  Shipping  Grapes. — Muscat,  Tokay,  Thompson, 
Emperor,  Malaga,  Cornichon,  Black  Prince,  Sultana,  Black  Morocco, 
Sweet  Water,  Verdal,  Gros  Colman,  Pierce. 


194  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS  I    HOW    TO   GROW    THEM 

Figs. — White  Adriatic,  Lob  Injir,  (Smyrna),  Mission,  Brown 
Turkey,  Purple  Smyrna,  Kassaba. 

Almonds. — Nonpareil,  Drake,  IXL.  Ne  Plus  Ultra,  Texas 
Prolific,  Languedoc,  Peerless. 

Walnut. — Franquette,  Mayette,  Concord,  Eureka,  Placentia,  El 
Monte,  Santa  Barbara  Softshell. 

Orange. — Washington  Naval,  Valencia,  Mediterranean  Sweet, 
Paper  Rind  St.  Michael,  Ruby  Blood. 

Lemon. — Eureka,  Lisbon,  Villa  franca. 

Pomelo. — Marsh. 

Olives. — Mission,  Manzanillo,  Sevillano,  Ascolano,  Nevadillo. 

Blackberries. — Mammoth,  Lawton,  Himalaya,  Crandalls. 

Raspberries. — Cuthbert. 

Strawberries. — Dollar,  Brandywine,  Jessie,  Arizona,  Marshall, 
Melinda,  Banner. 

Let  it  be  understood  that  this  compilation  indicates  the  popularity 
of  varieties  in  the  State  as  a  whole.  It  should  not  be  taken  as  a  guide 
to  planting  in  any  particular  district,  except  for  experimental  purposes. 
Lists  for  localities  should  be  made  after  careful  studies  of  the  chapters 
treating  of  the  particular  fruits  chosen  for  planting. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE  APPLE 

During  the  last  decade  notable  progress  has  been  made  in  apple 
growing  in  California.  The  old  idea  that  our  conditions  did  not  favor 
excellence  in  the  apple  has  given  away  to  full  assurance  that  in  wisely 
selected  elevations  and  exposures  the  very  highest  points  of  size, 
beauty,  flavor,  keeping  and  shipping  qualities  are  secured.  Even  before 
the  wonderfully  satisfactory  test  of  both  northern  and  southern  Cali- 
fornia apples  at  the  New  Orleans  World's  Fair,  it  was  clear  that  the 
right  variety  grown  in  the  right  place  yields  an  apple  in  California 
than  which  a  better  can  not  be  grown  anywhere,  and  during  the  last 
five  years  California  early  apples  have  been  in  sharp  request  for  ship- 
ment to  all  regions  of  the  Northwest  and  British  Columbia,  and  Cali- 
fornia winter  apples  have  been  sold  at  the  highest  prices  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  in  Europe.  Shipments  beyond  State  lines  of 
above  four  thousand  carloads  in  1910  testify  to  these  facts. 

Localities  for  Apples. — Speaking  generally,  it  may  be  laid  down 
that  the  great  valleys  of  the  interior  are  not  well  suited  to  the  apple ; 
also,  there  are  some  situations  which  are  much  better  than  others.  In 
the  early  regions  of  the  Sacramento  Valley  and  foothills,  however,  ex- 
cellent early  apples  are  profitably  produced.  In  the  great  valley  and 
lower  foothill  region  of  the  State,  the  late  apple  usually  lacks  character 
and  keeping  quality.  On  the  great  plains  the  tree  is  liable  to  sunburn, 
or  sun  blight,  as  it  is  called.  Some  varieties,  because  of  the  character 
of  their  foliage,  are  less  liable  to  this  injury  than  others,  and  it  is 
possible  that  this  evil  may  be  finally  overcome  by  the  selection  of 
varieties  with  blight-proof  foliage,  as  will  be  mentioned  later.  In  the 
great  valley,  however,  on  the  rich  river-bottom  land  of  the  Sacramento 
and  the  San  Joaquin  and  its  tributaries,  the  apple  roots  deeply,  attains 
good  size,  bears  good  fruit,  with  fair  keeping  quality,  while  but  a  few 
miles  away  on  the  plains  it  is  inferior. 

In  the  interior,  adaptation  to  the  apple  lies  at  an  elevation  on  the 
foothills  on  both  the  east  and  west  rims  of  the  great  valley.  Its  limits 
are  not  well  defined,  but  there  are  flourishing  orchards  at  an  elevation 
of  about  four  thousand  five  hundred  feet  on  the  slopes  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains,  and  from  two  thousand  to  three  thousand  five 
hundred  feet  is  commonly  regarded  the  best  apple  region  of  the  moun- 
tains. The  trees  attain  large  size  and  bear  heavily,  and  the  fruit,  of 
well-adapted  varieties,  is  large,  crisp,  juicy  and  has  exceptional  keep- 
ing- qualities.  On  the  Tule  River  in  Tulare  County,  at  an  elevation  of 
4100  feet,  eight-year-old  Winesaps  have  borne  300  pounds,  Yellow 
Newtown  Pippins  250  pounds,  and  White  Winter  Pearmains  300 
pounds  per  tree.  At  such  elevations,  however,  there  is  constant  danger 
of  spring  frost  injury. 

Along  the  coast  the  apple  succeeds  well  from  end  to  end  of  the 
State,  and  very  close  to  the  ocean  excellent  fruit  is  produced  on  good 

195 


196  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS  I    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

soil.  There  is  a  certain  advantage  in  elevation  in  the  coast  region  as 
well  as  in  the  interior,  but  the  advantage  is  not  so  marked  nor  is  the 
required  elevation  so  great.  Coast  valleys  in  the  central  and  upper 
portion  of  the  State,  where  the  soil  is  suitable,  produce  most  excellent 
apples,  but  even  here  the  lower  hillsides,  with  deep,  well-drained  soils, 
are,  perhaps,  preferable  to  the  floors  of  the  valley.  Departing  from 
immediate  coast  influences  and  approaching  the  interior,  with  its 
greater  heat  and  aridity,  the  greater  elevation  becomes  desirable.  The 
apple,  excepting  the  very  early  varieties,  does  not  relish  the  forcing 
heat  which  brings  such  perfection  to  the  peach,  but  to  insure  late  ripen- 
ing and  long  keeping,  with  accompanying  crispness,  juiciness,  and 
flavor,  it  must  have  atmospheric  surroundings  which  favor  slower  de- 
velopment. 

Localities  for  apple  growing  in  southern  California  are  to  be  chosen 
with  much  the  same  rules  as  in  the  upper  parts  of  the  State.  As  has 
already  been  said,  valleys  in  which  coast  conditions  largely  predominate 
produce  good  apples,  on  suitable  soils,  but  away  from  the  coast,  propel 
elevations  must  be  sought,  and  they  should  be  a*bove  the  so-called  ther- 
mal or  frostless  belts.  Good  apples  are  grown  on  low  lands  near  the 
coast  in  Los  Angeles  and  Orange  Counties.  Sixty  miles  inland,  in  Sar 
Bernardino  County,  winter  apples  fail  in  the  valleys,  but  are  mosl 
excellent  at  a  sufficient  elevation  upon  the  slopes  of  the  surrounding 
mountains  or  in  elevated  valleys  like  the  Yucaipe  Valley  above  Red- 
lands,  where  a  Rome  Beauty  of  excellent  quality  was  grown  in  19CK: 
to  a  weight  of  twenty-seven  ounces  and  a  circumference  of  fifteer 
inches.  In  the  elevated  interior  of  San  Diego  County,  as  in  the  Juliar 
and  Smith  Mountain  districts,  excellent  apples  are  produced  in  larg< 
quantities  and  profitably  carried  long  distances. 

Second  and  Third-Crop  Apples. — There  is  a  peculiar  behavioi 
of  the  apple  tree,  most  noticeable  when  winter  temperature  is  mildest 
and  that  is  blooming  and  fruiting  out  of  season.  In  the  case  of  earl} 
apples  the  second  bloom  may  appear  about  the  time  the  first  frui 
ripens  and  the  third  bloom  when  the  second  crop  is  half  grown.  Ever 
such  behavior  may  be  followed  by  regular  blooming  the  following 
spring.  Second  crops  of  apples  are  not  of  amount  nor  regularity 
enough  to  be  of  much  economic  importance,  as  the  second  crop  o: 
pears  and  grapes  sometimes  are.  The  third  crop  occasionally  ripens 
An  instance  is  on  record  at  Chino,  San  Bernardino  County,  where  it 
1903  a  tree  ripened  its  first  crop  in  June,  and  its  last  fruit  was  pickec 
on  Christmas  day  following.  Such  behavior,  of  course,  indicates  con 
ditions  ill  suited  to  the  apple. 

Exposures  for  the  Apple. — The  choice  of  exposure  for  an  appl< 
orchard  may  almost  be  inferred  from  what  has  been  said  about  locali 
ties.  In  regions  with  high  summer  temperature  the  apple  will  do  bes 
on  cool,  northerly  slopes,  and  this  exposure  becomes  doubly  desirablt 
when  the  location  has  high  temperature  with  only  moderate  annua 
rainfall,  or  where  the  soil  is  not  well  adapted  to  the  retention  of  mois 
ture.  With  such  prevailing  conditions,  the  apple  will  be  grateful  foi 
the  cooler  air  and  the  greater  moisture  of  the  northerly  slope.  When 
the  temperature  is  moderately  cool,  and  the  rainfall  adequate,  the  mat 


SOILS  FOR  THE  APPLE  197 

ter  of  exposure  is  of  less  account,  and  the  grower  can  make  the  exist- 
ence of  the  best  soil  the  test  of  location  of  his  orchard.  At  elevations 
on  the  sides  of  high  ranges  where  late  cold  storms  are  liable  to  rush 
down  from  higher  snow  fields,  protection  from  the  usual  course  of  such 
storms,  or  from  the  course  of  cold  winds  generally,  must  be  sought; 
and  directly  up  the  coast,  especially  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State, 
in  certain  places  where  the  peach  does  not  usually  succeed  even  the 
apple  needs  protection,  and  the  benefit  of  all  heat  available,  and  then  a 
southerly  or  southeasterly  exposure  becomes  desirable.  The  choice  of 
exposure  is  thus  seen  to  be  largely  a  local  question  and  to  be  deter- 
mined by  a  knowledge  of  local  conditions.  A  newcomer  in  a  region 
can  best  learn  these  conditions  by  conference  with  older  residents,  or 
by  personal  observation  of  older  orchards. 

Soils  for  the  Apple. — Experience  with  the  apple  in  California 
confirms  what  has  long  been  set  forth  as  its  choice  of  soils  in  older 
regions.  If  one  avoids  an  extremely  light,  sandy  soil  on  the  one  hand, 
and  a  very  stiff  clay  or  adobe  on  the  other,  he  may  plant  apples  on 
almost  any  soil  which  allows  extension  of  the  roots  to  a  considerable 
depth  without  reaching  standing  water.  The  apple  thrives  in  a  moist 
soil,  but  it  must  be  well  drained,  naturally  or  otherwise.  A  soil  which 
may  be  called  best  for  the  apple  is  a  deep,  rich,  moist,  calcareous  loam, 
but  the  tree  will  thrive  on  coarser  materials.  The  subsoil,  whatever  its 
nature,  must  be  sound  and  open  to  the  passage  of  moisture.  The  most 
unfavorable  condition  for  the  tree  is  a  subsoil  of  clay  which  holds  water. 
There  is  some  difference  in  varieties  as  to  choice  of  soil.  The  Yellow 
Bellflower,  for  instance,  will  do  well  on  a  lighter  soil  than  the  Yellow 
Newtown  Pippin. 

PROPAGATION  OF  THE  APPLE 

The  apple  is  chiefly  propagated  by  root-grafting  upon  apple  seed- 
ling roots  either  whole  roots  or  root  pieces.  Budding  is  also  practiced 
to  a  certain  extent.  For  dwarf  trees  the  Paradise  stock  is  used.  Re- 
peated trials  with  working  the  apple  on  the  pear,  chiefly  by  top  graft- 
ing, have  secured  growth  of  limited  life  but  without  fruiting. 

The  resistance  of  certain  roots  to  the  woolly  aphis  has  been  fully 
demonstrated  by  local  experience  in  the  use  of  the  Northern  Spy  and 
Winter  Majetin,  chiefly  the  former.  Seedlings  of  Northern  Spy  can 
not  be  relied  upon  as  resistant  to  the  woolly  aphis.  It  is  necessary  to 
get  a  root  actually  grown  from  the  Northern  Spy  wood.  The  best 
way  to  get  a  start  is  to  buy  some  Northern  Spy  trees  from  some  rep- 
utable nurseryman,  specifying  that  they  shall  be  Northern  Spy  root 
and  top.  With  these  resistant  roots  and  wood  growth  for  scions  or 
cuttings  can  be  grown.  Resistant  trees  are  made  by  root  grafting  the 
scion  of  the  variety  which  it  is  desired  to  propagate  upon  a  piece  of 
Northern  Spy  root  and  then  being  careful  that  the  scion  does  not  send 
out  roots  of  its  own,  but  is  wholly  dependent  upon  the  Northern  Spy 
root.  It  is  customary  with  nurserymen  selling  resistant  trees  to  save 
the  root  pieces  which  are  removed  in  digging  and  packing  for  subse- 
quent propagation.  It  is  also  possible  to  get  a  resistant  tree  by  start-. 


198  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

ing  from  the  cutting-  of  a  Northern  Spy.  To  facilitate  the  rooting  of 
these  cuttings  a  small  piece  of  any  kind  of  apple  root  is  put  in  by  side 
graft  near  the  bottom  of  the  cutting.  This  acts  as  a  starter,  but  the 
cutting  will  also  make  roots  of  itself.  At  the  end  of  the  first  year  then 
the  cuttings  are  taken  up,  the  piece  of  root  used  as  a  starter  is  cleanly 
cut  away  and  the  rooted  cutting  replanted;  henceforth  it  is  dependent 
upon  its  own  roots  and  is  resistant.  The  variety  desired  is  then  grafted 
in  a  little  way  above  the  ground  surface  so  that  there  will  be  no  danger 
of  its  making  its  own  roots.  By  either  of  these  processes  it  is  more 
troublesome  and  takes  more  time  to  produce  a  tree  with  a  resistant 
root  than  in  the  ordinary  way,  and  for  that  reason  trees  on  resistant 
roots  are  sold  at  a  higher  price.  This  may  be  the  reason  why  resistant 
trees  are  not  yet  largely  used  in  this  State. 

Other  suggestions  applicable  to  the  growth  of  young  apple  trees 
are  given  in  Chapters  VIII  and  IX. 


DISEASES  AND  PESTS  OF  THE  APPLE 

The  apple  is  subject  to  various  diseases  and  insect  enemies  which 
must  be  resolutely  fought  or  they  will  render  the  trees  unprofitable. 
Chief  of  these  diseases  are  the  "pear  blight"  and  the  apple  scab,  and 
the  apple  mildew.  Of  the  insect  enemies  the  codlin  moth,  the  apple- 
leaf  aphis,  the  various  leaf-cutting  caterpillars  and  several  scale  insects 
must  be  kept  in  check  and  the  latest  approved  means  of  reducing  these 
troubles  will  be  described  in  detail  in  later  chapters. 


PLANTING  AND  CARE  OF  THE  APPLE  ORCHARD 

The  chapters  on  planting,  and  pruning  contain  suggestions  to  which 
the  reader  is  referred.  Care  should  be  taken  to  obtain  trees  with  clean, 
healthy  roots,  not  knotted  and  scarred  by  woolly  aphis. 

Distance  in  Planting. — The  distance  between  the  trees  is  of  the 
highest  importance.  All  the  old  apple  orchards  are  overcrowded. 
More  recently  trees  have  been  set  at  greater  distances,  and  such  plant- 
ing is  now  generally  advised.  There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
proper  distance,  but  certainly  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet  is  near  enough, 
and  some  of  the  best  new  orchards  have  been  planted  at  forty  feet,  the 
ground  being  used  for  a  time  with  other  crops  or  planted  with  early 
bearing  trees,  for  which  the  soil  is  suited,  between  them. 

Pruning  the  Apple. — The  manner  of  shaping  fruit  trees  described 
in  the  chapter  on  pruning  succeeds  admirably  with  the  apple.  Year- 
ling trees  are  usually  planted,  and  they  are  regularly  pruned  until 
proper  form  is  secured. 

Mr.  C.  H.  Rodgers,  during  his  life-time  a  leading  apple  grower  of 
the  Watsonville  district,  near  the  coast  in  central  California,  gave  the 
following  excellent  outline  of  a  simple  and  economical,  yet  successful, 
method  for  apple  tree  building  under  ordinary  conditions : 


PRUNING  THE  APPLE  TREE  199 

First  Year :  On  planting  cut  the  stem  from  30  to  36  inches  in 
height,  with  the  terminal  bud  toward  the  southwest.  In  the  spring, 
when  growth  begins,  strip  off  all  shoots  from  the  ground  up  to  about 
20  inches.  Above  this  point  let  all  growth  remain  during  the  summer. 
If  for  any  cause  during  early  summer  a  bud  does  not  start  where 
wanted,  a  short  transverse  cut  through  the  bark  just  above  the  bud 
will  cause  it  to  develop  into  limb. 

Beginning  of  Second  Year :  Cut  off  all  limbs  except  those  selected 
to  remain  permanently.  Two,  three,  four,  and  not  more  than  five  limbs 
should  be  allowed  to  remain,  the  number  depending  on  their  position. 
It  should  be  the  aim  to  distribute  them  evenly  on  all  sides,  and  to  give 
all  possible  space  between  limbs  up  and  down  the  trunk.  This  latter 
precaution  is  to  give  room  for  expansion  of  limbs  in  after  years.  Cut 
back  the  limbs  that  are  to  remain,  taking  off  from  one-third  to  one-half 
of  the  previous  season's  growth.  If  the  tree  is  of  a  spreading  habit, 
and  it  is  desired  to  have  it  grow  erect,  cut  to  inner  buds.  If  desired 
to  spread  the  top  cut  to  outer  buds. 

Beginning  of  Third  Year:  Allow  two  or  three  lateral  limbs  to 
remain  on  each  of  the  main  branches.  Top  the  tree  again,  taking  off 
from  one-third  to  one-half  the  previous  year's  growth.  Continue  this 
method  during  the  first  four  years,  at  which  time  the  tree  should  begin 
to  bear,  and  if  surrounding  conditions  are  favorable,  it  will  prove 
strong,  vigorous  and  capable  of  sustaining  a  heavy  load  of  apples.  The 
after  treatment  will  consist  mainly  in  keeping  the  top  properly  thinned. 

After  coming  into  bearing  there  must  be  intelligent  pruning  accord- 
ing to  the  growth-habit  of  the  variety.  Some  varieties,  like  the  Yellow 
Bellflower,  resent  heavy  pruning  after  coming  into  bearing,  and  slow 
growers  like  the  Yellow  Newtown  Pippin,  do  not  need  it.  On  the  other 
hand,  varieties  like  the  Winesap  and  Smith's  Cider  are  apt  to  make 
long  slim  branches  and  bear  at  the  ends.  This  can  be  corrected  by 
cutting  back  to  secure  more  short  shoots  which  will  bear  better  fruit. 
Some  varieties,  like  the  Jonathan,  will  make  plenty  of  short  spurs 
under  this  treatment,  while  others,  like  Rome  Beauty  and  Rhode  Island 
Greening,  are  persistent  tip-bearers,  but  can  be  gradually  drawn  in 
without  reducing  the  crop  too  much.  ,The  grower  must  study  his 
varieties  not  only  with  reference  to  this  but  in  forming  the  tree,  cutting 
to  an  inside  bud  all  varieties  which  naturally  take  a  horizontal  direction, 
and  cutting  to  an  outside  bud  varieties  which  have  a  tendency  to  send 
up  tall,  straight  shoots.  By  thus  throwing  the  new  growth  upward 
in  the  first  case,  and  outward  in  the  second,  one  can  shape  each  kind 
to  greater  symmetry  and  strength  for  fruit  carrying,  and  bring  up  all 
spreading  varieties  to  a  form  which  admits  near  approach  of  the  plow 
and  cultivator.  This  manner  of  shaping  the  tree  must  continue  as  long 
as  seems  necessary  to  secure  a  tree  which  will  come  to  bearing  age 
shapely  and  strong,  and  within  reach. 

Bearing  trees  should  not  be  allowed  to  carry  too  many  branches, 
and  pruning  will  largely  consist  of  thinning  out  surplus  shoots  and 
removing  interference  between  branches.  It  is  not  desirable  to  shorten 
in  the  apple  as  is  done  with  the  apricot  and  peach. 


200  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Summer  pruning  to  reduce  wood  growth  and  promote  bearing  is 
practiced  to  a  limited  extent  in  some  districts  upon  varieties  inclined  to 
shy  bearing.  In  regions  of  the  most  intense  summer  heat,  less  pruning 
is  admissible  than  in  the  coast  and  elevated  regions.  It  is  necessary 
that  the  foliage  be  dense  to  protect  the  tree  and  the  fruit  from  sunburn. 
Nor  does  the  tree  seem  to  relish  cutting  back.  Slight  thinning  out  if 
the  tree  becomes  too  brushy,  seems  to  be  the  best  treatment  in  some  of 
the  hot  valleys. 

Thinning  the  Fruit. — One  of  the  most  important  items  in  the 
handling  of  an  apple  orchard  is  the  faithful  thinning  out  of  the  fruit 
of  all  varieties  which  are  prone  to  over-bear,  and  this  work  is  now 
regularly  provided  for  by  the  leading  commercial  growers.  Only  one 
apple  should  grow  at  a  place  and  spacing  of  four  to  six  inches  is  com- 
mended. Although  this  work  is  tedious  and  expensive,  it  is  profitable, 
because  of  the  improved  price  which  can  be  had  for  the  larger  fruit 
which  will  be  secured,  and  it  is  desirable  in  the  effects  of  thinning  on 
the  tree.  It  will  be  relieved  from  the  exhaustion  of  overbearing,  in- 
duced to  yield  annual  crops,  and  often  saved  from  breaking  down  with 
a  too  heavy  burden. 

Cultivation  and  Irrigation. — All  that  has  been  urged  in  measures 
to  secure  adequate  moisture  supply  has  full  force  with  the  apple.  Ex- 
cepting the  early  varieties,  it  is  a  fruit  with  a  long  growing  season  and 
therefore  requires  continuous  moisture  to  secure  size  and  quality.  Most 
California  apples  are  grown  on  deep,  retentive  soils  in  regions  of  large 
rainfall  and  if  this  is  conserved  by  thorough  cultivation,  good  fruit  can 
be  secured.  It  is  doubtless  true,  however,  that  apples  in  California 
would  sometimes  be  improved  by  irrigation  just  as  they  are  in  interior 
and  mountain  districts. 

Fertilizers  have  been  thus  far  but  little  used  in  California  apple 
orchards  but  they  are  manifestly  needed. 

There  has  arisen  recently  evidence  of  the  unfinished  character  of 
the  fruit  in  some  districts  because  it  has  shown  blemishes  after  picking 
and  during  shipment  which  can  not  be  attributed  to  any  parasitic  en- 
croachment. This  is  probably  due  to  some  unfavorable  condition  in  the 
local  climate  or  to  some  other  stress  upon  the  tree  which  prevents  it 
from  doing  perfect  work. 


GATHERING  AND  STORING  APPLES 

The  disposition  in  this  State,  as  elsewhere,  is  to  allow  the  fruit  to 
hang  too  long  upon  the  tree  before  gathering.  It  was  long  ago  dem- 
onstrated that  an  apple  for  long-keeping  must  be  picked  a  little  in  ad- 
vance of  full  maturity.  As  late  fall  weather  in  California  is  so  delight- 
ful, there  is  more  temptation  to  delay  the  picking  than  where  the 
approach  of  winter  admonishes  the  grower  to  get  his  fruit  under  cover. 
Picking  apples  for  shipment  should  be  done  just  when  the  seeds  begin 
to  blacken  and  when  the  fruit  yields  to  pressure.  If  left  on  until  fully 
ripe,  and  the  seeds  all  black,  the  fruit  is  apt  not  to  keep  well.  This  rule 
applies  to  fall  apples  for  shipment  to  distant  markets,  or  for  apples  to 
be  stored  at  home. 


PICKING  AND  STORING  OF  APPLES  201 

Mr.  H.  G.  Keesling  of  Edenvale,  Santa  Clara  County,  gives  a 
sketch  of  his  way  of  handling  apples  on  a  small  scale:  In  picking 
apples  we  insist  on  just  as  careful  handling  as  in  picking  other  fruits, 
and  we  find  that  the  picking  pail  made  of  tin  or  light  galvanized 
iron,  holding  about  twelve  quarts,  or  nearly  twenty  pounds  of  apples, 
is  the  best  vessel  to  pick  in,  and  we  use  them  right  through  the  season 
for  cherries,  apricots,  peaches  and  even  prunes.  A  pail  of  this  size  is 
not  too  heavy  to  handle  even  on  high  ladders,  and  it  carries  the  fruit 
without  bruising.  Our  plan  is  to  pick  and  sort  into  boxes  in  the 
orchard.  If  a  number  of  pickers  are  at  work,  then  one  or  more  men 
will  do  the  sorting.  As  each  picker  fills  his  pail,  he  carries  it  a  short 
distance  to  the  sorting  station,  taking  an  empty  one  and  returning  to 
his  work.  The  apples  are  sorted  out  of  the  pails  and  very  carefully 
examined.  The  perfect  apples  go  into  one  box,  second  into  another 
and  culls  into  another.  They  are  then  loaded  onto  a  truck  or  wagon 
with  springs  and  hauled  to  the  house.  A  good  sorter  will  keep  pails 
empty  for  several  pickers,  all  of  course  depending  on  the  crop,  size  of 
apples,  etc.  I  put  my  winter  apples  in  redwood  boxes,  which,  when 
piled  one  on  top  of  another,  five  or  six  high  and  close  together  and 
covered  with  canvas  or  muslin,  are  in  a  condition  to  keep  their  flavor 
and  juiciness  a  long  time.  Storing  apples  in  boxes  saves  a  lot  of  work 
in  handling  if  they  are  to  be  examined  or  sorted  during  the  winter. 

Nearly  all  the  ways  of  keeping  winter  apples  have  been  tried  in 
California.  The  main  difficulty  in  keeping  apples  in  good  condition 
during  the  dry  months  of  the  autumn  is  the  loss  of  moisture  from  the 
fruit  by  evaporation.  This  causes  shriveling  and  operates  against  long 
keeping.  It  has  been  found  by  experience  that  apples  keep  perfectly 
until  late  in  the  spring  by  piling  under  the  trees  and  covering  with 
leaves,  etc.,  allowing  the  rains  to  fall  upon  them.  When  dry  north 
winds  blow,  the  fruit  should  be  sprinkled  occasionally.  They  come  out 
from  the  cover  fresh,  smooth,  and  plump,  and  for  family  use  such 
rough  storage  will  often  answer  a  good  purpose.  For  commercial  stor- 
age, even  on  a  small  scale,  however,  good  fruithouses  are  used.  The 
requisites  of  such  houses  are  an  evenly  cool  temperature,  moist  air,  and 
good  ventilation,  the  fruit  being  open  to  free  access  of  the  air.  In  the 
mountains  where  stone  is  abundant  excellent  apple  houses  are  made  of 
it,  which  resist  temperature  changes  notably. 

Mr.  Edward  Berwick,  of  Monterey,  apple  grower  of  experience  in 
the  coast  region,  handles  his  fruit  in  this  way : 

The  apples  are  carefully  handpicked  into  baskets  and  at  once  transferred  to 
ordinary  apple  boxes — just  put  in  loose,  not  packed  tight  as  for  shipping.  These 
boxes  are  hauled  to  the  fruit  houses  with  as  little  jar  as  possible. 

This  fruit  house  is  built  of  rough  boards  (fastened  on  a  heavy  frame)  with 
inch-thick  battens  covering  the  cracks,  and  rustic-nailed  outside  the  battens,  thus 
leaving  an  inch  air-space  between  the  boards  and  the  rustic.  It  is  of  two  stories — 
the  upper  devoted  to  tools  and  stores,  the  lower  used  for  fruit,  and  arranged 
with  shelves  accordingly.  This  lower  story  has  only  an  earthen  floor.  One  object 
of  this  is  to  >  give  no  lodgment  for  rats  or  mice,  the  other  is  to  serve  as  a 
means  of  maintaining  a  cool,  damp  atmosphere.  To  this  end  it  is  kept  well 
watered  in  apple-keeping  season ;  and,  to  avoid  mildew  or  mold,  it  is  also  liberally 
sprinkled  with  ground  sulphur.  By  day,  doors  and  windows  are  mostly  kept  shut, 
by  night  open;  this,  of  course,  is  to  exclude  the  heat  and  allow  free  circulation 
of  the  cool  night  air. 


202  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

A  rather  more  open  house  is  used  in  the  coast  region  of  southern 
California,  by  Mr.  T.  W.  Ward,  of  Carpinteria : 

It  is  a  slat  house  made  of  strips  1  x  2y2  inches,  put  on  one  inch  apart.  The 
roof  is  similarly  constructed.  There  are  two  passages,  on  either  side  of  which 
are  two  shelves,  one  above  the  other,  i.  e.,  eight  in  all.  The  shelves  are  made  of 
slats  placed  one-half  inch  apart,  with  sides  a  foot  high.  The  apples  are  spread 
on  these  shelves  a  foot  or  more  deep.  The  floor  is  made  of  slats,  and  there  are 
bins  on  this  also.  The  first  must  receive  a  thorough  sprinkling  weekly,  unless 
sufficient  rain  falls.  The  slats  are  close  enough  to  prevent  birds  doing  damage, 
and  the  whole  building  is  raised  six  inches  from  the  ground. 

In  the  monutain  regions  arrangements  must  be  made  for  frost 
exclusion — a  consideration  which  does  not  apply  to  the  valley  and 
coast. 

PICKING  AND  PACKING  APPLES  ON  A  LARGE  SCALE 

Mr.  C.  H.  Rodgers,  whose  pruning  prescription  has  just  been  cited, 
gives  the  best  methods  of  handling  apples  for  market  as  follows : 

In  the  matter  of  picking,  experience  has  evolved  a  number  of  rules  which 
should  be  strictly  adhered  to : 

(1)  Do  not  pull  the  apple  off  the  tree.     By  so   doing,  the   stem  may  be 
detached  from  the  apple,  thus  making  a  second  grade  of  what  otherwise  would 
be  choice. 

The  proper  method  of  plucking  the  apple  is  to  grasp  it  with  the  full  hand,  not 
with  the  fingers  only,  and  by  a  gentle  twist  and  lateral  movement  detach  it  with 
the  stem  attached.  Especially  must  finger  pressure  be  avoided  in  the  picking,  as 
bruises  thereby  produced  injure  the  value. 

(2)  The  apple  must  never  be  dropped  into  a  receptacle  or  from  box  to  box, 
but  should  be  transferred  as  carefully  as  so  many  eggs. 

(3)  Under  all  circumstances  use  vehicles  having  springs  in  moving  the  fruit. 
Once  within  the  packing-house  the  more  perishable  varieties  should  be  handled 

immediately  and  forwarded  to  market,  while  the  long-keeping  varieties,  especially 
those  intended  for  export,  should  be  held  at  least  a  month  before  sorting  and 
packing.  This  latter  precaution  enables  the  packer  to  discover  and  eliminate  all 
diseased  and  defective  fruit — a  thing  that  would  be  impossible  if  the  fruit  were 
packed  at  an  early  date  after  picking. 

Three  grades  or  qualities  are  recognized  in  the  "trade" — first,  second  and  third. 
First  grade  includes  only  perfect  fruit.  Second  grade  includes  the  fruit  having 
a  trivial  surface  blemish  or  stem  absent.  The  third  or  cull  class  includes  all 
wormy,  badly  bruised  or  skin-broken  apples. 

Though  grading  for  size  varies  somewhat  in  different  localities,  in  the  Wat- 
sonville  district,  the  leading  apple  producing  center  of  the  West,  there  are  but 
three  sizes  recognized.  These  are  3*/>,  4,  and  4^  tier.  The  unit  of  size  is  the 
4-tier,  which  comprises  all  apples  running  from  2$4,  to  3^4  inches  in  diameter, 
and  derives  the  name  from  the  fact  that  when  packed  in  the  box  there  are  four 
rows  of  four  apples  each,  both  vertically  and  horizontally  across  the  end  of  the 
box.  Apples  in  excess  of  3^4  inches  are  classed  as  3^2-tier  size.  The  third  size, 
or  4^4-tier,  includes  those  apples  ranging  between  2^4  and  2^  inches  in  diame- 
ter. Both  the  3^2-tire  and  4H-tier  are  packed  in  the  manner  known  as  "diamond" 
pack  or  "pear"  pack.  Apples  smaller  than  4^-tier  are  thrown  into  the  cull  pile. 
The  sorter  ascertains  the  size  by  passing  the  apples  through  circular  holes  in  a 
board. 

In  this  state  the  standard  box  is  made  of  pine.  Its  measurements  are  9^4  by 
11  by  22  inches,  and  it  holds  about  50  pounds  of  fruit.  A  modified  box  of  extra 
thick  material,  reinforced  by  iron  straps,  is  frequently  used  for  export  trade. 
Redwood  boxes  are  used  only  for  cheap  grades  of  apples  packed  for  the  local 
market. 

After  being  sorted,  the  apples  are  passed  to  the  packer,  who.  before  placing 
them  in  the  box,  wraps  each  apple  in  a  piece  of  paper  prepared  for  the  purpose. 


LEADING  VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  203 

The  apples  must  be  so  packed  in  the  box  as  to  permit  the  nailing  firmly  of 
the  lid  at  each  end,  and  at  the  same  time  allow  a  gradual  swell  of  about  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  at  the  middle  of  both  top  and  bottom.  On  account  of  the 
resultant  shape  of  the  boxes,  they  can  be  stacked  up  with  safety  only  on  their 
sides. 

The  packed  boxes  after  being  neatly  labeled,  are  next  transferred  to  the  cars 
and  stacked  four  or  five  tiers  high.  An  air  space  of  three  or  four  feet  is  left 
between  the  top  tier  and  the  roof  of  the  car,  also  the  entire  space  between  the 
doors  is  left  vacant  for  the  better  circulation  of  air.  The  boxes,  after  being 
systematically  placed  in  the  car  are  so  braced  with  timbers  as  to  prevent  any 
movement.  The  usual  carload  consists  of  about  650  boxes.  Refrigerator  fruit 
cars  are  employed  mainly  for  apple  shipment,  but  no  ice  is  used. 

Summer  and  Fall  Apples. — In  some  regions  noted  for  early 
maturing  of  fruit,  it  is  profitable  to  grow  early  apples,  providing  there 
are  facilities  for  reaching  profitable  avenues  of  trade.  Except  to  minis- 
ter to  some  special  local  or  distant  trade  which  can  be  thus  foreseen, 
it  must  be  said  that  very  early  apples  are  hardly  worth  the  attention  of 
the  commercial  planter.  These  sorts  are  apt  to  come  into  direct  contest 
with  the  magnificent  peaches,  grapes  and  other  summer  and  autumn 
fruits,  and  suffer  thereby. 

On  the  other  hand  the  fall  apples,  chiefly  the  Yellow  Bellflower 
and  Gravenstein,  are  so  good  and  profitable  in  regions  where  they  bear 
well  that  they  are  among  the  varieties  which  constitute  our  chief  com- 
mercial reliance.  Bellflowers  are  also  encroaching  on  the  field  of  win- 
ter apples  because  they  come  out  so  well  from  cold  storage. 

Winter  Apples. — For  large  ventures  in  apple  growing,  in  local- 
ities carefully  chosen  for  especial  adaptations,  a  few  of  the  finest 
varieties  of  winter  apples  should  generally  be  selected.  It  is  the  judg- 
ment of  the  most  experienced  apple  growers,  many  of  whom  have  old 
orchards  including  many  varieties,  that  new  plantations  of  winter 
apples  should  contain  only  about  six  sorts.  Of  these,  in  all  parts  of  the 
State,  two  would  be  the  Yellow  Newtown  Pippin  and  White  Winter 
Pearmain;  the  other  four  would  vary  in  different  parts  of  the  State,  as 
can  be  learned  from  the  table  which  will  follow. 

Apples  for  Long  Shipment. — There  has  been  for  years  quite  an 
important  trade  in  shipment  of  California  apples  to  various  ports  in 
the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  and  recently  there  has  been  a  sharp  demand 
for  California  apples  for  shipment  to  the  eastern  states  and  England. 
The  characteristic  size,  quality  and  keeping  of  the  fruit,  together  with 
the  size  and  style  of  package,  have  strongly  commended  the  fruit.  The 
center  of  this  trade  is  Watsonville,  in  a  coast  valley,  in  the  central  part 
of  the  State.  The  two  apples  which  are  most  popular  are  the  Yellow 
Bellflower  and  the  Yellow  Newtown  Pippin.  It  is  an  interesting  fact 
that  these  varieties  by  virtue  of  quality  have  overcome  the  popular 
fervor  for  a  red  apple,  though  at  Watsonville  some  Red  Pearmains  are 
grown  to  fill  orders  which  insist  on  having  some  color. 

For  the  Interior  Valleys. — In  choosing  varieties  for  the  hot  val- 
leys of  the  State  those  making  a  heavy  leaf  growth  are  to  be  preferred. 
The  Spitzenberg,  for  example,  is  a  failure  in  the  valleys  of  the  interior, 
though  satisfactory  at  points  on  the  valley  borders.  From  experience 
already  had  it  seems  likely  that  some  of  the  Russian  varieties,  with 


204 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  :  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


thick,  large  leaves,  will  prove  best  for  such  situations.  The  behavior 
of  the  Astracans,  the  Duchess  of  Oldenburg,  and  others  of  Russian 
origin,  are  illustrations  of  this  fact.  Other  varieties  have  been  on  trial 
for  several  years,  but  no  great  distribution  of  them  has  yet  been  at- 
tained. 

SELECTION  OF  VARIETIES  FOR  CROSS-POLLINATION 

Association  for  cross-pollination  can  be  arranged  with  a  number  of 
our  most  popular  varieties  by  consulting  the  following  dates  of  bloom- 
ing as  prepared  by  Mr.  Frederick  Maskew  based  upon  observations  in 
the  coast  region  of  Los  Angeles  County. 

Blooming  Season  of  a  Group  of  Popular  Varieties. 


General 

Varieties. 

First  bloom. 

Full  bloom. 

fall  of  bloom. 

White  Winter  Pearmain  

April  11 

April  27 

May      5 

Red  Astracan  

April  17 

April  30 

May    12 

Bellflower    

April  20 

April  30 

May    16 

Fall  Pippin  

April  20 

May      5 

May    15 

Rhode  Island  Greening  

April  20 

May      5 

May    IS 

Kentucky  Red  Streak   

April  20 

May     10 

May    2C 

Early  Harvest   

April  21 

May      6 

May    12 

Shockly    

April  27 

May    15 

May    2C 

Fameuse    

April  27 

May     15 

May    22 

Ben  Davis  

April  29 

May    15 

May    22 

Winesap  

May      5 

May     17 

June      1 

Yellow  Transparent   

May      5 

May    16 

June      1 

None-such    

May      7 

May    16 

June 

Missouri  Pippin  

May    10 

May    20 

June      1 

Alexander   

May    15 

May    25 

June      1 

Smiths  Cider   

May    15 

May    25 

June      t 

Transcendent  Crab  

Mar.   30 

April     7 

April  22 

Hvslop  Crab  

April  11 

April  22 

April  3C 

Montreal   Crab    .  .  „  

April  16 

April  24 

"  May      "/ 

i*  > 

This  is  a  later  range  of  bloom  than  will  be  found  in  many  parts  of 
the  State,  but  the  same  relation  may  be  expected  everywhere. 


VARIETIES  OF  APPLES  ££lEFLY  GROWN  IN 
CALIFORNIA 

Of  the  hundreds  of  varieties  tested  in  California  comparatively  few 
are  now  grown,  as  has  already  been  suggested.  Those  named  below 
have  been  reported  by  growers  as  succeeding  in  localities  named  with 
the  description,  or  indicated  in  the  table  which  will  follow.  The  ar- 
rangement is,  approximately,  in  the  order  of  ripening. 

Carolina  Red  June  (Southern). — Medium  size  oval,  irregular,  inclined  to 
conic;  deep  red  covered  with  light  bloom;  slack  in  small  cavity;  calyx  closed; 
flesh  white,  tender,  juicy,  subacid;  core  rather  large. 

Early  Harvest  (American). — Medium  size,  roundish;  straw  color  with  few 
faint  white  dots ;  stalk  half  to  three-fourths  inch,  slender,  set  in  moderate  cavity ; 
calyx  in  shallow  basin;  flesh  very  white,  tender,  crisp,  pleasant. 


DESCRIPTIONS   OF   POPULAR   APPLES  205 

Early  Strawberry  (New  York).— Medium  size,  roundish,  narrowing  toward 
the  eye;  skin  smooth,  deep  red  on  yellow  ground;  stalk  one  and  a  half  inches, 
rather  slender  and  uneven,  in  deep  cavity;  calyx  small,  in  shallow  basin;  flesh 
white,  tinged  with  red  next  to  the  skin,  tender,  subacid,  sprightly. 

Red  Astracan  (Russian). — Large  roundish;  skin  deep  red,  save  greenish  yel- 
low in  the  shade;  pale  white  bloom;  stalk  short,  and  deeply  inserted;  calyx 
partially  closed  and  set  in  slight  basin;  flesh  white,  juicy  and  crisp,  pleasant  acid; 
tree  hardy  and  vigorous,  and  an  early  bearer.  The  main  reliance  in  California 
for  an  early  apple.  / 

White  Astracan  (Russian). — Large,  roundish;  skin  smooth  and  nearly  white, 
with  faint  streaks  of  red,  and  covered  with  white  bloom ;  flesh  white.  Consider- 
ably grown  in  the  Sacramento  Valley  and  foothills  for  early  shipment.  Some- 
times attains  a  weight  of  29  ounces.  Excellent  in  the  Modesto  district  of  the 
San  Joaquin  Valley. 

Duchess  of  Oldenburg  (Russian). — Large,  roundish,  oblate;  yellow,  streaked 
with  red;  calyx  large,  nearly  closed,  set  in  wide,  even  hollow;  flesh  juicy, 
subacid. 

Gravenstein  (German).— Large,  rather  flattened;  a  little  one-sided  or  angular; 
broadest  at  base;  stalk  short,  strong,  deeply  set;  calyx  large,  closed,  in  a  large 
basin;  skin  yellow,  freely  marked  with  light  and  deep  red  and  orange;  flesh 
tender,  crisp,  highly  flavored,  aromatic;  a  strong-growing  and  heavily-bearing 
tree;  a  standard  fall  apple  in  this  State. 

Red  Bietigheimer  (German). — Large  to  very  large,  oblate,  slightly  conical, 
regular,  smooth,  whitish  or  yellowish  white,  shaded  with  light  and  dark  red,  and 
purplish  crimson  in  the  sun;  stalk  short,  rather  stout,  calyx  closed  in  large, 
deep,  slightly  corrugated  basin;  flesh  white,  firm,  juicy,  brisk  subacid.  Declining 
in  favor. 

Maiden's  blush  (New  Jersey). — Rather  large,  smooth,  regular;  yellow,  with 
evenly  shaded  red  cheek ;  stalk  short,  in  rather  wide,  deep  hollow ;  calyx  closed  in 
moderate  depression;  flesh  white,  tender,  sprightly. 

Fall  Pippin.— Very  large,  roundish,  a  little  flattened ;  stalk  three- fourths  inch, 
projecting  considerably  beyond  the  fruit  (which  distinguishes  it  from  the  Holland 
Pippin)  ;  calyx  open,  not  very  large,  rather  deeply  sunk  in  round,  narrow  basin; 
skin  smooth,  yellowish  green,  becoming  pure  yellow;  brownish  blush  and  few 
scattered  dots ;  flesh  white,  tender,  mellow,  rich,  aromatic. 

_  Alexander  (Russian). — Very  large,  showy,  conical,  greenish  yellow,  streaked 
with  red  in  shade,  bright  red  in  sun;  calyx  large,  in  deep  basin;  stalk  slender, 
long,  in  deep  cavity;  flesh  yellowish  white,  crisp,  tender,  and  juicy.  Three  vigor- 
ous, but  not  always  a  good  bearer. 

Gloria  Mundi. — Very  large,  roundish,  oblate;  ribbed;  greenish  yellow.  A 
popular  show  apple  on  account  of  great  sizei  attained  in  this  State.  (See  table.) 

Fameuse;  syn.  Snow  Apple  (Canada). — Medium  size,  roundish,  somewhat 
flattened ;  deep  crimson,  nearly  concealing  pale  yellowish  ground ;  flesh  snowy 
white,  tender,  juicy,  slight  perfume;  stalk  slender,  one-half  inch,  in  narrow 
funnel-shaped  cavity;  calyx  small,  in  shallow,  rather  narrow  basin;  "tree  vigor- 
pus,  with  dark  wood;  one  of  the  finest  desert  fruits;  succeeds  particularly  well 
in  the  foothills." — John  Bidwell. 

King  of  Tompkins  County. — Large,  globular,  angular,  inclining  to  conic;  yel- 
lowish, mostly  shaded  with  red,  striped  and  splashed  with  crimson;  stalk  short 
and  stout,  in  large,  somewhat  irregular  cavity ;  calyx  small,  closed ;  flesh  yellow- 
ish, rich,  juicy,  vinous,  aromatic;  chiefly  grown  in  mountain  regions. 

Rambo  (Pennsylvania). — Medium  to  large,  flat;  yellowish  white  with  pale 
yellow  and  red  in  the  sun,  with  large,  rough  dots;  stalk  long,  rather  slender, 
curved,  deeply  set;  calyx  closed,  in  broad  basin;  flesh  greenish  white.  Reported 
a  failure  in  some  counties. 

Ben  Davis. — Large,  roundish,  sides  often  unequal;  light  red  and  deep  red  on 
yellowish  ground;  stalk  medium,  rather  slender,  in  deep,  narrow  cavity;  calyx 


206  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

partially  open.  Commended  as  a  market  apple  by  the  Southern  California 
Nurserymen's  Association.  Grown  in  the  upper  Sacramento  Valley;  sometimes 
keeps  until  July  1. 

Baldwin  (Massachusetts). — Large,  roundish,  narrowing  a  little  toward  the 
eye;  deep  bright  red  over  a  yellow  ground;  a  few  russet  dots;  calyx  closed  and 
set  in  narrow  basin;  stalk  one-half  to  three-fourths  inch,  rather  slender,  set  in 
deep,  even  cavity;  flesh  yellowish-white,  crisp,  juicy,  subacid.  Best  in  northern 
and  elevated  regions;  coloring  varies  greatly  according  to  locality. 

Hoover  (South  Carolina). — Large,  roundish,  slightly  oblique;  yellowish, 
mostly  overspread  with  red,  with  conspicuous  light  dots ;  stalk  rather  long,  in 
large  cavity;  calyx  open  in  furrowed  basin;  flesh  yellowish,  juicy,  crisp,  acid. 

Rhode  Island  Greening. — Large,  roundish,  a  little  flattened,  pretty  regular ; 
dark  green,  becoming  yellowish  green ;  calyx  small,  woolly,  closed,  in  shallow 
basin ;  stalk  three- fourths  inch,  curved,  thickest  at  the  bottom ;  flesh  yellow, 
fine  grained;  tender,  crisp,  juicy,  aromatic,  slightly  acid;  tree  healthy  and  the 
variety  widely  popular. 

Vandevere;  syn.  Newton  Spitzenburg. — Medium  size,  oblate,  slightly  conic; 
fine  yellow,  washed  with  light  red,  striped  and  splashed  with  dark  red  and 
shaded  with  carmine  in  the  sun;  light  bloom  and  peculiar  gray  specks;  stalk 
short,  in  wide  cavity;  calyx  small;  flesh  yellow,  rich,  sprightly,  vinous. 

Jonathan  (New  York). — Medium  to  large,  roundish,  conical  or  tapering  to 
the  eye ;  light  yellow,  nearly  covered  with  red  stripes  and  deep  red  in  the  sun ; 
stalk  three-fourths  of  an  inch,  rather  slender,  in  deep,  regular  cavity;  calyx  in 
deep,  broad  basin;  tender,  juicy,  rich,  vinous;  a  great  favorite  in  California; 
specially  commended  as  a  market  apple  by  Southern  California  Nurserymen's 
Association;  keeps  till  midwinter. 

Winesap. — Medium  size,  roundish  oblong;  dark  red  with  traces  of  yellow  in 
the  shade ;  stalk  nearly  an  inch,  slender,  set  in  an  irregular  cavity ;  calyx  small, 
in  regular  basin;  flesh  yellow,  crisp,  high,  rich  flavor;  largely  grown;  tree  a 
good  bearer. 

Stayman  Winesap. — An  old  improvement  on  the  Winesap  now  becoming 
more  prominent.  Some  growers  reporting  favorablly  on  Winesap  have  this 
variety,  which  is  larger  and  better,  and  the  tree  a  stronger  grower  and  more 
productive.  Approved  by  Mr.  Frank  Femmons,  of  Madera  county. 

Ortley;  syn.  White  Bellftower,  etc.  (New  Jersey). — Large,  oblong,  greenish 
yellow,  becoming  fine  yellow  with  slight  blush;  stalk  medium,  slender,  set  in 
deep,  acute  cavity ;  calyx  closed,  set  in  abrupt  corrugated  basin ;  flesh  white,  fine- 
grained, juicy,  subacid. 

Swaar  (New  York). — Large,  roundish;  golden  yellow  with  numerous  brown 
specks;  stalk  slender,  three-fourths  inch,  in  very  round  cavity;  calyx  small, 
greenish,  set  in  shallow  basin;  flesh  yellowish,  fine-grained;  very  rich,  aromatic 
flavor  and  spicy  smell. 

Lawver. — Large,  roundish,  oblate,  dark  red,  covered  with  small  dots;  stalk 
medium,  cavity  deep,  regular ;  calyx  small,  closed  in  medium  furrowed  basin ; 
flesh  white,  sprightly,  aromatic ;  a  promising,  late  keeping  variety. 

Yellow  Bellflower  (New  Jersey). — Very  large,  oblong,  irregular,  tapering 
toward  the  eye ;  smooth ;  lemon  color,  with  blush ;  stalk  long  and  slender,  in  deep 
cavity;  calyx  closed,  in  rather  narrow  basin;  flesh  tender,  juicy,  crisp,  with 
sprightly  subacid  flavor;  keeps  well  into  the  winter;  tree  a  strong  grower  and 
healthy;  one  of  the 'universal  favorites  of  California. 

Romanite. — Small  to  medium,  roundish,  conical,  truncated ;  yellow,  mostly 
covered  with  clear,  handsome  red;  indistinct  light  dots;  stalk  slender;  calyx  in 
an  abrupt  basin;  flesh  yellowish,  fine-grained,  juicy,  pleasant,  subacid. 

Esopus  Spitzenburg  (New  York). — Large,  oblong,  tapering  roundly  to  the 
eye ;  smooth,  nearly  covered  with  rich,  lively  red,  dotted  with  distinct  yellowish 
russet  dots;  on  shaded  side,  yellowish  ground  with  streaks  and  broken  stripes 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  POPULAR  APPLES  207 

of  red;  stalk  rather  long,  three-fourths  inch,  slender,  projecting  beyond  the  base 
and  inserted  in  wide  cavity;  calyx  small  and  closed,  in  shallow  basin;  flesh  yel- 
low, rather  firm,  crisp,  juicy,  with  a  delicious  rich,  brisk  flavor.  A  largely 
grown  variety;  tree  a  good,  upright  grower  and  healthy;  fruit  keeps  fairly. 

Hyde  King. — Very  large,  glistening  golden  yellow  with  blush,  very  hand- 
some. Ripens  October  15th  in  Humboldt  county.  Approved  by  A.  F.  Etter. 

Smith's  Cider  (Pennsylvania). — Large,  roundish,  oblate  conic;  yellow,  shaded 
and  striped  with  red,  sparsely  covered  with  gray  dots;  stalk  slender,  in  deep, 
rather  narrow  cavity;  calyx  closed,  in  broad,  shallow  basin;  flesh  whitish,  juicy, 
crisp,  acid;  tree  a  strong  grower,  and  fruit  keeps  till  midwinter. 

Rome  Beauty  (Ohio). — Large,  roundish,  approaching  conic;  yellow,  shaded 
and  striped  with  bright  red,  sprinkled  with  light  dots ;  stalk  one  inch,  in  large, 
deep  cavity;  calyx  partially  closed,  in  deep,  narrow  basin;  flesh  yellowish,  juicy, 
sprightly;  fruit  keeps  late.  Particularly  fine  in  the  mountain  valleys  of  Southern 
California. 

Missouri  Pippin  (Missouri). — Large,  roundish  oblate,  slightly  oblique,  some- 
what flattened  at  the  ends ;  shaded,  striped  and  splashed  with  light  and  dark  red, 
often  quite  dark  in  the  sun;  many  large  and  small  gray  dots;  stalk  short,  small; 
cavity  large,  deep ;  calyx  closed  or  half  open,  basin  rather  abrupt  deep,  slightly 
corrugated;  flesh  whitish,  rather  coarse,  moderately  juicy,  subacid.  Quite  largely 
planted,  but  losing  favor  for  lack  of  keeping  quality  in  coast  valleys. 

Nickajack  (North  Carolina). — Large,  roundish  to  roundish  oblate,  slightly 
conic,  sometimes  oblique;  yellowish,  freely  striped  and  splashed  with  red,  many 
large  dots;  stalk  short,  in  large  cavity;  calyx  partly  open;  flesh  yellowish,  fair 
quality ;  reported  a  shy  bearer  in  high  altitudes. 

Northern  Spy  (New  York). — Large,  roundish,  oblate,  conical;  pale  yellow, 
purplish  red  stripes  in  the  sun;  stalk  three-fourths  inch,  slender,  in  wide,  deep 
cavity;  calyx  small,  closed;  flesh  white,  mild,  pleasant;  highly  esteemed  in  a  few 
localities,  but  abandoned  in  others  for  shy  bearing. 

White  Winter  Pearmain. — Large,  roundish,  oblong  conic,  somewhat  oblique; 
pale  yellow  with  slight  blush,  many  minute  brown  dots;  stalk  short  in  deep 
cavity;  calyx  nearly  closed;  flesh  yellowish,  tender,  crisp,  juicy,  very  pleasant 
subacid,  extra  high  flavor;  grown  everywhere  and  fruit  keeps  late;  tree  a  strong 
grower  and  healthy.  Greatly  advantaged  by  cross-pollination. 

Lady  (French). — Small,  regularly  formed,  flat;  smooth  and  glossy,  with  bril- 
liant red  cheek  contrasting  with  lemon  yellow  ground;  flesh  white,  crisp,  juicy 
and  pleasant;  chiefly  used  for  ornamental  purposes. 

Black  Ben  Davis. — Resembles  Ben  Davis  in  tree  and  fruit,  except  that  the 
latter  is  deeper  colored,  more  symmetrical  and  of  better  quality.  Highly  praised 
by  Mr.  Frank  Femmons,  Madera  county. 

Delicious. — Resembling  Bellflower;  yellow;  almost  covered  with  dark  red; 
very  mild  acid,  quality  good;  a  late  keeper.  Strongly  approved  in  elevated  dis- 
tricts. 

Arkansas  Beauty  (Arkansas). — Medium  to  large,  oblong  conical,  yellow  and 
red  stripes;  fine,  juicy,  very  good,  subacid.  Approved  in  Southern  California. 

Rawles  Janet  (Virginia).— Medium  to  large,  oblate  conic,  yellowish,  shaded 
with  red  and  striped  with  crimson;  stalk  short  and  thick,  in  broad,  open  cavity; 
calyx  partially  open,  in  shallow  basin;  flesh  yellow,  tender,  juicy,  pleasant  vinous 
flavor ;  tree  healthy  and  prolific. 

Stark. — Large,  roundish,  inclined  to  conic ;  sometimes  elongated,  sometimes 
oblique;  greenish  yellow,  nearly  covered  with  dark  red  or  sprinkled  with  light 
and  brown  dots;  stalk  short,  rather  stout;  calyx  closed;  flesh  yellowish. 

Yellow  Newtown  Pippin. — Large,  roundish,  oblate  and  oblaque,  more  or  less 
flattened  yellow  with  brownish  red  cheek;  stalk  very  short;  flesh  firm,  crisp,  juicy, 
and  with  very  rich,  high  flavor.  Generally  considered  the  best  winter  apple  in 
California. 


208  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

CRAB  APPLES 

Hyslop. — Fruit  large,  growing  in  clusters ;  roundish  ovate ;  dark  rich  red. 
covered  with  thick  blue  bloom;  stalk  long,  slender ;  calyx  closed;  flesh  yellowish. 

Large  Red  Siberian. — Roundish  ovate  with  large  and  prominent  calyx;  pale 
red  and  yellow  skin. 

Large  Yellow  Siberian. — Fruit  similar  in  size  to  foregoing,  roundish  oval, 
flattened  at  base  and  crown;  light  clear  yellow,  inclining  to  amber,  with  warm 
cheek. 

Transcendant. — Medium  to  large,  roundish  oval,  flattened  at  the  ends,  slightly 
but  regularly  ribbed;  golden  yellow,  with  rich,  crimson  cheek,  or  nearly  covered 
with  red ;  delicate  white  bloom ;  stalk  long  and  slender,  in  open,  deep  cavity ; 
calyx  closed ;  flesh  creamy  yellow. 

Montreal  Beauty. — Large,  roundish,  oblate ;  bright  yellow,  mostly  covered  and 
shaded  with  red ;  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  crab  apples. 

Whitney's  Crab. — Large,  handsome,  greenish  yellow,  striped  with  crimson. 


CALIFORNIA   SEEDLING   APPLES 

Skinner's  Seedling  (name  approved  by  California  State  Horticultural  Society, 
November,  1887)  ;  syn.  Skinner's  Pippin,  Santa  Clara  King. — Originated  with 
Judge  H.  C.  Skinner,  of  San  Jose.  Fruit  large  to  very  large ;  form  oblate,  conic, 
slightly  mixed;  color  rich  lemon  yellow,  faintly  striped  with  bright  red;  flesh 
yellowish  white,  very  tender,  juicy,  sprightly,  mild  subacid;  quality  best.  Season, 
September  and  October. 

Marshall's  Red. — Originated  with  J.  L.  Marshall,  Brown's  Valley,  near  Napa. 
Fruited  first  about  1877;  introduced  by  Leonard  Coates  in  1884;  no  longer 
propagated. 

Magoon. — Large,  roundish  oblong,  deep  red  shading  to  light  red  on  yellow 
ground,  resembling  Esopus  Spitzenburg  in  form,  flesh  and  flavor.  Found  in  1893 
on  place  formerly  occupied  by  S.  E.  Magoon,  near  Ahwahne'e.  Named  by  Frank 
Femmons. 

Cook's  Seedling;  syn.  Sonoma  Seedling. — Brought  to  notice  by  O.  B.  Shaw, 
of  Sonoma,  as  a  seedling  raised  by  David  Cook  from  the  seed  of  the  Juneating. 
Above  medium  size,  pale  yellow  striped  with  red;  sharp  acid  flavor.  Chiefly 
grown  in  Sonoma  and  Napa  counties. 

Lawton. — Seedling  on  place  of  Mrs.  F.  H.  Lawton,  one-half  mile  north  of 
Sebastopol,  Sonoma  county.  More  symmetrical  than  Belmont  or  Waxen.  Very 
promising  show  variety. 

Tabular  Showing  of  Adaptations. — An  attempt  is  made  to  dis- 
trict the  State  for  the  apple,  and  for  the  other  fruits  which  follow,  in 
accordance  with  the  scheme  of  climatic  conditions  described  in  Chapter 
I.  This  groups  regions  of  nearest  resemblance,  and  is  more  rational 
than  any  prescription  according  to  county  lines  can  be,  for  though 
some  counties  lie  wholly  in  one  climatic  division,  many  more  counties 
extend  through  two,  and  some  even  through  three,  such  divisions.  It 
is,  therefore,  a  more  promising  proposition  to  encourage  planters  in 
any  locality  to  study  their  climatic  adaptations,  not  with  regard  to 
county  lines  but  rather  as  related  to  the  conditions  of  elevation,  ex- 
posure to  ocean  influences  and  other  factors  which  characterize  natural 
belts,  or  areas,  of  similar  horticultural  fitness. 


TABULATED  STATEMENT 


209 


Apple  Varieties  Approved  by  California  Growers. 


Northern  Central 

VARIETIES.  Coast  Coast 

Region.  Region. 

Alexander   

Arkansas  Beauty 

Arkansas  Black   

Baldwin ** 

Ben  Davis  

Bietigheimer    

Black  Ben  Davis ... 

Cook's  Seedling 

Delicious    

Early  Harvest   

Early  Strawberry 

Esopus   Spitzenburg ** 

Fall  Pippin   

Fameuse    

Gravenstein    ** 

Gloria  Mundi  

Hoover    ** 

Hyde  King  

Jonathan    

Langford    

Lawver   * 

Maiden's  Blush 

Marshall's  Red   

Missouri  Pippin    

Nickaj  ack    ... 

Northern  Spy   

Oldenburg  Duchess   * 

Ortley    

Rawles's    Janet 

Red  Astracan  * 

Red  June  * 

Red  Pearmain 

Rhode  Island  Greening ** 

Romanite    

Rome  Beauty   

Smith's  Cider 

Skinner's  Seedling 

Stark    

Stayman  Winesap 

Tompkins  King   ** 

Vandevere    

Wagener    **  ** 

Wealthy    

White  Astracan    

White  Winter  Pearmain... 

Winesap    

Winter  Banana   . . .. 

Yellow  Bellflower  ** 

Yellow  Newton  Pippin ** 

Yellow  Transparent   

York  Imperial ... 

indicates  that  the  variety  is  approved  in  the  region 
**Most  highly  commended. 


Interior 
valleys 

and 

foothills. 
* 


** 
* 


Mountain 
valleys 

and 
plateau. 


* 
** 


Southern 

California 

Coast. 


* 
* 
* 

** 
* 

** 


** 

** 
* 
* 

** 

* 

* 
* 
* 
* 

* 

** 
## 
** 
** 
** 
** 

* 


* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 

** 
* 

** 
* 


* 
** 


* 
* 

* 

** 

** 

* 

* 


* 
** 

* 

** 
* 

** 


** 
** 

* 

** 
** 

* 


resignated. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

THE  APRICOT 

California  has  nearly  three  million  apricot  trees  which  stand  in  the 
open  air  without  protection  of  any  kind  and  bear  large,  luscious  fruit. 
That  apricot  trees  can  do  this  constitutes  one  of  the  unique  features 
of  California  fruit  growing  and  proclaims  it  different  from  fruit  grow- 
ing in  other  States,  for,  excepting  a  few  localities  in  other  parts  of  the 
Pacific  slope,  California  has  a  monopoly  of  commercial  apricot  grow- 
ing, and  nowhere  else  in  the  world  does  the  fruit  attain  such  commercial 
importance.  Although  the  apricot  has  been  grown  here  from  the 
earliest  days  of  the  American  occupation,  and  though  since  the  opening 
of  the  export  trade  in  canned  and  dried  fruits,  the  apricot  has  gained 
in  popularity,  the  planting  of  apricot  orchards  has  not  proceeded  re- 
cently with  great  rapidity,  although  indications  are  that  our  distant 
patrons  are  only  just  beginning  to  recognize  the  desirability  of  the 
fruit,  and  their  demands  will  make  it  well-nigh  impossible  for  us  to  ex- 
tend our  production  beyond  profitable  limits.  The  reason  by  the  apri- 
cot has  not  kept  pace  with  the  advance  of  some  other  fruits  in  Cali- 
fornia is  to  be  found  in  certain  limitations  of  suitable  area  which  will 
be  mentioned  presently. 

Though  the  apricot  has  some  pests  and  diseases  to  contend  with, 
they  have  thus  far  proved  slight  evils,  and  the  tree  is  generally  regarded 
as  one  of  the  healthiest  and  most  vigorous,  as  it  certainly  is  one  of  our 
most  beautiful  orchard  trees.  It  is  long-lived  and  attains  great  size 
There  are  here  and  there  groups  of  trees  nearly  half  a  century  old 
which  have  a  height  of  fifty  feet ;  the  main  trunks  like  forest  oaks,  and 
the  first  branches  or  limbs  twelve  and  fifteen  inches  through.  The 
smaller  limbs  and  foliage  are  at  least  fifty  feet  across ;  a  half  dozen  of 
them  shade  an  acre  of  ground  and  they  sometimes  yield  per  tree  a  ton 
of  fruit.  But  such  trees  do  not  meet  orchard  requirements  and  are 
only  mentioned  to  show  what  the  tree  may  do  when  it  has  its  own  way. 

The  apricot  is  a  rapid  grower  and  an  early  and  heavy  bearer  in 
California.  In  the  interior  and  in  the  southern  coast  valleys  it  yields 
a  paying  crop  during  its  third  summer  in  the  orchard,  and  from  eight 
to  fourteen  tons  to  the  acre  was  reached  for  several  years  in  succession, 
in  Judge  Blackwood's  old  orchard  of  Royal  apricots,  in  Alameda 
County.  The  trees,  even  of  some  varieties  which  are  uncertain  bearers, 
are  large  and  vigorous  growers,  and  have  warranted  the  suggestion 
that  there  is  a  use  for  the  apricot  tree  for  a  windbreak  for  the  protec- 
tion of  other  trees.  The  trees  may  be  planted  near  together  in  strong 
land  and  make  a  windbreak  that  will  pay  its  way  without  regard  to 
such  fruit  as  it  may  incidentally  produce. 

Apricots  are  chiefly  marketed  as  a  dried  fruit  and  the  operation 
of  drying  will  be  described  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  such  processes. 
The  amount  used  in  canning  is,  in  a  year  of  full  production,  about  one- 
quarter  of  that  for  drying,  while  the  weight  of  fruit  sold  fresh  to  con- 
sumers, near  and  far,  is  about  one-quarter  of  that  used  by  the  canners. 

210 


NATURAL  REQUIREMENTS  211 

LOCALITIES  FOR  THE  APRICOT 

In  discussing  localities  for  the  apricot,  reference  is,  of  course  only 
made  to  its  growth  as  a  standard  orchard  tree  without  protection  of 
any  kind.  It  shows  even  in  California  that  it  does  not  forget  the  con- 
ditions which  destroy  its  thrift  elsewhere,  for  late  frosts  in  our  upper 
coast  counties  render  it,  as  a  rule,  unprofitable.  Speaking  broadly,  the 
quarter  of  the  State  lying  northward  of  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco  and 
westward  of  the  high  ridge  of  the  Coast  Range  is  not  suited  for  com- 
mercial apricot  growing ;  though  here  and  there  are  places  where  bear- 
ing may  be  regular  and  abundant  enough  to  make  trees  satisfactory  for 
home  gardens.  The  mountain  regions  everywhere  in  the  State  above 
an  elevation  of  about  1200  feet  are  also  to  be  excluded.  The  lowest 
lands  of  the  great  interior  valleys,  except  here  and  there,  where  frosts 
are  prevented  by  proximity  of  broad  streams  of  by  favoring  air  currents, 
are  unsuited  for  apricots,  and  the  bottoms  of  small  valleys  whence  cold 
air  can  not  find  drainage  outlet,  are  also  treacherous.  It  is  evident 
then,  that  even  in  regions  of  general  adaptation  to  the  fruit  local  dis- 
crimination must  be  exercised  in  selecting  lands  for  apricots,  and  the 
occurrence  of  spring  frosts,  which  are  usually  governed  by  topography, 
must  be  guarded  against.  This  is  not  the  same  problem  which  arises 
in  the  selection  of  land  for  citrus  fruits,  because  apricots  are  not  open 
to  injury  during  December,  January  and  February,  and  consequently 
they  may  be  successfully  grown  in  places  where  winter  temperatures 
might  injure  the  evergreen  trees  of  the  citrus  family.  Still,  next  to 
the  almond,  the  apricot  is  most  liable  to  frost  injury  of  all  our  decidu- 
ous tree  fruits,  and  commercial  success  depends  largely  upon  the  selec- 
tion of  a  proper  place  for  them.  The  occurrence  of  even  light  frosts 
during  the  blooming  and  setting,  or  soon  after,  may  strip  the  tree  of  its 
burden  of  fruit  without  injury  to  even  the  softest  of  twig  and  leaf;  con- 
sequently, regular  bearing  of  the  apricot  can  not  be  expected  where 
the  temperature  is  apt  to  fall  four  or  five  degrees  below  freezing  point 
during  the  months  of  March  and  April,  even  though  the  duration  of 
such  temperature  may  be  very  brief.  For  this  reason  the  area  of  Cali- 
fornia which  is  well  suited  to  apricot  growing  is  limited  when  com- 
pared with  the  great  area  of  the  State,  though  when  counted  by  acres 
it  is  ample  enough  to  supply  all  the  fresh  canned  and  dried  apricots 
which  the  markets  of  the  world  can  be  expected  to  take  at  profitable 
figures. 

It  is  often  claimed  that  situations  directly  subject  to  ocean  influ- 
ences are  best  for  the  apricot.  It  is  noted  by  many  observers 
that  the  apricot  "points  its  best  branches  to  the  ocean,  in  the  very  teeth 
of  the  constant  breeze,  and  the  landward  limbs  and  twigs  bend  up  and 
endeavor  to  reach  the  same  direction.  This  is  patent  in  every  tree,  and 
in  the  long  orchard  rows  is  very  striking."  This  is  taken  to  signify 
the  special  liking  of  the  tree  for  the  vicinity  of  the  coast.  It  is  well 
enough  to  interpret  it  that  way,  providing  one  does  not  lose  sight  of 
the  perfect  success  of  the  apricot  in  the  interior  as  well.  It  is  true  that 
the  fruit  near  the  coast  attains  higher  color,  and  the  less  rapid  growth 
of  the  tree  makes  it  somewhat  easier  to  handle,  but  the  earlier  ripen- 
ing in  the  interior,  coupled  with  freedom  from  fog  and  constant  sun- 


212  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  :  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

shine  for  drying,  are  points  of  the  highest  industrial  importance.  The 
fact  is  that  the  apricot  has  a  very  wide  range  in  California,  and  though 
the  trees  have  been  cut  out  at  some  points  it  has  been  chiefly  because 
too  frosty  locations  have  been  chosen  or  because  some  other  fruit  has 
seemed  to  be  locally  more  desirable,  for  one  reason  or  another. 

In  some  valleys  in  the  upper  part  of  the  State  opening  directly  to 
the  ocean,  there  is  sometimes  complaint  of  the  cracking  of  the  fruit  on 
the  sunny  side.  The  alteration  of  sunshine  and  fog  seems  to  have 
something  to  do  with  this,  for  in  favorable  years,  when  fogs  are  few, 
the  fruit  is  sound. 

Locations  for  early  ripening  of  the  apricot  are  to  be  chosen  with 
reference  to  the  influence  of  topography,  as  laid  down  in  Chapter  I.  In 
a  general  way,  it  may  be  said,  in  regions  directly  subject  to  coast  in- 
fluences, both  in  northern  and  southern  California,  the  apricot  is  late. 
On  the  west  side  of  the  Sacramento  Valley,  on  slightly  elevated  places, 
in  small,  hill-locked  valleys,  the  earliest  apricots  have  been  grown  for 
years.  Protected  situations  in  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  on 
the  eastern  rim  of  both  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  Valleys,  share 
in  the  production  of  the  earliest  ripening  fruit.  There  is  probably 
about  a  month's  difference  in  the  ripening  of  the  same  variety  in  the 
earliest  situations  and  in  the  coast  valleys  of  both  northern  and  south- 
ern California. 

In  the  interior  of  southern  California,  in  irrigated  situations,  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Colorado  River  and  in  adjacent  parts  of  Arizona, 
apricots  rival  in  earliness  the  product  of  the  famous  valleys  of  interior 
northern  California. 

Recently  a  measure  of  success  with  the  apricot  has  been  attained 
in  irrigated  sections  of  eastern  Washington,  Idaho  and  Utah.  If  win- 
ter temperatures  are  low  enough  to  keep  the  tree  dormant  and  yet  not 
injure  the  fruit  buds  and  frosts  are  absent  after  growth  begins,  success 
ought  to  be  attainable. 

STOCKS  AND  SOILS  FOR  THE  APRICOT 

Because  of  the  success  with  which  the  apricot  can  be  budded  on 
various  stocks,  it  has  a  wide  range  in  adaptation  to  different  soils. 
Budded  on  the  peach  root  it  may  be  grown  successfully  on  the  light, 
warm,  well-drained  loams  in  which  the  peach  delights.  The  peach 
root  is,  in  fact,  largely  used  for  the  apricot.  It  gives  the  tree  quick 
growth  and  early  fruiting,  and  the  fact  that  the  gopher  does  not  like 
the  peach  root  is  a  consideration  with  some  planters.  In  growing 
stocks,  pits  of  a  strong-growing  yellow  peach  are  believed  to  yield 
more  uniform  and  thrifty  seedlings. 

For  deep,  rich,  well-drained,  loamy  soils,  the  apricot  on  its  own 
root  makes  a  magnificent  tree.  Apricot  roots  for  budding  are  easily 
secured.  The  pits  sprout  as  readily  as  corn.  Sometimes,  where  cutting 
and  drying  are  done  in  the  orchard,  the  ground  the  next  spring  will  be 
almost  covered  with  a  volunteer  crop  of  seedling  apricots.  These  little 
plants,  taken  up  and  set  out  in  nursery  rows  in  March,  are  ready  for 
budding  in  June  or  July.  Large  numbers  of  trees  are  sometimes 


RELATIONS  OF  APRICOT  AND  ALMOND  213 

secured  in  this  way.  In  the  upper  San  Joaquin  Valley  there  are  situa- 
tions in  which  the  apricot  seems  more  productive  on  its  own  roots  than 
on  the  peach,  and  in  the  moister  parts  of  the  San  Fernando  and  tribu- 
tary valleys  in  southern  California  the  apricot  root  has  recently  ad- 
vanced in  popularity.  It  is,  however,  rather  more  sensitive  to  soil- 
drouth  than  the  peach  root. 

When  it  is  desired  to  grow  the  apricot  in  moister  and  heavier  soils 
than  have  been  described,  or  where  a  light  soil  is  underlaid  by  a  heavy, 
retentive  subsoil,  recourse  should  be  had  to  the  plum  root.  Only  a 
non-suckering  plum  stock  should  be  used.  For  this  purpose  the  Myro- 
balan  has  been  considerably  used.  Some  growers  complain  that  the 
root  has  a  dwarfing  effect  on  the  tree,  and  object  to  its  use.  The 
manner  of  securing  Myrobalan  stocks  has  been  described  in  the  chapter 
on  propagation. 

Apricot  and  Almond. — The  almond  should  as  a  rule  be  rejected 
as  a  stock  for  the  apricot.  Hundreds  have  tried  it,  and  found  that  the 
scion  never  made  a  good  union  with  the  wood  of  the  stock  but  was 
knit  to  it  only  by  the  bark,  and  is,  therefore,  easily  broken  off  by  the 
wind.  It  may  grow  well  and  sometimes  gets  to  be  two  or  three  inches 
in  diameter  before  it  breaks  off,  thus  wasting  much  time  for  the 
orchardist.  Whole  orchards  worked  in  this  way  have  been  a  loss  and 
disappointment. 

A  few  growers,  however,  approve  the  almond  and  use  it  with  the 
idea  that  it  gives  larger  fruit.  It  has  been  claimed  that  the  Royal 
apricot  will  take  well  on  the  almond  seedling  by  root  grafting  instead 
of  budding,  using  the  side  graft.  Cut  off  the  top  of  the  stock  about 
four  to  six  inches  above  ground,  scrape  away  the  dirt,  bend  the  stock, 
and,  with  a  sharp,  thin  knife,  cut  into  the  root  to  the  center,  making 
the  cut  perpendicular,  so  that  the  graft  will  be  that  way  when  in- 
serted. The  scion  should  be  made  wedge-shaped.  After  insertion, 
draw  the  loose  earth  around  it,  and  the  work  is  done  until  the  graft 
has  made  a  growth  of  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches.  This  is  given 
as  a  record  of  experience,  but  still  caution  is  urged  against  the  use 
of  the  almond  as  a  stock  for  the  apricot. 

The  apricot  may  also  be  made  to  hold  on  the  almond  by  double 
working,  growing  on  the  almond  seedling  first  a  shoot  from  a  peach  or 
plum  bud  and  then  working  an  apricot  bud  higher  up  in  the  new  shoot. 

In  addition  to  the  specifications  of  certain  stocks  for  different  soils, 
it  may  be  remarked,  in  a  general  way,  that  the  apricot  seems  to  thrive 
better  on  a  tolerably  heavy  soil,  with  enough  sand  to  make  it  work 
easily,  than  on  a  very  light  soil.  It  does  well  on  soil  rather  too  heavy 
for  the  peach.  It  also  enjoys  moisture  better  and  gives  signs  of  dis- 
tress unless  its  roots  are  fairly  supplied  all  during  the  season,  but  it 
dislikes  standing  water  and  should  not  be  planted  on  undrained  situa- 
tions. 

PLANTING  THE  APRICOT 

The  apricot  becomes  a  large  tree  in  California,  as  has  already  been 
remarked,  and  it  should  be  given  plenty  of  room.  Twenty-four  feet 
each  way  is  certainly  the  minimum  distance  for  so  large  and  long- 
lived  tree,  and  some  orchards  have  been  planted  at  thirty  feet.  If 


214  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

nearer  planting  is  done  it  should  be  with  reference  to  subsequent  re- 
moval of  part  of  the  trees,  which,  however,  is  very  seldom  done. 
Twenty  feet  apart,  with  later  removal  of  half  the  trees  to  double  the 
distance  was  proposed  by  H.  D.  Briggs,  of  Azusa,  in  this  way : 

In  setting  out  an  orchard  it  seems  advisable  to  double  set  the  ground,  as  an 
apricot  twelve  to  fifteen  years  old  should  have  not  less  than  800  to  900  square 
feet  of  ground.  This  can  easily  be  obtained  by  setting  20  x  20  feet;  then  when 
nine  or  ten  years  old  remove  every  other  tree,  making  them  forty  feet  in  the 
row,  with  rows  twenty  feet  apart,  of  course,  taking  them  out  diagonally.  The 
trees  will  very  quickly  tell  the  orchardist  when  they  are  too  thick.  When  the 
outside  rows  have  twice  the  fruit  of  those  inside,  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  time 
spent  in  pruning,  etc.,  on  half  of  the  trees  is  worse  than  wasted.  I  have  cut 
roots  forty  feet  from  a  nine-year-old  tree. 

The  apricot  makes  such  rapid  growth  and  so  much  depends  upon 
giving  it  proper  form,  as  will  be  seen  presently,  that  one  year's  growth 
is  all  that  should  be  allowed  in  the  nursery.  Some  growers  would 
rather  have  a  dormant  bud  than  a  two-year-old  tree,  and  cases  have 
been  reported  from  dormant  buds  outgrowing  yearling  trees  planted 
at  the  same  time  in  the  same  orchard.  But  in  growing  from  a  dor- 
mant bud  in  the  orchard  care  should  be  taken  to  develop  a  short  trunk, 
with  properly-spaced  branches,  by  pinching  the  side  shoots  near  the 
ground.  Trees  started  from  dormant  bud  and  allowed  to  branch  from 
the  ground,  have  developed  very  unsatisfactory  form,  and  have,  in 
some  situations,  lost  their  lower  branches  by  the  wind.  The  tree 
should  have  a  low  head,  but  a  short  trunk  seems  to  give  a  better  tree, 
and  more  elasticity  to  the  branches. 


PRUNING  THE  APRICOT 

Of  all  the  California  orchard  trees,  the  apricot  seems  most  in  need 
of  the  constant  attention  of  the  orchardist  to  give  it  proper  shape  and 
strength.  It  is  a  rampant  grower,  and  in  its  zealous  haste  for  size 
and  fruitage  it  over-reaches  itself  and  becomes  the  prey  of  specific 
gravity  and  wind  force.  Thousands  of  trees  have  been  ruined  by 
literally  breaking  to  pieces  with  the  weight  of  their  fruit,  and  being 
torn  by  winds  of  only  ordinary  velocity.  Thousands  more  have  been 
rescued  from  such  a  fate  by  bolting  the  branches  to  each  other.  This 
excessive  growth  and  consequent  weakness  of  the  apricot  is  greater 
in  some  parts  of  the  State  than  in  others,  because  of  the  difference  in 
degree  of  forcing  conditions,  but  everywhere  the  apricot  needs  watch- 
fulness and  timely  aid  in  building  up  its  strength.  The  general  prin- 
ciples to  be  observed  in  securing  branches  strongly  attached  to  a  short 
trunk  have  already  been  discussed  at  length  in  the  chapter  on  pruning. 

There  has  been  a  very  marked  change  during  the  last  few  years 
of  the  pruning  of  the  apricot.  Summer  pruning,  immediately  after  the 
fruit  is  picked,  has  become  much  more  general,  and  winter  pruning 
has  proportionally  decreased.  The  new  practice  is  certainly  more 
rational  than  the  old.  Young  trees  are  winter  pruned  to  promote  low 
branching  and  short,  stout  limbs ;  bearing  trees  are  summer  pruned  to 
promote  fruit  bearing  and  check  wood  growth — the  excess  of  bearing 
shoots  being  removed  by  thinning  during  the  winter. 


COMMON    VASE-FORM    OF    APRICOT    TREE  215 

The  apricot  tree  bears  upon  old  spurs,  like  the  plum ;  also  upon  the 
new  wood,  like  the  peach.  This  fact  has  to  be  borne  in  mind  when 
winter  thinning  of  the  new  growth  is  undertaken. 

A  very  clear  record  of  procedure  is  given  by  J.  B.  Neff,  of  Ana- 
heim, Orange  County,  who  built  up  one  of  the  best  apricot  orchards 
in  the  State  as  he  describes.  This  orchard  was  displaced  to  make  way 
for  English  walnut  trees  which  are  more  profitable  in  that  district,  but 
that  was  no  fault  of  the  pruning : 

Pruning  the  apricot  requires  some  skill  and  considerable  judgment,  which  can 
only  be  formed  by  experience  and  observation  of  the  habits  of  the  tree.  Trees 
of  four  to  five  feet  in  height  are  preferable  for  planting,  and  when  planted  should 
be  trimmed  to  a  single  stem  and  cut  off  at  eighteen  inches  from  the  ground. 
These  will  throw  out  shoots  vigorously,  and  frequently  two  or  three  shoots  from 
one  bud.  These  shoots  should  be  thinned  out,  leaving  not  more  than  four  or 
five,  no  two  of  which  should  come  from  one  bud,  nor  be  directly  opposite.  The 
firsc  shoot  should  start  twelve  inches  from  the  ground,  the  others  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  divide  the  space  and  make  the  branches  balance,  leaving  the  top 
shoot  to  form  the  central  part  of  the  tree. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  go  over  the  trees  several  times  the  first  year  to  remove 
shoots  that  may  start  where  not  wanted,  but  no  general  heading  back  should  be 
done,  as  it  tends  to  dwarf  the  tree ;  though  if  some  of  the  limbs  are  making  an 
overgrowth  they  should  be  pinched  back  to  keep  the  head  balanced. 

In  the  pruning  of  the  second  year,  the  first  year's  growth  should  be  cut  back 
to  within  five  or  ten  inches  of  the  body  of  the  tree,  and  all  forks  should  be 
cut  out,  even  if  it  necessitates  forming  a  new  head,  as  it  is  much  better  to  lose 
some  growth  on  a  young  tree  than  to  take  the  risk  of  splitting  down  when  the 
tree  begins  to  bear  fruit. 

When  the  shoots  start  for  the  second  year's  growth,  take  off  all  that  come  on 
the  under  side  of  the  limbs  and  thin  to  one,  two,  or  three,  as  may  be  needed  to 
balance  the  tree. 

The  second  year  will  require  much  more  attention  than  the  first  year,  in  order 
to  keep  off  suckers  and  all  lateral  growth  that  may  start  on  the  under  side  of 
the  new  limbs,  the  object  being  to  make  the  limbs  grow  as  nearly  upright  as 
possible.  The  remark  on  heading  back  holds  good  for  the  second  year  also. 

In  pruning  for  the  third  year  the  second  year's  growth  should  now  be  cut 
back  to  within  fifteen  to  twenty  inches  of  the  old  wood,  except  the  central  stem, 
which  may  be  left  twenty-four  to  thirty  inches  long,  depending  on  the  number 
of  laterals  it  may  have  thrown  out.  When  the  new  shoots  start  they  should 
again  be  thinned  down  to  two  or  three  on  each  limbs,  and  all  taken  off  that 
tend  to  turn  down  or  out  at  right  angles,  but  do  not  take  off  the  fruit  spurs. 

During  the  third  season's  growth,  go  over  the  trees  about  three  times  before 
July  to  remove  suckers  and  lateral  growth  that  may  start  on  the  lower  side  of 
the  limbs,  as  the  tendency  in  the  third  year  is  to  make  an  immense  growth  of 
downward  laterals,  and  these  must  be  taken  off  so  as  to  develop  wood  that  is  to 
be  left  for  fruit.  If  the  orchard  is  on  good  land  and  has  been  properly  irrigated 
and  cultivated  there  will  be  a  few  specimens  of  the  fruit  the  third  year,  and  as 
soon  as  these  are  gathered  the  trees  should  be  summer  pruned  for  the  first  time, 
care  being  taken  that  the  land  shall  have  been  allowed  to  become  moderately  dry 
so  that  the  trees  may  be  partially  dormant.  If  the  downward  growth  of  the  later- 
als has  been  kept  cut  off,  all  that  remains  to  be  done  is  to  cut  off  about  one-half  of 
all  this  season's  growth  all  over  the  tree,  using  the  same  judgment  as  before  with 
reference  to  prevailing  winds  and  symmetry  of  tree.  If  this  is  properly  done  and 
water  at  once  turned  on  the  orchard,  a  new  growth  will  be  made  and  the  fruit 
buds  for  next  year  fully  developed. 

The  only  pruning  necessary  in  the  following  winter  will  be  to  take  out  any 
cross  limbs  and  sprouts  that  may  have  been  overlooked  in  the  summer. 

After  the  trees  begin  to  produce  regular  crops  they  will  not  grow  so  vigor- 
ously, and  the  numerous  prunings  of  the  first  three  years  will  not  be  necessary, 
as  almost  all  can  be  done  by  summer  pruning  until  the  trees  get  so  old  that  they 
need  the  old  wood  taken  out.  This  can  be  more  readily  done  without  damage 


216  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

to  the  trees  where  from  24  to  30  limbs  are  grown,  than  in  the  old  method  of 
leaving  only  eight  or  ten  large  limbs.  A  few  limbs  can  be  taken  out  each  year 
until  a  full  crop  of  new  wood  is  again  made. 

The  foregoing  describes  the  development  of  the  common  vase  form. 
A  method  of  forming  the  apricot  with  continuous  leaders  is  described 
in  Chapter  XII. 

Winter  Pruning  of  Bearing  Trees. — The  evident  defect  of  many 
old  apricot  orchards  is  the  failure  of  the  low-bearing  wood  and  the 
thicket  of  brush  near  the  ends  of  long  bare  limbs.  Such  trees  need 
renewal  of  the  top  by  vigorous  winter  pruning,  which  should  prefer- 
ably be  done  toward  the  close  of  the  dormant  season  rather  than  early 
in  the  winter  as  formerly.  Old  and  unprofitable  trees  have  been  re- 
claimed in  this  way. 

Winter  pruning  is  still  the  regular  method  in  some  parts  of  the 
State  where  the  conditions  do  not  favor  excessive  growth  of  the  tree 
and  where  summer  pruning  does  not  seem  to  be  called  for.  The 
practice  is  to  remove  half  or  two-thirds  of  the  new  growth  and  thin 
out,  by  removing  entirely  enough  new  and  old  wood  to  prevent  the 
tree  from  becoming  thick  and  brushy.  In  shortening  the  bearing 
shoots  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  larger  fruits  usually  grow 
nearer  to  the  tip  than  to  the  base  of  the  shoot. 

THINNING  THE  APRICOT 

All  free-fruiting  varieties  of  the  apricot  must  be  thinned  to  secure 
size  acceptable  to  purchasers.  It  is  the  experience  of  the  oldest  grow- 
ers that  though  thinning  is  an  expensive  operation,  it  is  very  profitable. 
When  half  the  fruit  is  taken  off  in  thinning,  the  remainder  reaches  as 
large  aggregate  weight  as  though  the  whole  were  allowed  to  mature 
and  thinned  fruit  is  worth  about  twice  as  much  per  pound.  Even  if 
less  weight  is  secured,  and  in  most  cases  the  purpose  should  be  to  get 
less  weight,  the  tree  is  spared  the  exhaustion  of  over-bearing  and  the 
owner  escapes  a  year  of  little  or  no  fruit.  A  discussion  of  this  subject 
is  given  in  a  previous  chapter. 

Where  conditions  are  favorable,  the  tree  will  set  more  fruit  than  it 
can  bring  to  full  size,  and  for  this  reason  thinning  or  spacing  the  fruit 
on  the  twigs  by  hand-picking,  while  the  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a 
pigeon's  egg,  is  almost  a  universal  practice  among  the  best  commercial 
growers.  This  is  necessary  to  bring  the  individual  fruits  to  the 
diameters  required  by  canners  or  overland  shippers  and  which  they 
scale  in  price  according  to  size:  Extras,  2^4  inches;  No.  1,  2  inches; 
No.  2,  \y2  inches.  Fruit  of  less  size  is  hard  of  sale  unless  the  crop 
happens  to  be  very  small.  It  has  also  been  found  that  thinning  to 
regulate  size  is  quite  as  important  when  the  fruit  is  to  be  dried  by  the 
grower  as  when  sold  as  fresh  fruit. 

IRRIGATION  OF  THE  APRICOT 

Whether  the  apricot  shall  be  irrigated  or  not  is  answered  in  the 
chapter  on  irrigation.  In  many  locations,  with  proper  pruning,  thin- 
ning and  cultivation,  perfectly  satisfactory  fruit  can  be  grown  with  the 


C/3 


bJD 

I 


IRRIGATION   OF   THE   APRICOT  217 

usual  rainfall.  In  others  a  single  winter  irrigation  will  satisfy  all  the 
needs  of  the  tree;  in  others  a  single  irrigation  just  after  fruit  picking 
and  summer  pruning  will  carry; the  tree  through.  It  is  a  fact,  how- 
ever, that  as  the  trees  advance  in  age  some  supplement  to  the  average 
rainfall  is  often  desirable  and  in  dry  years  irrigation  is  the  saving  of 
two  crops.  Some  idea  of  the  amount  of  water  used  can  be  had  from 
the  chapter  on  irrigation.  The  following  account  by  Mr.  Neff  applies 
to  this  practice  in  Orange  County,  which  is  an  average  situation  as  to 
rainfall  and  atmospheric  humidity,  and  is  as  good  a  general  statement 
as  could  be  made : 

If  rains  are  copious,  winter  irrigation  may  be  dispensed  with  during  the  first 
two  or  three  years  after  planting  the  orchard,  but  when  the  trees  reach  the  age 
for  bearing  fruit  the  rain  water  should  be  supplanted  by  irrigation  water  until 
the  soil  is  thoroughly  wet  5  feet  deep,  and  in  order  to  have  this,  at  least  20  inches 
of  water,  including  rainfall,  must  be  put  on  the  land.  Three  irrigations  should  be 
given  the  trees  during  the  first  summer,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  wet  more  than 
a  strip  5  or  6  feet  wide  along  the  tree  rows.  The  orchard  should  have  three 
irrigations  during  the  second  summer  and  a  strip  12  feet  wide  should  be  watered, 
as  the  roots  are  reaching  farther  and  the  trees  require  a  greater  amount  of  water. 
The  irrigation  for  the  first  two  years  should  always  be  done  before  the  trees 
show  any  want  of  water,  so  as  to  keep  them  growing  vigorously. 

All  the  space  between  the  trees  should  be  watered  the  third  year  and  after- 
ward; but  two  irrigations  will  be  sufficient  for  the  summer.  The  best  time  for 
the  summer  irrigation  of  bearing  apricot  trees  is  when  the  fruit  is  about  half 
grown,  which  is  usually  about  the  second  or  third  week  in  May. 

If  well  watered  at  this  time  the  fruit  grows  to  its  largest,  and  has  time  to 
ripen  slowly  as  the  ground  gradually  dries,  until  it  has  all  the  sugar  which  will 
go  into  the  fruit.  An  orchard  in  full  bearing  that  has  been  well  watered  in  the 
winter  should  now  have  as  much  as  full  100  inches  of  water  for  two  hours  on 
each  acre  (equal  to  four  acre-inches). 

The  second  irrigation  should  be  given  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  summer 
pruning  is  done,  in  order  to  start  the  trees  growing  and  develop  the  fruit  buds 
for  the  next  year.  This  will  not  require  so  much  water  as  the  irrigation  in  May, 
but  ought  to  be  as  much  as  100  inches  of  water  for  one  hour  on  each  acre. 

Winter  irrigation  of  apricots  on  deep  soils,  as  supplementary  to 
rainfall  and  largely  reducing  summer  irrigation,  is  a  very  satisfactory 
recourse  in  some  districts. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  APRICOT 

Though  the  apricot  tree,  as  has  been  said,  is  regarded  as  one  of 
the  healthiest  fruit  trees,  it  is  subject  to  some  maladies.  Trees  perish 
from  being  set  in  unsuitable  situations,  and  in  these  cases,  if  the  evil 
be  stagnant  water  in  the  soil,  or  penetration  to  alkaline  subsoil,  the  root 
shows  it.  Sometimes,  however,  a  branch  or  a  whole  tree  withers  and 
dies  without  apparent  cause  early  in  the  summer,  and  while  the  root  is 
still  sound.  The  disease  is  evidently  acute,  but  its  cause  is  not  known, 
nor  a  remedy  proposed.  It  is  an  old  trouble  of  the  apricot,  and  not 
peculiar  to  California. 

The  so-called  "gum  disease"  sometimes  causes  injury  to  trees.  The 
best  treatment  is  to  cut  away  the  diseased  part  down  to  healthy  wood 
and  cover  the  wound  with  common  lead  and  oil  paint,  putting  on  spar- 
ingly so  as  not  to  flow  over  healthy  bark. 

Some  years  certain  varieties  in  particular  are  blackened  at  the  pit 
and  rendered  unsalable,  but  the  trouble  has  not  thus  far  proved  serious 


218  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

generally,  except  with  certain  varieties  which  have  generally  gone  out 
of  use  for  that  reason. 

The  worst  injury  to  tree  and  fruit  is  done  by  what  is  called  the 
"shot-hole  fungus"  (coryneum),  from  its  perforations  of  the  leaves  as 
though  by  a  charge  from  a  shotgun.  It  makes  ugly  scars  on  the  fruit, 
which  renders  it  unsalable.  The  same  disease  also  affects  the  leaves  of 
cherries  and  plums.  Thorough  use  of  the  Bordeaux  mixture  described 
in  a  later  chapter  will  prevent  this  trouble. 

A  disease  which  is  prevalent  in  some  districts  of  southern  Cali- 
fornia is  called  "black  heart" ;  a  pith  disease  which  sometimes  does 
great  injury.  No  treatment  except  that  of  pruning  back  to  healthy 
wood  has  thus  far  been  proposed.  Root  knot  is  also  a  serious  trouble 
of  the  apricot  as  of  several  other  trees.  It  will  be  considered  in  the 
chapter  devoted  to  disease  of  fruit  trees. 

Until  recently  the  apricot  has  been  generally  free  from  scale  in- 
sects, and  it  is  not  affected  by  those  species  which  are  worst  on  some 
other  fruit  trees,  but  recently  it  has  been  seriously  infested  in  some 
places  with  black  and  brown  scales,  which  will  be  considered  in  a  later 
chapter. 

The  ripe  apricot  is  sometimes  seriously  assailed  by  the  diabrotica, 
a  small  green  beetle,  with  twelve  black  spots  upon  its  wing  covers. 
Driving  the  insects  away  with  smoke  smudges  has  been  used  to  some 
extent.  Fortunately,  the  insect  only  occasionally  occurs  in  large  num- 
bers. 

Varieties  Approved  by  California  Growers. 


Central 

Interior 

VARIETIES. 

Coast 

valley  and 

Southern 

valleys 

foothills 

California 

Barry   

* 

Blenheim    

** 

** 

** 

Early  Golden  

* 

** 

Early  Moorpark  

** 

Hemskirke  

** 

* 

Large  Early  

* 

#* 

Large  Early  Montgamet  

* 

* 

.  .  . 

Luizet   , 

* 

Moorpark  

** 

* 

* 

Newcastle    

** 

Oullin's  Early  

* 

* 

Peach  

** 

* 

Royal    

** 

** 

** 

Routier's  Peach  

** 

Spark's  Mammoth   

. 

* 

St.  Ambroise  

* 

* 

Tilton  

* 

** 

* 

Wiggin's  Seedling  

* 

... 

VARIETIES  OF  THE  APRICOT 

Though  nearly  all  standard  varieties  of  the  apricot  have  been  in- 
troduced and  planted  in  this  State,  comparatively  few  are  found  on  the 
list  of  the  orchard  planters.  Many  local  seedlings  have  been  brought 
to  notice  and  propagated  to  some  extent  but  are  less  used  now  than 


OF  POPUAR  APRICOTS  219 

twelve  years  ago,  and  the  disposition  is  to  restrict  planting  to  a  few 
old  varieties.  There  is,  however,  still  a  need  of  new  varieties  combin- 
ing size,  quality  and  regular  bearing. 

VARIETIES    OF   FOREIGN    ORIGIN 

Large  Early. — A  French  variety ;  fruit  of  medium  size,  rather  oblong  and 
compressed;  suture  deep,  skin  slightly  downy;  pale  orange  in  the  shade,  fine 
bright  orange  with  a  few  ruddy  spots  in  the  sun;  flesh  separating  readily  from 
the  stone,  orange  colored,  rich  and  juicy;  kernel  bitter.  This  variety  is  especially 
popular  in  the  southern  coast  counties,  but  in  most  situations  has  proved  an 
uncertain  bearer.  Ripens  before  Royal. 

Wiggin's  Seedling. — Favored  in  Winter's  district  as  best  of  early  apricots; 
good  size,  fine  color,  solid  red  cheek,  good  bearer;  ten  days  earlier  than  Royal. 

Early  Golden. — Origin  unknown;  small,  roundish  oval,  with  suture  well 
marked  and  extending  half  way  round;  skin  smooth,  pale  orange;  flesh  yellow, 
moderately  juicy  and  sweet,  with  very  good  flavor;  separates  from  the  stone. 
This  variety  is  reported  favorably  from  some  counties,  but  generally  otherwise, 
and  is  not  largely  grown.  Ripens  before  Royal. 

Royal. — A  French  variety,  and  at  the  present  time  the  leading  California 
apricot.  Of  large  size  (when  well  thinned  out),  free  stone,  fine  color  and  flavor, 
good  bearer,  and  fruit  ripens  evenly,  when  well  grown ;  a  favorite  with  the 
canners,  and  an  excellent  variety  for  drying.  Fruit  roundish,  large,  oval,  slightly 
compressed ;  skin  dull  yellow  with  orange  cheek,  very  faintly  tinged  with  red,  and 
a  shallow  suture;  flesh  pale  orange,  firm  and  juicy,  with  a  rich  vinous  flavor. 

The  Derby  Royal  is  grown  in  the  Winter's  district;  like  the  standard  Royal 
but  two  weeks  earlier. 

There  is  a  variety  somewhat  grown  in  Sacramento  and  Solano  counties,  some- 
times called  "White  Royal,"  which  is  not  liked  by  canners,  because  of  its  lack  of 
color  and  flavor. 

Large  Early  Montgamet. — Large,  orange  yellow,  reddish  on  sunny  side,  firm. 

Oullin's  Early. — Early  form  of  Peach  apricot,  large  size,  delicious  flavor. 
Ripens  in  Amador  county  four  weeks  earlier  than  Peach. 

_  Luizet. — Large,  oval,  distinct  suture,  one  side  higher  than  the  other;  orange 
with  crimson  cheek;  flesh  deep  yellow,  firm,  rich.  Especially  approved  in  the 
upper  San  Joaquin. 

'  Blenheim  or  Shipley. — This  is  a  valuable  variety  in  this  State,  standing  next 
to  Royal  in  popularity;  was  described  by  John  Rock  as  follows:  "A  very  good 
variety,  above  medium,  oval;  orange,  with  a  deep  yellow,  juicy  and  tolerably 
rich  flesh;  vigorous  grower  and  regular,  prolific  bearer."  This  behavior  of  the 
variety  was  demonstrated  fully  in  the  University  orchard  at  Berkeley,  where  it 
was  for  years  the!  best  of  twenty  varieties.  It  is  now  popular  in  all  parts  of  the 
State.  Fruit  runs  a  little  larger  than  the  Royal,  and  is  usually  better  distributed 
on  the  tree,  but  it  must  be  well  thinned.  This  variety  has  been  approved  by 
canners.  Ripens  a  little  later  than  the  Royal. 

Alberge  de  Montgamet. — Large  and  handsome,  late,  grown  in  Vacaville 
district. 

Early  Moorpark. — Very  popular  in  Southern  California,  where  its  identity  has 
been  long  in  dispute,  and  is  not  yet  fully  determined.  The  Early  Moorpark  of 
Thomas  Hogg  is  as  follows :  Roundish,  inclining  to  oval,  with  very  deep  suture 
on  one  side,  extending  from  base  to  apex.  Skin  yellow,  mottled,  and  dotted  with 
crimson  on  the  exposed  side.  Flesh  in  all  respects  resembling  Moorpark.  Stone 
oblong,  with  a  covered  channel  along  the  back,  which  is  pervious.  Kernel  bitter. 
Ripens  three  weeks  earlier  than  Moorpark. 

^St.  Ambroise. — Large,  early,  compressed,  deep  yellow,  reddish  on  sunny  side. 
Juicy,  rich,  and  sugary,  with  firm  flesh  when  grown  in  the  interior;  apt  to  be 
coarse  and  to  lack  flavor  near  the  coast.  Condemned  by  canners  for  not  process- 
ing well,  and  by  dryers  for  loss  of  weight  and  for  white  color  around  the  pit.  It 
has  served  well  as  a  shipping  variety. 


220  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

Bergetti. — An  undetermined  variety  introduced  by  Mr.  Bergetti  and  widely 
distributed  under  his  name  in  the  San  Joaquin. 

Hemskirke. — A  fine  English  variety  quite  widely  grown  in  California ;  ripens 
later  than  Royal ;  described  by  Downing  as  follows :  "Fruit  large,  roundish,  but 
considerably  compressed  or  flattened  on  its  sides;  skin  orange,  with  red  cheek; 
flesh  bright  orange,  tender,  rather  more  juicy  and  sprightly  than  the  Moorpark, 
with  rich,  luscious,  plum-like  flavor;  stone  not  perforate,  rather  small,  and 
kernel  bitter."  Esteemed  in  California  because  the  tree  is  more  hardy  and  a 
more  regular  bearer  than  the  Moorpark,  and  the  fruit  ripens  evenly  on  both 
sides.  Sometimes  drops  worse  than  other  varieties. 

Peach. — A  variety  from  Piedmont  of  the  largest  size,  about  two  inches  in 
diameter,  roundish,  rather  flattened,  and  somewhat  compressed  on  its  sides,  with 
a  well-marked  suture;  skin  yellow  in  the  shade,  but  deep  orange  mottled  with 
brown  on  the  sunny  side;  flesh  of  a  fine  yellow,  saffron  color,  juicy,  rich,  and 
high  flavored;  stone  can  be  penetrated  like  Moorpark,  and  has  bitter  kernel. 
This  has  been  a  very  successful  sort  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  State  especially, 
and  a  favorite  in  the  Sacramento  Valley,  but  is  now  in  less  favor  because  of 
rapid  ripening  and  inferior  appearance  in  canning  and  drying.  It  ripens  just 
ahead  of  the  Moorpark. 

Moorpark. — A  standard  of  excellence  and  an  old  variety  which  originated  in 
England.  Fruit  large,  roundish,  about  two  inches  and  a  quarter  in  diameter  each 
way;  rather  larger  on  one  side  of  the  suture  than  on  the  other;  skin  orange  in 
the  shade,  but  deep  orange  or  brownish  red  in  the  sun,  marked  with  numerous 
dark  specks  and  dots ;  flesh  quite  firm,  bright  orange,  parting  free  from  the  stone, 
quite  juicy,  with  a  rich  and  luscious  flavor;  stone  peculiarly  perforated  along  the 
back,  where  a  pin  may  be  pushed  through ;  kernel  bitter.  In  California  the 
Moorpark  reaches  grand  size,  but  has  the  fault  of  ripening  unevenly  in  most 
localities.  The  tree  is  tender  and  bears  irregularly,  which  leads  to  its  rejection 
by  most  planters,  though  some  growers  cling  to  it  because  of  its  size  and  quality 
and  occasional  grand  crops.  The  San  Jose  districts  lead  in  the  production  of 
this  variety,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  Santa  Clara  Valley  the  Moorpark  seems  to 
ripen  uniformly.  The  same  behavior  is  reported  from  localities  in  the  upper  San 
Joaquin  Valley,  where  it  also  seems  to  be  a  more  regular  bearer.  The  variety  is 
almost  wholly  rejected  in  Southern  California. 

VARIETIES   OF   CALIFORNIA   ORIGIN 

Newcastle. — Originated  with  C.  M.  Silva  &  Son,  of  Newcastle,  Placer  county, 
in  1881 ;  size  medium,  round,  with  spherical  pit ;  freestone ;  not  quite  as  large  as 
the  Royal,  nor  quite  as  rich  in  flavor,  but  more  highly  colored ;  rather  darker  on 
the  side  to  the  sun.  Early,  regular  and  good  bearer,  a  medium  grower,  being 
more  upright  than  the  Royal.  Its  time  of  ripening  has  been  reported  as  seventeen 
days  earlier  than  the  Early  Golden,  and  twenty-five  days  earlier  than  the  Royal. 

Routier's  Peach. — Originated  with  Joseph  Routier,  near  Sacramento.  Large, 
yellow  in  shade ;  deep  orange,  mottled  or  splashed  with  red  in  the  sun ;  flesh 
juicy  and  rich,  high  flavor  and  a  good  market  variety.  Blooms  a  week  later 
than  Peach.  Very  popular  in  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  Valleys. 

Spark's  Mammoth. — Popular  in  Ventura  county.  Largest  size,  even  larger 
than  Moorpark;  pale  yellow,  very  tender,  juicy  and  sweet;  abandoned  for  shy 
bearing. 

Tilton. — Chance  seedling  first  noticed  about  1885  on  place  of  J.  E.  Tilton,  near 
Hanford,  Kings  county,  and  distinguished  by  regular  bearing.  Propagated  and 
introduced  by  J.  W.  Bairstow,  of  Hanford.  Fruit  large ;  freestone ;  symmetrical, 
ripening  evenly  and  one  week  to  ten  days  later  than  Royal.  Tree  vigorous  and 
prolific.  Widely  planted  recently  and  very  promising,  though  condemned  for  shy 
bearing  in  some  places.  Colors  in  advance  of  ripening  and  is  often  picked  too 
green  for  best  quality  in  drying. 

Late  Englehardt. — Chance  seedling  originating  at  La  Crescenta.  Propagated 
and  introduced  by  W.  B.  Thorne  of  Tropico.  Large  as  Moorpark,  ripening 
evenly  and  twenty-eight  days  later  than  Royal.  Claimed  to  be  a  very  late 
bloomer,  and  thus  escaping  frosts  which  caught  all  other  varieties  at  similar 
elevations.  Planted  chiefly  in  Los  Angeles  county. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

THE  CHERRY 

Although  the  amount  of  cherries  grown  in  this  State  is  small  as 
compared  with  the  aggregate  weights  of  some  other  fruits,  the  cherry, 
from  the  growth  of  the  tree  and  the  size  and  quality  of  the  product, 
is  entitled  to  rank  as  one  of  the  grand  fruits  of  California.  The  size 
of  the  California-grown  cherry  is  a  matter  of  pride  with  the  residents, 
and  a  marvel  to  visitors.  It  is  related  that,  many  years  ago,  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  Eastern  pomologists,  who  was  taken  to  an  Alameda 
County  cherry  orchard  during  picking  time,  could  not  recognize  the 
varieties,  though  he  had  himself  propagated  and  shipped  to  California 
the  very  trees  which  were  bearing  the  fruit,  the  size  of  which  so  far 
surpassed  all  his  mental  standards.  And  quality  is  commensurate  with 
size.  Whatever  disagreement  there  may  be  concerning  the  flavors  of 
our  other  fruits  as  compared  with  Eastern,  the  richness  and  excellence 
of  the  California  cherry  have  never  been  impeached.  Recently  the 
shipment  of  cherries  to  eastern  markets,  the  extension  of  the  canning 
interest,  and  the  uprising  of  a  demand  for  maraschino-preserving  have 
considerably  enlarged  the  opportunity  for  profitable  growth  of  the  fruit. 

Famous  Old  Trees. — The  longevity  and  productiveness  of  the 
cherry  tree  in  this  State  is  naturally  of  interest.  Cherries  that  were 
planted  in  some  of  the  earliest  settled  parts  of  the  State  are  still  in 
full  vigor.  One  of  the  famous  trees  is  a  Black  Tartarian,  which  was 
brought  from  France  by  Dr.  L.  E.  Miller,  and  planted  by  him  in  1854, 
on  land  afterwards  owned  by  Robert  Hector  in  Placer  county,  just 
below  Rattlesnake  Bar,  on  the  American  River,  about  eight  hundred 
feet  above  sea-level.  It  is  described  as  above  seventy  feet  in  height,  the 
branches  covering  a  space  between  seventy  feet  and  seventy-five  feet  in 
diameter.  The  trunk  branches  about  six  feet  above  the  ground,  and 
at  that  point  has  a  girth  of  over  ten  feet.  A  close  record  of  its  crop, 
kept  for  a  number  of  years  when  the  tree  was  over  thirty  years  of  age, 
showed  that  it  yielded  from  a  ton  to  a  ton  and  a  half  a  year.  Such  trees 
are  too  large  to  be  profitable,  for  the  fruit  has  to  be  picked  with  the 
aid  of  extension  ladders  securely  guyed,  by  men  slung  in  swings  from 
such  ladders  or  the  forks  of  the  trees.  At  last  reports  there  were 
about  fifty  of  these  large  trees.  Other  large  trees  were  to  be  seen  near 
Woodside,  San  Mateo.  County,  and  near  Oroville  and  Chico  in  Butte 
County,  some  of  which  have  borne  a  ton  of  fruit  in  favorable  seasons. 


LOCALITIES  FOR  THE  CHERRY 

In  California  there  are  many  districts  in  which  the  cherry  does  not 

do  well,  and  situations  for  the  fruit  must  therefore  be  selected  with 

discrimination.    The  chief  product  is  made  in  the  coast  valleys  adjacent 

to  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco,  including  its  extension  east  of  the  Coast 

221 


222  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

Range,  known  as  Suisun  bay,  for  in  all  these  regions  there  is  a  modifi- 
cation of  climate  due  to  the  influence  of  ocean  temperature  and 
moisture.  Away  from  these  influences  the  cherry  also  thrives  on  the 
alluvial  bottoms  of  large  rivers  and  their  tributary  creeks,  both  on  the 
low  lands  of  the  valleys  and  the  foothills,  while  on  broad  valley  plains 
and  foothill  slopes  it  is  not  usually  satisfactory.  In  the  mountain  val- 
leys cherries  also  thrive  in  suitable  soils.  In  southern  California  at 
elevations  where  moisture  is  adequate  and  temperatures  favor  suitable 
winter  dormancy  of  the  trees,  good  cherries  are  profitably  grown, 
while  on  the  mesas  and  valleys  below,  where  citrus  fruits  flourish,  the 
cherry  is  an  aggravation. 

How  far  atmospheric  conditions  which  are  beyond  control  influence 
the  growth  and  fruitage  of  the  cherry,  can  not  yet  be  fully  determined, 
but  ample  trial  seems  to  demonstrate  the  unsatisfactory  character  of 
the  tree,  manifested  in  small  fruit  and  sunburned  foliage,  on  the  plains 
of  interior  valleys,  although  the  soil  is  kept  moist  enough.  There  is, 
however,  still  the  chance  of  securing  varieties  of  the  fruit  which  have 
been  developed  under  conditions  similar  to  those  prevailing  in  the 
interior  of  California.  The  Russian  cherries,  which  are  largely  grown 
in  a  region  subject  to  high  summer  heat  and  dry  air,  will  succeed  in 
parts  of  California  where  the  varieties  originating  in  west  Europe  fail. 
Though  this  was  suggested  long  ago,  the  effort  has  not  yet  been  made. 


SOILS  FOR  THE  CHERRY 

The  cherry  thrives  in  free  deep  soil,  in  which  water  does  not  stand 
too  near  the  surface.  It  delights  in  deep  deposits  from  old  water 
courses,  and  does  not  dislike  a  moderate  amount  of  sand.  A  loam 
underlaid  by  a  sandy  subsoil  is  acceptable  if  it  is  not  allowed  to  dry 
out  in  the  late  summer,  but  a  loam  underlaid  by  clay  has  shown  its 
unfitness  by  the  early  failure  of  the  trees,  because  of  standing  water  in 
the  rainy  season,  while  those  on  deep  loam  near  by  have  remained 
vigorous  and  profitable.  On  the  foothills  it  thrives  in  the  light,  mellow 
soil  and  fails  in  the  tight  clay  either  in  soil  or  subsoil,  as  it  does  in  the 
adobe  of  lower  lands;  and  yet  a  clay  loam  of  no  great  depth  upon  a 
clay  subsoil  may  grow  good  trees  if  the  clay  be  so  disposed  that  sur- 
plus water  from  winter  rains  can  escape  and  water  is  at  hand  to  guard 
against  summer  drouth.  Commercial  orchards  should  have  a  good 
depth  of  sufficiently  retentive  soil.  The  great  cherry  trees  which  we 
have  mentioned,  are  growing  right  on  the  bank  of  the  American  River, 
where  the  soil  is  a  pure,  sandy  loam,  in  some  places  over  sixty  feet 
deep,  as  proved  by  an  old  shaft  once  dug  near  the  center  of  the 
orchard. 

But  though  the  cherry  dislikes  a  wet  soil,  it  is  particular  about 
its  water  supply  and  insists  upon  enough,  its  requirements  being 
greater  than  some  other  trees.  During  the  dry  year  1898-99,  also  in 
1912-13,  trees  came  into  distress  where  they  had  never  suffered  before, 
and  many  large  valuable  trees  died.  The  only  new  condition  they 
encountered  was  lack  of  soil  moisture.  It  thus  appears  that  while 
the  cherry  is  undoubtedly  injured  by  excess  of  water  in  the  soil 


MOISTURE  REQUIREMENTS  OF  THE  CHERRY  223 

it  is  still  very  exacting  in  its  requirement  of  an  adequate  supply. 
If  this  can  not  be  retained  in  the  soil  by  cultivation,  irrigation  must 
be  resorted  to.  Thus  the  cherry  growers  in  the  famous  Willows 
district  of  San  Jose,  usually  find  it  an  advantage  to  give  their  trees 
an  irrigation  between  the  spring  rains  and  the  ripening  of  the  fruit, 
and  another  irrigation  after  the  fruit  is  gathered. 

Irregularity  in  the  moisture  supply  also  causes  the  cherry  to 
bloom  and  fruit  unseasonably.  There  has  been  bloom  in  October 
and  ripe  fruit  in  January,  due  to  the  fact  that  trees  become  dormant 
in  late  summer  from  soil-drouth.  January  cherries  may  be  evi- 
dences of  salubrity  but  they  betoken  poor  horticulture. 

These  facts  show  that  the  cherry  must  have  water  enough  or 
it  will  not  succeed.  Sometimes  young  trees  which  have  made  a 
good  summer  growth  die  outright  on  leachy  soils  which  dry  out 
before  the  fall  rains  begin.  On  the  other  hand,  there  must  not  be, 
excessive  moisture  in  the  soil  either  from  irrigation  or  by  mois- 
ture. Cherry  trees  in  southern  California,  planted  with  orange  trees 
and  given  similar  irrigation,  have  failed  utterly.  Planting  on  natur- 
ally moist  land  in  low  places  has  also  failed,  and  observed  facts  some 
time  ago  led  to  the  conclusion  that  at  the  south  the  cherry  should 
be  planted  on  well-drained  land,  which  could  be  irrigated  (as  the 
behavior  of  the  tree  indicated  its  need  of  water),  rather  than  on 
naturally  moist  land,  because  of  the  likelihood  of  excessive  moisture 
in  such  situations.  More  recent  experience  has  declared  mellow, 
well-drained  soils,  of  the  higher  lands  well  adapted  to  the  cherry  and 
on  such  soils,  when  well  cultivated,  cherries  have  done  well 
without  irrigation  at  Pasadena,  Pomona  and  elsewhere.  The  com- 
mercial cherry  product  of  southern  California  comes,  however,  from 
mountain  valleys  and  high  plateaux — the  chief  regions  being  the 
Yucaipe  Valley  above  Redlands  and  the  Mesa  Grande  region  in  the 
interior  of  San  Diego  County. 

In  California,  as  elsewhere,  the  Dukes  and  Morellos  may  succeed 
where  the  Hearts  and  Bigarreaux  fail.  The  May  Duke  seems 
especially  hardy,  and  bears  well  in  Nevada,  where  other  sorts  fail 
utterly. 

Delayed  Fruiting  of  Cherry  Trees. — Though  the  cherry  in  fav- 
orable situations  bears  early,  the  grower,  especially  on  strong,  rich 
lands,  will  often  have  many  years  of  disappointment  from  falling 
blossoms  and  fruit.  During  this  time  the  trees  will  be  making 
marvelous  wood  growth,  and  this  apparently  suppresses  the  fruit- 
ing function.  Usually  these  trees  will  ultimately  bear  when  their 
exuberant  growth  declines.  They  can  be  thrown  into  fruit  sooner 
by  allowing  the  trees  to  go  uncultivated,  or  by  root  pruning,  through 
digging"  a  trench  around  about  eight  feet  from  the  tree,  and  sever- 
ing the  roots  thus  encountered,  or  by  summer  pruning.  Because  of 
this  over-growth,  growers  give  such  strong  soil  to  the  apple 
or  the  pear  rather  than  the  cherry.  Sometimes  the  non-bearing  of 
the  cherry  is  inexplicable.  Though  everything  seems  to  be  right, 
and  the  blossoms  are  profuse,  the  fruit  will  not  stick. 


224  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS!    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

Lack  of  bearing  is  sometimes  due  to  the  need  of  cross  fertilization. 
There  is  warrant  for  the  claim  that  keeping  bees  in  the  vicinity  of 
cherry  orchards  has  increased  the  bearing.  But  varieties  must  be 
provided  which  will  act  as  cross-pollinizers.  The  Royal  Ann  needs 
this  assistance  and  will  bear  better  when  associated  with  Black  Tar- 
tarian, Black  Bigarreau,  Bing,  Lambert  and  probably  others. 


EXPOSURES    FOR   THE    CHERRY 

Exposures  for  the  cherry  are  chosen  both  with  reference  to  pro- 
tection from  frost  injury  and  to  early  ripening  of  the  fruit.  The 
cherry  blooms  early;  though  hardly  as  venturesome  as  the  apricot 
and  almond.  In  protected  situations,  guarded  from  cold  northerly 
winds,  and  open  to  sunshine  on  the  south  and  southeast,  the  fruil 
advances  to  maturity  very  rapidly.  In  Vaca  Valley  about  a  month 
of  good  weather  after  the  blossoming  will  ripen  an  early  cherry 
and  ripe  cherries  have  been  shipped  as  early  as  March  31.  The 
pioneer  cherry  growers  of  Vaca  Valley  went  there  from  their  old 
homes  in  Napa  Valley,  because  they  could  gather  and  market  cherries 
in  their  new  locations  before  the  same  varieties  were  ripe  in  Napa 
They  chose  places  protected  on  the  north  and  west  by  steep  hills, 
The  two  things  to  secure  are,  apparently  protection  from  the  sweep 
of  cold  winds  and  elevation  above  the  deposits  of  cold  air,  which 
occur  in  depressed  places. 

In  localities  where  fruit  ripens  late,  as  near  the  coast,  there  is 
no  need  to  seek  forcing  conditions,  for  the  extra  early  varieties 
should  not  be  planted  except  for  family  use.  Early  varieties  are 
comparatively  poor  in  quality,  and  will  not  sell  profitably,  as  they 
will  reach  the  market  alongside  the  better  later  sorts  from  earlier 
districts.  The  place  for  the  cherry  in  the  later  districts  is  on  the 
most  proper  soil,  according  to  the  requirements  which  have  been 
laid  down,  avoiding  however,  so  far  as  possible,  wind-swept  spots, 
and  seeking  amelioration  of  direct  ocean  influences  by  elevation  01 
intervention  of  hills  and  windbreaks. 


PROPAGATION  AND  PLANTING  THE  CHERRY 

In  the  chapter  on  propagation  is  given  a  successful  method  oi 
growing  cherry  seedlings.  California  cherry  trees  are  almost  exclus- 
ively propagated  by  budding  on  seedlings  of  the  Black  Mazzard. 
The  Mahaleb  root  is  more  hardy  than  the  Mazzard  and  is  less 
subject  to  injury  by  soil  saturation  during  the  winter  season.  It  is 
also  more  hardy  against  injury  by  summer  drouth  on  shallow  soils', 
which  is  one  of  the  causes  of  die-back  of  the  cherry  tree  in  some 
parts  of  the  State.  While  there  may  be  particular  places  in  which 
the  Mahaleb  is  the  better  root,  the  conclusions  of  fifty  years'  experience 
in  California  cherry  growing,  which  approve  the  Mazzard,  are  on 
the  whole  trustworthy.  The  Mazzard  is  a  better  grower  and,  where 
moisture  conditions  are  fairly  good,  leaves  little  to  be  desired.  The 


PLANTING  THE  CHERRY  225 

Mazzard,  however,  though  credited  with  a  dwarfing  influence,  does 
make  a  good  sized  tree  under  our  conditions.  Recently  the  Morello 
or  sour  cherry  seedling,  has  found  favor  with  some  growers  on  the 
Sacramento  River,  although  it  is  inhospitable  to  the  buds  of  some 
varieties,  like  the  Early  Purple  Guigne  and  Royal  Ann,  and  double 
working  has  to  be  resorted  to  which  is  expensive,  both  in  outlay  and 
time.  The  Black  Tartarian  takes  well  on  the  Morello  and  other 
varieties  can  be  budded  upon  the  Tartarian  top  growth. 

The  planting  of  the  cherry  is  covered  by  the  general  considerations 
already  given  for  the  planting  of  orchards.  The  distance  which 
cherries  should  be  set  apart  is  a  disputed  point  among  planters.  When 
planted  twenty  feet  apart  the  trees  have  interlaced  their  branches 
when  sixteen  years  old,  and  the  spaces  between  the  rows  have  been 
covered  in  like  colonnades.  In  the  Hayward  region  the  branches 
of  twelve-year-old  trees  set  twenty-eight  feet  apart  have  nearly 
reached  the  other,  though  continually  cut  back.  Much  depends  in 
the  matter  of  distance  upon  the  manner  of  handling  the  trees.  The 
trees  can  be  grown  much  nearer  together  by  continuous  pruning 
than  where  the  usual  way  of  cutting  back  for  the  first  few  years  and 
letting  the  tree  take  it  natural  growth  after  that,  is  followed.  James 
E.  Gedney,  of  Mesa  Grande,  San  Diego  County,  practices  close 
planting  and  cutting  back  which  may  work  better  on  his  upland  than 
on  deeper,  moister  soils.  He  says: 

I  plant  my  trees  twenty  feet  apart  each  way.  My  method  is  to  plant  thus 
closely  and  then  keep  my  trees  low,  by  cutting  back  every  year ;  this  facilitates 
gathering  the  fruit  very  much.  I  prefer  this  way  to  setting  the  trees  farther 
apart  and  allowing  them  to  attain  too  great  a  height.  By  the  former  method  I 
secure  fully  as  good,  if  not  better,  results  per  acre,  to  say  nothing  of  the  differ- 
ence in  gathering  the  fruit.  Another  advantage  in  keeping  the  trees  headed  low 
is  that  the  wind  does  not  affect  them  nearly  as  much  as  it  does  tall  trees. 

The  best  distances  are  24  or  28  feet  on  such  deep  soils  as  have 
been  described  as  best  befitting  the  tree  and  though  one  may  fix 
his  distance  in  planting  according  to  the  method  of  pruning  he 
proposes  to  follow,  he  should  remember  that  the  cherry  is  naturally 
a  large  tree,  and  most  old  orchards  are  now  over-crowded. 

As  with  other  trees,  orchard  planters  prefer  trees  with  one  year's 
growth  on  the  bud  in  the  nursery,  because  they  usually  get,  then, 
a  straight  switch  with  well  developed  buds  all  the  way  down,  and 
the  head  can  be  formed  as  desired.  For  garden  planting,  older  trees, 
properly  pruned  in  the  nursery,  can  be  used  to  advantage. 


PRUNING   THE    CHERRY 

All  our  best  growers  agree  in  the  advantage  of  a  low  head  for 
the  cherry,  and  all  aim  to  have  trunks  of  young  trees  from  the 
ground  up  to  the  limbs  literally  covered  all  around  with  leaves,  which 
completely  shelter  the  bark  from  the  rays  of  the  sun.  In  planting, 
therefore,  the  side  buds  are  carefully  preserved — not  to  be  grown 
into  branches,  but  to  be  cut  or  pinched  back  when  they  have  come 
out  a  few  inches,  leaving  just  growth  enough  to  clothe  the  tree  with  a 


226  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  :  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

covering  of  its  own  foliage.    These  spurs  not  only  furnish  leaves  to 
shade  the  trunk,  but  soon  become  fruit  spurs  and  bear  well. 

Low  Heading  with  a  Central  Stem. — Some  of  the  trees  in  the 
older  orchards  have  been  shaped  by  carrying  up  a  leader  with  a 
regular  system  of  side  branches.  Head  back  at  planting  to  two 
feet,  pinching  off  the  shoots  below  the  head  as  stated,  and  allowing 
the  shoots  which  form  the  head  to  grow  larger,  but  they  too  are 
all  to  be  pinched  except  the  leader,  which  is  allowed  to  grow  as  long 
as  it  pleases  during  the  summer.  During  fall  or  winter  pruning 
cut  back  the  leader  to  about  twelve  or  sixteen  inches  from  its  starting 
point  and  cut  back  the  side  branches  to  about  six  or  eight  inches. 
This  is  done  year  after  year,  cutting  back  and  thinning  out  the 
side  shoots,  pinching  the  laterals,  and  allowing  the  leader  to  grow, 
never  interfering  with  it  until  the  winter  pruning  and  always  letting 
it  predominate  over  the  side  shoots.  By  cutting  short,  wood  is 
increased,  but  at  the  end  of  six  years  the  tree  goes  into  fruit  very 
rapidly.  As  the  tree  increases  in  fruit  it  decreases  in  wood,  and  by 
the  time  it  is  ten  or  twelve  years  old  there  will  be  but  little  cutting 
to  do,  except  to  shorten  in  and  thin  out,  and  this  requires  some 
judgment  and  experience,  to  know  where  to  cut,  how  to  cut,  and  when 
to  cut.  To  shorten  in,  never  cut  down  to  an  old  fruit  spur.  It  is  very 
difficult  to  get  healthy  wood  out  of  such ;  but  whenever  you  -can  find 
last  year's  wood,  there  you  can  cut  with  safety  anything  that  is  less 
than  one  inch  in  diameter. 

This  system  of  pruning  must  be  accompanied  by  constant  pinching 
during  the  summer  time.  It  should  commence  when  the  lower  shoots 
are  about  six  inches  long,  and  be  followed  up  closely  all  through 
the  growing  season.  Those  on  the  trunk  should  never  get  longer 
than  eight  or  ten  inches,  under  any  circumstances.  After  these  are 
pinched,  let  the  trees  rest  ten  or  fifteen  days,  or  until  the  branches 
in  the  top  get  a  good  start.  Then  pinch  everything  clean  but  the 
leader,  in  every  main  branch  in  the  tree.  The  leader  takes  its  own 
way  all  through  the  growing  season,  to  prevent  the  effects  of  over- 
pinching  or  checking  the  growth.  If  only  the  side  shoots  are  kept 
back,  the  leader  or  head  of  the  branches  receives  the  current  or  flow 
of  sap  and  maintains  and  carries  on  life  and  vitality  in  the  tree. 
One  object  in  pinching  or  spur  pruning  is  to  keep  back  surplus 
wood  and  create  fruit  spurs,  throwing  all  the  little  twigs  and  branches 
into  fruit,  thereby  utilizing  all  the  wood  the  tree  can  produce,  not 
allowing  it  to  grow  at  the  tree's  expense,  and  then  have  to  cut  it 
off.  And  another  object  in  side-shoot  pruning  is  to  make  the  tree 
produce  fine  large  cherries,  all  closely  nestling  around  the  big  wood, 
and  no  long,  slim  branches  hanging  down  like  weeping  willow.  All 
such  branches  are  always  more  or  less  sunburnt  on  the  top  and  full 
of  worms,  one  of  the  evils  tending  to  the  destruction  of  the  tree. 

This  method  is  commended  to  those  who  like  a  tree  with  a  central 
leader,  and  are  willing  to  give  their  orchards  such  constant  attention. 
Unless  pinching  and  consequent  multiplication -of  shoots  and  foliage 
is  faithfully  followed  such,  a  tree  is  apt  to  become  tall  and  rangy  and 
to  expose  the  bark  all  the  way  up  to  sunburn  and  borers. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  VASE-FORM  TREE  227 

THE   USUAL   METHOD    OF    PRUNING   THE    CHERRY 

As  we  have  said,  all  cherry  growers  agree  on  low  heading  and 
on  the  advantage  of  pinching  the  lowest  shoots  as  soon  as  they  make 
a  bunch  of  leaves.  In  forming  the  head,  and  in  after  treatment, 
the  usual  method  is  quite  different  from  that  we  have  described. 
It  follows  the  vase  or  goblet  form,  which  has  been  discussed  at 
length  in  the  chapter  on  pruning.  Of  the  application  of  this  method 
to  the  cherry,  W.  W.  Smith,  in  an  address  before  the  State 
Horticultural  Society,  said: 

The  cherry  may  be  pruned  the  same  as  any  other  deciduous  fruit  tree  until  it 
is  about  five  years  old;  after  that  the  less  pruning  the  better,  except  when  neces- 
sary to  cut  out  a  dead  or  crossing  branch.  Pruning  the  cherry  is  more  or  less 
likely  to  produce  gum  (and  this,  decay),  and  should  be  avoided  as  much  as 
possible.  Cherry  trees,  however,  should  trained  with  low  heads  not  to  exceed 
eighteen  inches  from  the  ground  to  the  first  branches;  fifteen  inches  is  better. 
From  three  to  five  branches  are  enough  to  form  the  head  of  the  tree;  all  others 
should  be  removed  early.  Three  are  better  than  five ;  two  make  a  forked  tree, 
which  is  likely  to  split  in  after  years. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  season  we  have  a  neat  little  tree  with  three  to  five 
branches.  During  the  following  winter  these  branches  should  be  cut  back  to  six 
to  eight  inches.  The  next  season  these  should  be  allowed  to  produce  two 
branches  each  (no  more)  ;  then,  at  the  end  of  the  second  season  from  planting 
out,  we  have  a  tree  with  from  six  to  ten  branches.  The  following  winter  the 
new  growth  should  be  cut  back  again  to  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches- 
according  to  the  amount  of  growth  the  tree  makes — the  less  the  growth  the  more 
you  cut.  The  same  process  should  be  repeated  the  following  winter,  treating  each 
branch  as  an  individuual  tree,  until  the  tree  is  about  five  years  old;  it  takes  at 
least  five  years  to  get  the  head  of  a  cherry  well  established.  After  this,  as 
some  varieties  will  persist  in  throwing  out  branches  near  the  ground,  they  should 
be  removed  during  the  summer.  At  this  age  the  tree,  if  well  grown,  will  have 
top  enough  to  shade  its  body  from  the  sun,  and  there  is  no  further  need  of 
branches  on  the  main  trunk. 

If  necessary  to  remove  large  branches  it  should  then  be  done  in  midsummer, 
as  that  is  the  only  season  when  the  gum-  is  not  more  or  less  exuded.  We  made 
it  a  rule  to  go  over  and  dress  up  and  prune  our  cherry  orchard  immediately  after 
the  crop  is  gathered — which  in  our  part  of  the  State  is  the  last  of  May.  All 
wounds  made  then  by  the  removal  of  branches  or  otherwise  will  heal  over  the 
same  season.  All  large  wounds  made  at  any  time,  however,  should  be  coated 
over  with  paint. 

The  method  thus  described  by  Mr.  Smith  is  that  by  which  probably 
nine-tenths  of  the  cherry  trees  of  this  State  are  shaped. 

In  the  cherry  there  should  be  the  same  observation  as  to  cutting 
inside  and  outside  buds  as  with  other  trees ;  in  fact,  the  outside  bud 
is  the  rule,  because  so  many  varieties  make  a  directly  upward  growth. 
In  removing  limbs,  cutting  to  the  collar  or  swelling  at  the  base  or 
the  limb  is  especially  important,  also  the  covering  of  the  wound  to   0 
prevent  checking  of  the  wood. 


GRAFTING  OVER  THE  CHERRY 

Since  canning  of  cherries  began  on  a  large  scale,  there  has  been 
a  vastly  increased  demand  for  white  cherries.  The  Royal  Ann  (a 
local  name  for  Napoleon  Bigarreau)  has  been  the  favorite.  Other 
white  sorts  are  also  used  for  canning-.  This  rise  in  favor  of  the  white 


228  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

cherries  has  vastly  increased  their  proportionate  production  as  com- 
pared with  the  choice  black  and  red  varieties,  which  are  still  popular 
as  a  table  fruit. 

It  is  the  experience  of  growers  that  the  cherry  is  grafted  over  as 
easily  as  the  pear  or  apple,  if  the  tree  is  healthy.  In  large  trees  as 
many  as  fifty  or  one  hundred  grafts  may  be  set,  choosing  the  smaller 
limbs,  even  if  you  have  to  go  pretty  high  in  the  tree.  J.  W.  Cassidy, 
of  Petaluma,  used  to  advise  grafting  before  the  sap  begins  to  flow 
in  the  winter,  or  if  not  done  then,  wait  until  the  buds  are  well 
advanced  or  the  tree  in  bloom.  He  has  trees  which  were  over  thirty 
years  old  before  they  were  re-headed,  and  they  made  fine  tops  of  new 
and  healthy  wood,  and  produced  abundantly.  The  cherry  is  in  fact 
a  very  easy  tree  to  graft  by  the  usual  top-grafting  methods. 


PESTS    AND    DISEASES    OF   THE    CHERRY 

The  disease  of  the  cherry  which  is  most  heard  of  is  the  "gum," 
or  overflow  and  condensation  of  sap,  which,  if  left  to  itself,  often 
induces  decay  of  adjacent  bark  and  wood.  Without  attempting  to 
explain  the  cause  or  causes  of  the  unhealthy  exudation,  it  may  be 
said  that  prompt  treatment  of  certain  manifestations  is  desirable,  and 
in  others  the  tree  should  be  cleansed  from  the  flow.  Where  the 
gum  exudes  on  the  side  of  trunk  or  limb,  the  thin  outer  bark  should 
be  pared  away  with  a  sharp  knife,  the  accumulation  of  gum  and  sap 
removed,  and  the  wound  painted  with  lead  and  oil  paint,  or  covered 
with  grafting  wax. 

Gum  in  the  crotch  should  be  cleanly  brushed  out  when  softened 
by  the  winter  rains.  If  allowed  to  remain,  it  becomes  sour  and 
offensive  and  may  injure  the  tree.  In  places  where  two  or  three 
limbs  come  out  close  together  a  kind  of  cup  is  formed,  which  will 
hold  the  gum  from  one  year's  end  to  another,  and  in  its  soft  state, 
leaves,  sticks,  cherry  pits,  dust;  and  dirt  will  stick  and  hang  and 
sometimes  the  mass  becomes  very  foul.  By  this  collection  also,  a 
nest  is  made  for  all  manner  of  insects,  bugs  and  worms.  Another 
evil  in  letting  the  gum  stay  on  is,  if  the  rain  does  not  wash  it  off  clean, 
it  runs  down  the  trunk  of  the  tree  and  makes  the  bark  look  bad, 
and  if  it  is  very  thick  on  the  'bark  when  it  dries,  it  will  contract  and 
crack  the  bark  crosswise,  and  is  very  injurious  to  the  tree. 

Gumming  in  the  crotch  can  be  largely  avoided  by  starting  the 
young  cherry  as  advocated  in  the  chapter  on  pruning.  Branches 
which  emerge  from  the  trunk  at  separate  points  and  at  wide  angles 
seldom  gum ;  those  which  are  crowded  together  or  emerge  at  acute 
angles  gum  badly.  In  shaping  young  trees  a  gumming  joint  sometimes 
may  be  clearly  cut  out  and  those  branches  selected  to  remain  which 
start  out  at  a  wider  angle;  in  older  trees  there  is  nothing  to  do  but 
keep  the  fork  clean,  as  already  described. 

There  are  cases  reported  in  which  gumming  of  old  trees  has  been 
stopped  by  allowing  the  ground  to  lie  uncultivated,  weeds  being  cut 


PESTS  AND  DISEASES  OF  THE  CHERRY  229 

down  with  the  hoe.    As  a  rule,  however,  the  cherry  thrives  with  good 
cultivation. 

Die-back  of  the  Cherry. — The  dying  back  of  cherry  branches  is 
more  or  less  common  in  all  regions,  and  the  immediate  cause  thereof 
is  not  known.  It  is  apparently  sometimes  a  root  trouble,  as  is  the 
dying  back  of  other  fruit  trees.  This  might  have  resulted  from 
standing  water  in  the  winter  in  the  soil,  although  the  same  condition 
may  result  from  lack  of  sufficient  moisture  during  the  late  summer  and 
autumn.  Anything  which  causes  destruction  of  the  root  hairs  is  apt 
to  cause  die-back  and  other  forms  of  unthrift  in  the  top.  Early 
vegetative  activity  in  the  branch,  followed  by  frost,  seems  also  to 
occasion  die-back  in  some  cases.  Fortunately,  this  can  occur  without 
injury  to  the  rest  of  the  tree,  though  it  is  sometimes  and  in  some  places 
destructive  to  the  tree  in  the  end.  The  only  treatment  is  removal  of 
the  affected  wood,  and  if  this  can  be  done  during  the  growing  season, 
as  soon  as  signs  of  injury  appear,  it  is  all  the  better. 

The  Gopher. — One  of  the  most  dangerous  foes  of  the  cherry  is 
the  gopher,  for  he  seldom  takes  less  than  the  whole  tree,  young  or 
old.  Traces  of  his  presence  should  be  constantly  watched  for,  and 
killing  methods  described  in  a  later  chapter  adopted.  If  a  tree  is 
seen  to  wilt  suddenly,  the  probability  is  that  a  gopher  has  girdled 
it.  Covering  the  wound  sometimes  saves  the  tree,  but  not  usually. 

Insects  injuring  the  cherry  will  be  mentioned  in  a  subsequent 
chapter. 

VARIETIES    OF   THE    CHERRY 

Many  varieties  of  the  cherry  have  been  tested  in  this  State,  and 
many  have  been  abandoned  from  one  cause  or  another.  Those  most 
frequently  starred  in  our  table  are  the  survivors  in  public  esteem. 
As  our  reports  have  come  from  those  who  grow  for  market,  possibly 
some  sorts  are  too  tender  for  shipment,  but  excellent  for  family  use, 
are  omitted,  but  will  be  included  in  the  descriptions  which  follow  the 
table.  The  claims  to  value  upon  which  a  variety  is  judged  are  several: 
Extra  earliness,  an  important  consideration  in  early  districts  for  ship- 
ment, and  elsewhere  for  local  sale  or  family  use ;  firmness  to  withstand 
mechanical  injury  by  jarring  in  transit  and  durability  to  escape  decay 
during  the  long  journey  to  distant  markets;  firmness  and  fixed  color 
to  stand  processing  in  the  cannery,  and- to  prevent  coloring  the  juice; 
lateness  to  extend  the  cherry  season. 

In  classification  of  cherries  it  was  originally  considered  that  there 
were  four  classes  of  cherries.  The  Hearts  were  the  tender  and 
half-tender  sweet  cherries,  while  the  Bigarreaux  were  the  firm-fleshed 
ones;  but  these  have  been  so  intermingled  and  blended  together  by 
hybridization  that  no  distinct  line  can  now  be  drawn  separating  them. 
There  is  really  but  one  class  of  these,  whose  main  characteristic  is 
the  large,  vigorous  growth  of  the  tree.  The  Duke  and  Morello 
cherries,  also  wanting  a  natural  division,  really  constitute  but  one 
class. 


230 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


Southern 
California 


Cherry  Varieties  Approved  by  California  Growers. 

Interior  Mountain 

Upper                Central              valleys  valleys 

VARIETY.                           Coast                  Coast                    and  and 

Region.              Region.           foothills.  plateaux. 

Advance   *  *  *                   * 

Bing **  **  **                    * 

Bl'k  Heart   (B.   Bigarreau)      ...  *  * 

Burbank    ...  ** 

Burr's   Seedling ** 

Centennial    *  *  *                    * 

Chapman   **  ** 

Cleveland ...  * 

Early  Purple  Guigne ***** 

Elton    *  ...                    * 

Knight    (Early)    ...  *                 ... 

Lambert    *  **  '-*                    * 

Lewelling    (B.    Republican)         *****  * 

Mezel    *  *  ** 

Napoleon   (Royal  Ann)....      **  **  **                 ** 

Nonpareil ...  ** 

Rockport    *  *  * 

Schmidt *  * 

Spanish  (Yellow) * 

Tartarian  (Black)   **  **  ** 

Wood   (Governor)    *  * 

Buttner's  Yellow * 

Eugenie   

May  Duke *  * 

Morello   *  *  * 

Richmond *  *  ** 

^Indicates  that  the  variety  is  approved  in  the  region  designated. 
**Most  highly  commended. 

BIGARREAU   AND   HEARTS 

Early  Lamaurie. — Fruit  large,  dark  purple;  flesh  rich,  juicy,  excellent.  Down- 
ing says  a  week  earlier  than  Early  Purple  Guigne.  Has  proved  the  earliest 
cherry  in  the  University  collection  at  Berkeley,  and  in  Vacaville  district.  Not 
fully  tested  as  to  regular  bearing. 

Guigne  Marbree. — "Fruit  medium  large,  round,  skin  dark  red;  flesh  purplish 
red,  tender,  juicy,  delicate  flavor." — Gillet.  "A  better  bearer  than  Early  Purple 
Guigne."— W.  W.  Smith. 

Baumanns  May  (Early  Black  Guigne). — Rather  small,  deep  rich  red,  becom- 
ing rather  dark  when  fully  ripe;  tender,  juicy,  tolerably  sweet  and  good. 

Early  Purple  Guigne. — Small  to  medium  size;  purple;  tender,  juicy,  and 
sweet.  This  variety  is  considered  the  earliest  good  cherry.  It  is  reported  a 
shy  bearer  in  some  localities. 

Belle  d 'Orleans. — Above  medium  size,  roundish,  heart-shaped;  whitish  yellow, 
half  covered  with  pale  red,  very  juicy,  sweet  and  excellent. 

Early  White  Heart. — Below  medium  size,  rather  heart-shaped,  skin  dull 
whitish  yellow,  tinged  and  speckled  with  pale  red  in  the  sun;  flesh  melting, 
sweet,  and  pleasant  when  fully  ripe. 

White  Tartarian. — Fruit  of  medium  size,  obtuse  heart-shaped;  skin  pale  yel- 
low ;  stalk  slender ;  flesh  whitish  yellow ;  half  tender  and  very  sweet. 

American  Heart. — Fruit  pretty  large,  heart-shaped,  often  nearly  four-sided 
and  irregular  in  outline  borne  in  clusters;  flesh  half  tender;  skin  strong  and 
adhering  to  flesh. 

Werder's  Early  Black. — An  early  variety,  moderately  productive ;  tree  vigor- 
ous, spreading;  fruit  large,  black,  tender,  sweet  and  excellent. 


** 
* 


* 
** 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  POPULAR  CHERRIES  231 

Knight's  Early  Black. — "Large,  black,  tender,  juicy,  rich,  and  excellent;  high 
flavor;  a  shy  bearer  until  the  trees  attain  age." 

Rockport  Bigarreau. — Large;  pale  amber  in  the  shade,  light  red  in  the  sun; 
half  tender,  sweet  and  good;  a  very  excellent  and  handsome  cherry;  good 
bearer ;  highly  esteemed  for  canning  and  shipping. 

Coe's  Transparent. — Medium  size,  pale  amber,  red  and  mottled  next  the  sun; 
tender,  sweet  and  fine. 

Cleveland  Bigarreau. — A  thrifty,  strong,  spreading  grower,  and  productive 
large;  clear  red  and  yellow;  juicy,  sweet,  and  rich. 

Black  Tartarian. — Fruit  of  the  largest  size,  bright  purplish  black.  Flesh 
purplish,  thick,  juicy,  very  rich  and  delicious.  Tree  a  remarkably  vigorous,  erect, 
and  beautiful  grower,  and  an  immense  bearer ;  the  best  of  the  black  cherries. 

Governor  Wood. — Large;  light  yellow  shaded  with  bright  red;  flesh  nearly 
tender,  juicy,  sweet,  rich  and  delicious ;  a  vigorous  grower  and  very  productive. 

Elton. — Large,  pointed;  pale  yellow,  nearly  covered  with  light  red;  juicy, 
with  a  rich  and  luscious  flavor ;  one  of  the  best. 

Black  Eagle. — A  very  excellent  English  variety,  ripening  in  June;  large  size, 
deep  purple,  or  nearly  black;  flesh  deep  purple,  tender,  with  a  rich,  high-flavored 
juice. 

American  Amber. — Fruit  medium  sized,  roundish,  heart-shaped;  skin  thin, 
smooth,  light  amber ;  delicately  mottled  and  overspread  with  bright  red ;  flesh 
tender  and  juicy,  but  not  high  flavored. 

Yellow  Spanish  (Bigarreau  Graffion). — Large;  pale  yellow,  with  red  cheek 
in  the  sun;  flesh  firm,  juicy,  and  delicious;  one  of  the  best,  most  beautiful  and 
popular  of  all  light-colored  cherries. 

Mezel,  Monstreuses  de  (Great  Bigarreau). — A  foreign  variety  of  the  largest 
size;  dark  red  or  quite  black;  firm  and  juicy;  late. 

Pontiac. — Large;  dark  purplish  red;  half  tender,  juicy,  and  agreeable. 

Burr's  Seedling. — Large;  yellow,  shaded  with  red;  sweet  and  rich;  vigorous 
and  great  bearer;  apparently  does  better  near  the  coast  than  in  the  interior. 

Oxheart. — Fruit  large,  obtuse,  heart-shaped;  skin  dark  red;  flesh  red,  half 
tender,  with  a  pleasant  juice  of  second  quality. 

Napoleon  Bigarreau  (Royal  Ann). — A  magnificent  cherry  of  the  largest  size; 
pale  yellow,  becoming  amber  in  shade,  richly  dotted  and  spotted  with  deep  red, 
and  with  a  bright  red  cheek;  flesh  very  firm,  juicy  and  sweet.  Tree  a  free 
grower  and  an  enormous  bearer,  when  properly  pollinated.  The  great  commercial 
cherry  of  California. 

Tradescant's  Blackheart  (Elkhorn,  Black  Bigarreau). — Large,  heart-shaped); 
deep,  glossy  black;  very  solid  and  firm;  dark  purple,  moderately  juicy. 

Schmidt's  Bigarreau. — The  largest  of  all  the  Black  Bigarreau  cherries.  Skin 
of  a  deep  black  color;  flesh  dark  and  very  juicy,  with  a  fine  flavor. 

DUKES    AND    MORELLOS 

Early  Richmond  (Kentish). — An  early,  red,  acid  cherry;  valuable  for  cooking 
early  in  the  season. 

Eugenie. — Medium  large;  heart-shaped;  amber  red;  good  quality;  early. 

May  Duke. — An  old,  well-known,  excellent  variety;  large,  dark  red,  juicy, 
subacid,  rich. 

Arch  Duke. — Fruit  large,  obtuse,  heart-shaped;  bright  red  becoming  dark; 
flesh  light  red,  melting,  juicy,  rich,  subacid  flavor,  very  good;  tree  more  upright 
and  vigorous  than  May  Duke. 

Late  Duke. — Fruit  large,  flattened  or  obtuse,  heart-shaped ;  white,  mottled 
with  red,  becoming  rich  dark  red  when  ripe;  flesh  yellowish,  tender,  juicy;  hangs 
long  on  the  tree. 

Reine  Hortense. — "It  is  one  of  the  very  largest  of  cherries ;  a  beautiful,  glossy 
red,  or  deep  pink,  when  fully  ripe;  heart-shaped;  a  universal  bearer,  and  when 


232  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

hanging  on  the  tree  no  fruit  is  more  beautiful;  excellent  for  canning,  but  too 
soft  and  juicy  for  shipment." — W,  W.  Smith. 

English  Morello. — Large,  dark  red,  nearly  black;  tender,  juicy,  rich,  acid,  pro- 
ductive and  late. 

Guigne  Noir  Luisantc  (Black  Spanish). — Fruit  medium  size,  round,  heart- 
shaped,  glossy,  blackish  red;  flesh  reddish  purple,  tender,  juicy,  rich,  acid. 

Belle  Magnifique. — Fruit  large,  roundish,  inclined  to  heart-shape;  skin  a  fine 
bright  red;  flesh  juicy,  tender,  with  sprightly  subacid  flavor;  one  of  the  best  of 
its  class;  a  fine  table  fruit  when  fully  ripe. 

Buttner's  Yellow. — Medium,  roundish;  clear  yellow;  firm,  late. 

PACIFIC    COAST    SEEDLINGS 

Lewelling — Black  Republican  (Black  Oregon). — "Seedling  by  Seth  Lewelling, 
Milwaukee,  Oregon,  from  seed  planted  in  1860;  first  fruited  in  orchard  in  1864. 
Widely  distributed  in  California.  Large,  black,  sweet,  with  purple  flesh;  ripens 
ten  days  after  Black  Tartarian." — James  Shinn.  "Large,  late  black  cherry,  good 
flavor,  long  keeper;  dries  and  ships  well.  Seems  to  succeed  better  on  foothills 
than  in  the  valley." — Robert  Williamson.  "Supposed  to  be  a  cross  between 
Napoleon  Bigarreau  and  Black  Tartarian,  having  the  solid  flesh  of  the  former 
and  the  color  of  the  latter;  very  late." — John  Rock.  "I  am  of  the  opinion  that 
the  Black  Republican  and  Lincoln  came  down  from  the  seed  of  the  Black  Eagle, 
but  I  have  little  idea  of  what  variety  they  were  crossed  with." — Seth  Lewelling. 

Bing. — Originated  by  Seth  Lewelling,  from  seed  of  Black  Republican.  "Fruit 
large,  dark  brown  or  black,  very  fine,  late ;  a  good  shipping  variety." — Seth 
Lewelling.  Tree  vigorous,  and  foliage  heavy.  Fruit  ripens  so  that  trees  can  be 
cleaned  at  one  picking. 

Centennial. — A  seedling  of  Napoleon  Bigarreau,  raised  by  Mr.  Henry  Chap- 
man in  Napa  Valley,  and  fruited  by  him  for  the  first  time  in  1876.  Propagated 
and  introduced  by  Leonard  Coates,  then  of  Napa,  in  1885.  It  is  larger  than  its 
parent,  more  oblate  in  form,  and  beautifully  marbled  and  splashed  with  crimson 
on  a  pale  yellow  ground ;  exceptionally  sweet  and  of  remarkable  keeping  quality. 
Described  by  Committee  of  American  Pomological  Society  (1885)  as  follows: 
"Size  large,  slightly  oblate ;  amber,  with  dark  crimson  marbling ;  flesh,  firm, 
sweet,  and  rich;  quality  best;  condition  excellent  (after  crossing  continent  by 
mail),  showing  its  good  shipping  qualities."  The  Centennial  has  been  little 
planted  recently,  because  of  superiority  of  Royal  Ann. 

The  Oregon. — Seedling  of  Napoleon  Bigarreau,  by  H.  W.  Prettyman,  of 
East  Portland,  and  named  by  Oregon  State  Horticultural  Society  in  1888; 
described  as  larger  than  Napoleon;  firm;  dark  red;  "fit  to  eat  earlier  than 
Napoleon,  but  coming  to  full  maturity  somewhat  later."  Introduced  in  1888  by 
W.  S.  Failing,  Portland. 

Lambert. — Seedling  of  J.  H.  Lambert,  Milwaukee,  Oregon,  1887 ;  presented  to 
Oregon  State  Horticultural  Society;  right  to  propagate  sold  to  Oregon  Nursery 
Co.,  1896,  and  introduced  by  this  company;  very  large,  roundish,  heart-shaped; 
stem  long,  slender,  suture  medium  depth,  acid;  smooth,  glossy,  dark  purplish; 
red  flesh  dark  purplish  red,  firm,  flavor  rich,  quality  good.  Ripens  ten  days  to 
two  weeks  after  Black  Tartarian. 

Andrews. — Fruited  French  seedling  about  1896  by  C.  N.  Andrews,  Redlands. 
Grown  in  mountain  valley  near  Redlands.  Apparently  a  fine  shipping  variety 
locally  named  after  the  grower. 

Paul. — Found  by  E.  V.  D.  Paul,  of  Ukiah,  on  place  purchased  by  him  and 
previous  owner  could  not  account  for  its  presence.  Very  large,  black,  mottled 
with  dark  red;  late;  remarkable  shipping  endurance  demonstrated;  diploma  at 
Oregon  Cherry  Fair,  1907.  Propagated  and  introduced  by  Leonard  Coates  Co., 
Morgan  Hill,  California,  1908. 

Nonpareil. — Originated  at  Vaca  Orchard ;  a  fine,  black,  shipping  cherry,  owned 
by  Earl  Fruit  Company  at  Vacaville  and  not  distributed. 

Early  Burbank. — Originated  by  Luther  Burbank ;  a  seedling  of  Early  Purple 
Guigne  and  sold  in  1903  to  a  group  of  Vacaville  growers.  Very  early,  earlier 
than  its  parent  variety.  Large,  rich  deep  crimson,  resembling  Black  Tartarian 
in  quality.  Tree  medium  upright  grower,  large  leaves,  prolific. 


CHAPTER   XX 

THE  PEACH 

Until  the  great  prune  planting  passion  of  the  decade  ago  the 
peach  was  the  greatest  deciduous  fruit  of  California  judged  by  the 
total  number  of  trees  in  service.  When  the  bloom  impression  went 
forth  that  cured  prunes  could  be  put  up  in  sacks  more  cheaply  than 
wheat,  people  took  to  planting  prune  orchards  by  the  section  all 
through  the  wheat  districts  of  the  great  valley,  and  bloom  planters 
even  carried  the  trees  where  no  one  would  think  of  planting  wheat — 
cutting  up  shallow-clay  upland  sheep  pastures  and  even  yucca  sand 
wastes  into  prune-growing  colonies.  Under  such  planting  propositions 
it  is  little  wonder  our  nurseries  sold  prune  trees  for  twice  the  normal 
prices  and  still  could  not  fill  the  demand.  Figures  of  prune  trees  in 
orchards  rushed  far  beyond  the  peach  figures.  This  over-planting 
of  prunes  naturally  brought  loss  and  disappointment,  and  interest 
turned  again  to  peach  planting,  so  that  now  the  peach  has  secured 
notable  advance  beyond  the  prune,  as  shown  by  statistics  in  Chapter 
VI.  During  the  last  few  years  the  peach  has  had  the  call,  the  nurseries 
have  had  difficulty  in  keeping  up  with  the  planting  demand  for  certain 
varieties,  which  will  be  discussed  later,  and  the  peach  has  demonstrated 
its  right  to  attain  again  its  old  position  by  possession  of  a  greater 
acreage  than  is  given  to  any  other  deciduous  fruit. 

The  peach  was  the  first  fruit  to  ripen  on  the  improved  trees 
brought  here  by  the  early  American  settlers,  and  the  magnificence 
of  the  peach  was  consequently  the  key-note  of  the  refrain  which 
greeted  the  ears  of  the  world  in  which  the  California  gold  cry  was 
ringing  early  in  the  fifties.  In  fact,  the  gold  from  the  mine  and  the 
gold  from  the  tree  were  very  nearly  related.  In  old  Coloma,  where 
gold  was  discovered,  there  was  a  peach  tree  which  bore  four  hundred 
and  fifty  peaches  in  1854,  which  sold  for  $3.00  each,  or  $1,350  for  the 
crop  of  the  one  tree,  and  in  1855,  six  trees  bore  one  thousand  one 
hundred  peaches,  which  sold  for  $1.00  each.  Some  of  these  pioneer 
trees  are  said  to  be  still  living  and  bearing  fruit. 


LONGEVITY   OF   THE    PEACH    IN    CALIFORNIA 

There  are  many  other  facts  to  establish  the  claim  that  the  peach 
tree,  if  planted  in  a  suitable  soil  and  situation  and  cared  for  with 
any  devotion  and  skill,  is  not  a  short-lived  tree  in  California.  California 
is  too  young  to  mark  limits  of  duration,  but  there  are  instances 
in  the  earliest-settled  places  in  the  State,  where  peach  trees  above 
fifty  years  old  are  still  vigorous  and  productive.  Some  trees  have, 
in  fact,  gone  along  in  thrift  until  they  have  a  bark  below  which  looks 
like  that  of  a  forest  tree,  and  framework  of  main  branches  sound 
and  stalwart  throughout  because  they  have  never  been  allowed  to 
233 


234  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  :   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

sunburn  until  protected  by  their  own  roughness,  and  have  never  been 
pruned  with  an  axe,  and  never  lost  a  limb  no  had  a  wound  in  to 
which  decay  could  penetrate  and  descend  to  the  root.  When  the  peach 
has  a  fair  chance  in  its  aerial  parts  and  is  in  a  soil  which  favors  health 
of  the  roots,  it  shows  itself  to  be  very  long-lived  in  California.  When 
trees  break  to  pieces  and  show  decay  wounds,  they  are  in  bad  places, 
and  have  suffered  through  natural  stress  or  have  been  weakened  by 
cultural  errors. 

In  favorable  soils  the  peach  is  stronger  and  longer  lived  in  the 
root  than  in  the  top,  and  sometimes  triumphs  over  neglect  by  discarding 
old,  wind-broken,  sun-burned  and  bark-bound  branches,  and  forms  a 
new  head  of  its  own.  Such  renewal  is  sometimes  very  rapid.  In  the 
interior  valley  new  shoots  on  a  cut-back  Muir  tree  have  grown  twelve 
feet  in  one  season,  with  a  thickness  of  one  and  one-half  inches  at  the 
base.  Such  shoots  will  bear  the  following  summer  and  proper  selection 
should  be  made  from  them  to  shape  the  new  tree — all  others  being 
removed.  Cutting  back  for  a  new  head  kills  some  trees,  probably 
those  which  through  hardship  are  weak  in  the  root,  but  most  peach 
trees  take  to  it  kindly. 

It  is  through  this  disposition  to  renewal  of  good  wood  that  the 
intelligent  system  of  pruning  which  is  now  prevalent,  ministers  to 
the  longevity  as  well  as  the  profitability  of  the  tree,  aiding  it  to  con- 
stantly renew  its  youth  by  restraining  its  exuberance,  and  at  the  same 
time  furnishing  it  sound  new  wood  on  which  to  grow  its  fruit  foliage. 
But  while  these  are  facts,  there  is  some  difference  in  opinion  as  to  the 
point  at  which  an  old  tree  becomes  less  valuable  than  a  young  one. 
Along  the  Sacramento  River  some  count  about  a  dozen  good  crops  as 
the  limit,  and  thus  replace  the  trees  when  about  fifteen  years  of  age. 
This  is  a  point  which  may  vary  greatly,  according  to  local  conditions. 

Early  Productiveness. — Quite  as  important  as  the  longevity  of 
the  peach  tree  are  the  facts  of  its  rapid  growth  and  early  produc- 
tiveness. It  is  the  first  of  our  fruit  trees  to  attain  size  and  yield  a 
profitable  crop.  In  localities  best  suited  to  its  growth  it  will  mature 
some  fruit  'the  second  summer  in  the  orchard  if  the  small  shoots  are 
not  pruned  away  from  the  main  branches,  and  during  the  third  summer 
averages  of  forty  to  fifty  pounds  per  tree  have  been  secured  from 
considerable  acreages.  These  facts  are  stated  to  show  what  the  peach 
of  good  variety  may  do  in  a  good  situation  and  soil  and  with  the  best 
of  care.  Of  course  they  are  not  to  be  taken  as  average  results,  although 
greater  than  those  given  are  sometimes  attained.  For  example,  on  the 
rich,  alluvial  land  near  Visalia,  an  Admiral  Dewey  yearling  tree 
planted  in  March,  1904,  had  in  October,  1905,  attained  these  dimen- 
sions :  Near  the  ground  the  trunk  was  eleven  and  three-quarter  inches 
in  circumference,  branching  two  feet  from  the  ground  it  had  four  main 
branches,  each  seven  inches  in  circumference;  height  of  tree,  twelve 
feet;  spread  of  branches,  ten  feet.  It  grew  near  a  crack  in  a  cement 
ditch  and  so  had  all  the  moisture  it  could  use,  and  being  in  a  free, 
open  soil  was  not  impaired  by  standing  water. 


PEACH  REGIONS  OF  CALIFORNIA  235 

As  for  possible  productiveness  of  the  peach,  one  Susquehanna 
tree  in  Kern  county  yielded  twenty-seven  forty-five  pound  picking- 
boxes — twelve  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  in  one  crop — about  four  times 
as  much  as  good  trees  may  average. 

LOCALITIES    FOR   THE    PEACH 

The  peach  has  a  wide  range  in  California,  and  finds  many  districts 
suited  to  it  in  the  several  ways  in  which  the  trade  delights  it  it. 
As  compared  with  the  apricot,  the  peach  thrives  in  the  sheltered 
valleys  of  the  district  north  of  the  bay  and  west  of  the  Coast  Range, 
in  which  the  apricot  is  of  little  commercial  moment;  it  yields  those 
peerlessly  beautiful  "mountain  peaches"  from  one  to  two  thousand 
feet  higher  in  the  Sierra  foothills  than  the  apricot  can  be  trusted;  it 
goes  everywhere  in  the  lower  foothills  and  over  the  great  valleys  that 
the  apricot  will  go,  and  beyond  it  also,  because  it  is  less  restless  in 
the  spring  and  escapes  some  frosts  which  injure  apricots.  Counted 
from  trees  in  orchard  the  peach  is  more  than  three  times  as  great  as 
the  apricot. 

Nearly  every  county  in  California  reports  the  possession  of  peach 
trees.  Above  an  elevation  of  four  thousand  feet  on  the  sides  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  they  may  be  subject  to  winter  killing,  and  lower  still 
the  careful  choice  of  situation  has  to  be  made  to  avoid  frost  at  blooming 
time — the  peach  in  such  places  being  subjected  to  some  dangers 
which  beset  it  in  the  eastern  States.  Below  these  points,  however, 
lies  the  great  fruit  belt  of  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra,  where  the  peach 
is  the  chief  fruit  grown  and  its  excellence  is  proverbial.  Size,  beauty, 
richness,  delicacy  of  flavor  and  firmness,  which  endures  carriage  to 
the  most  distant  markets,  are  all  characteristics  of  the  foothill  peaches 
of  California. 

In  the  great  interior  valleys  of  the  State  wherever  proper  condition 
of  soil  and  water  supply  can  be  found,  the  peach  also  thrives,  the  tree 
making  a  wonderfully  quick  and  large  growth,  and  the  fruit  attaining 
great  size.  The  San  Joaquin  Valley  is  the  greatest  peach  district 
in  the  State. 

In  the  small  valleys  on  the  west  of  the  great  valley  and  on  the 
eastern  slopes  of  the  Coast  Range,  there  are  also  extensive  areas 
suited  to  the  peach,  and  sheltered  places  on  the  eastern  and  western 
edges  of  the  Sacramento  Valley  have  produced  the  earliest  fruit  for 
a  long  series  of  years.  Recently  the  contest  for  the  earliest  fruit 
of  these  districts,  with  the  foothill  district  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Sacramento  Valley  and  special  locations  in  the  upper  San  Joaquin 
Valley,  has  been  quite  close. 

In  the  coast  valleys,  opening  upon  San  Francisco  Bay  and  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  the  peach  is  also  a  leading  fruit.  Its  success  is  greatest, 
however,  where  good  shelter  is  had  from  direct  coast  influences.  Even 
where  open  to  these  influences,  good  peaches  can  be  grown  by  choosing 
the  smaller  range  of  varieties,  which  do  well  by  protecting  the  trees 
from  harsh  winds,  and  by  seeking  elevation  above  depressed  valleys, 
whose  frosts  are  frequent.  The  occurrence  of  curl-leaf  is  a  factor 


236  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

of  much  importance,  which  will  be  considered  presently.  In  the  coast 
counties  north  of  the  Russian  River  Valley  the  danger  to  the  peach 
from  unfavorable  atmospheric  conditions  increases  as  one  goes  north- 
ward, and  situations  must  be  chosen  with  greater  care.  And  yet  by 
such  exercise  of  care,  peaches  for  home  use  and  local  markets  can 
be  successfully  grown. 

South  of  San  Francisco  Bay  the  coast  influences  soften  as  you 
proceed  southward,  and  the  peach  draws  nearer  to  the  ocean,  choos- 
ing, however,  elevations  and  avoiding  broad,  wind-swept  areas  and 
narrow  defiles  where  drafts  and  fogs  are  frequent.  At  considerable 
elevations,  as  on  the  Santa  Cruz  Mountains,  some  varieties  of  peaches 
are  notably  excellent.  The  general  rule  holds  with  the  peach,  as 
with  other  fruits,  that  coast  influences  retard  ripening  and  the  season 
of  the  fruit  is  late. 

In  some  valleys  and  at  elevations  in  southern  California  the 
peach  is  largely  grown  and  high  excellence  attained  while  on  the 
mesas  and  plains  there  is  often  too  high  a  temperature  which  starts 
growth  out  of  season  and  follows  with  a  dormacy  and  die-back  when 
the  tree  ought  to  be  most  active.  It  has  recently  been  demonstrated 
that  varieties  like  Lukens'  Honey,  descended  from  the  Peen-to  or 
flat  peach  of  China,  resists  such  irregularities  better  than  the  common 
sorts  which  are  largely  of  Persian  origin. 


SOILS   AND    EXPOSURES    FOR   THE   PEACH 

Through  the  suitability  of  soils  for  the  peach  can .  be  somewhat 
extended  by  the  choice  of  stock  for  budding  upon,  as  will  be  considered 
presently,  its  range  of  soils  is  narrower  than  that  of  the  apricot. 
The  best  peach  soils  are  light,  deep,  sandy  loams,  rather  dry  than 
moist,  but  under  all  circumstances  well  drained.  It  will  thrive  on 
land  with  a  considerable  mixture  of  coarse  sand  or  gravel,  providing 
it  contains  also  needed  elements  of  fertility;  for  the  rapid  growth  and 
heavy  fruitage  of  the  peach  requires  abundant  nutrition.  Though 
it  accepts  coarse  materials  both  in  soil  and  subsoil,  it  relishes  fine 
sediment  and  perhaps  finds  no  more  congenial  location  than  in  the 
deep,  sandy  loam,  or  sedimentary  deposit  bordering  the  creek  beds 
of  our  warm  valleys,  and  will  send  its  roots  deep  to  secure  long  life 
and  abundant  fruitage.  Such  soils,  whether  along  existing  streams 
or  deposited  by  prehistoric  water  courses,  which  have  left  their  mark 
by  the  elevated  ridges  of  rich  sediment  above  the  prevailing  valley 
soils,  are  warm,  deep,  and  thoroughly  drained,  and  delight  the  peach. 
Peaches  are  grown  very  successfully  on  what  is  called  hardpan  in 
some  parts  of  Fresno  County,  providing  the  hardpan  is  blasted  as 
described  in  Chapter  XL  In  these  situations  the  hardpan  is  near  the 
surface  and  has  a  deep  free  soil  below  it  into  which  the  roots  can 
extend. 

At  elevations  on  the  hillsides  there  are  free  loams  which  result 
from  decomposition  of  the  underlying  rocks,  and  on  them  the  peach 
thrives,  both  where  the  soils  themselves  are  deep  and  where  the 


SOILS   SUITABLE   FOR   PEACH    GROWING  237 

underlying  rock  is  loose  and  open,  permeable  by  roots  and  affording 
escape  for  water.  Success  has  been  reported  even  when  holes  are 
partly  excavated  in  these  rotten  rocks  as  in  the  soft  sand  rock  on 
the  hills  east  of  Vaca  Valley,  or  in  the  broken  chalk  rock  in  what 
is  called  Blackburn  Gulch,  near  Santa  Cruz.  The  superior  warmth 
of  such  soils  is  supposed  to  minister  to  earlier  ripening  of  the  fruit, 
though  the  escape  from  cold  air  by  elevation  is  no  doubt  a  greater 
factor  to  the  end. 

The  influences  of  comparatively  slight  difference  in  elevation  is 
very  marked.  E.  R.  Thurber,  of  Pleasant  Valley,  Solano  County, 
had  for  many  years  a  plat  of  peach  trees  on  a  natural  terrace  about 
seventy-five  feet  higher  than  the  general  level  of  his  orchard.  On 
the  terrace  peaches  ripen  and  are  disposed  of  before  the  same 
varieties  ripen  in  the  orchard  below. 

As  in  the  valley  a  short  distance  to  water  is  to  be  avoided,  so 
on  the  hills  too  great  percolation  from  higher  levels  is  undesirable. 
Of  course,  natural  defects  of  this  kind  can  be  corrected  by  adequate 
under-drainage. 

Still,  though  such  be  the  general  soil  conditions  best  suited  to  the 
peach,  the  tree  can  be  well  grown  for  home  use  or  local  markets 
on  somewhat  heavier  soil,  providing  there. is  a  good  drainage,  but 
drainage  must  be  insisted  upon,  for  thousands  of  trees  have  perished 
because  planted  in  retentive  soils  without  drainage.  Alkaline  soils 
which  are  usually  rather  heavy  should,  however,  be  avoided  as  the 
peach,  when  grown  on  its  own  roots,  seems  to  be  of  all  fruits  most 
sensitive  to  alkali. 

As  to  exposures  for  the  peach  the  same  rules  hold  as  for  other 
fruits  which  are  liable  to  injury  when  in  bloom  or  young  foliage. 
Thus  low  places  where  cold  air  settles  should  be  avoided,  also  low 
gulches  through  which  cold  drafts  prevail.  In  frosty  situations  an 
incline  away  from  the  morning  sun  will  often  allow  the  trees  to  escape 
serious  injury. 

PROPAGATION   AND    PLANTING 

The  chapter  on  propagation  gives  the  general  method  of  growing 
and  budding  peach  seedlings.  In  selecting  pits,  preference  is  usually 
given  to  those  from  strong-grownig,  yellow  peaches,  at  least  for 
working  on  the  same  colored  fruits,  while  others  use  pits  of  the 
Morris  White,  others  the  Strawberry,  and  others  still  will  use  only 
pits  from  vigorous  seedling  trees.  In  this  State  the  peach  is  usually 
so  healthy  and  vigorous,  and  the  "yellows"  not  known,  and  less  care 
may  be  needed  in  selecting  pits ;  still  there  is  certainly  nothing  lost 
by  making  every  effort  for  a  good  stock. 

The  hard-shell  sweet  almond  has  long  been  used  as  a  stock  for 
the  peach.  It  is  held  that  it  gives  a  hardier,  stronger  root,  in  dry 
soils  especially. 

When  it  is  desired  to  grow  the  peach  on  moister  soil  than  suits 
its  own  roots,  the  St.  Julian  plum  may  be  used.  The  Myrobalan 


238  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

has  been  used  to  some  extent,  but  experience  generally  does  not  favor 
any  plum  stock  for  the  peach  and  our  largest  propagators  have 
abandoned  its  use. 

The  so-called  "peach-almond"  has  often  been  urged  as  a  stock  for 
the  peach  but  has  been  little  used,  probably  because  the  straight  peach 
and  straight  almond  are  so  satisfactory  and  available.  It  is  a  fruit 
having  the  pit  of  a  peach  but  the  pericarp  of  an  almond,  that  is  tough 
and  tasteless  and  disposed  to  split  like  an  almond  hull.  Early  in  the 
fifties  a  chance  hybrid  of  this  sort  appeared  in  the  nursery,  of  W.  B. 
West,  of  Stockton,  and  its  pits  were  used  for  nursery  seedlings  which, 
when  budded  to  the  peach,  produced  good  trees.  Trees  bearing  the 
peach-almond  are  found  here  and  there  over  the  State.  Mr.  Burbank 
has  produced  a  hybrid  of  the  Wager  peach  and  the  Languedoc  almond. 

Distance  in  Orchard. — Distance  observed  in  planting  peach 
orchards  differs  greatly,  according  to  the  views  of  different  growers. 
Regarding  the  peach  as  a  catch  crop  to  plant  between  apricot,  pear, 
cherry,  walnut,  fig  or  other  slower-growing,  larger  trees,  the  trees 
may  be  set  comparatively  close;  that  is,  with  the  latter  trees  at  thirty 
to  forty  feet,  and  alternate  rows  of  peach  planted  quincunx,  and  to  be 
removed  at  the  end  of  ten  to  fifteen  years.  If  the  peach  is  to  have  the 
ground  to  itself,  some  planters  plant  at  eighteen  feet  in  equilateral 
triangles,  or  twenty  to  twenty-four  feet  on  the  squares,  the  present 
tendency  of  the  peach,  as  with  other  trees,  being  to  give  more  room 
than  was  the  custom  a  few  years  ago. 

Age  of  Trees. — In  planting  peach  orchards  yearling  trees  are 
generally  preferred,  though  June  buds  are  freely  used  and  more  are 
planted  in  dormant  bud  than  of  any  other  kind  of  fruit  trees.  The 
reason  for  this  is  easily  found  in  the  disposition  of  the  peach  to  make 
a  tree  the  first  year  from  the  bud.  It  springs  almost  at  once  into  a 
full  outfit  of  laterals.  Some  growers  employ  this  disposition  to  form 
a  head  the  first  year  in  the  nursery.  When  the  bud  has  grown  out 
eighteen  inches,  pinch  it  off  at  the  top  and  force  out  laterals,  which 
make  long  growth  the  same  season.  When  planted  out  in  orchard  the 
following  winter,  cut  back  to  ten  or  twelve  inches.  In  this  any  one  can 
get  a  yearling  with'  the  equivalent  of  a  two-year-old  head  on  it.  The 
common  practice  is,  however,  to  let  the  growth  from  the  bud  proceed 
as  it  chooses,  and  when  the  yearling  is  set  in  orchard,  cut  back  to  a 
single  bud  the  laterals  which  are  desired  to  form  the  head  and  remov- 
ing others.  If  there  is  a  dormant  bud  on  the  stem  where  a  branch  is 
desired  and  it  is  obstinate  in  not  starting,  a  cross-cut  through  the 
bark  just  above  it  may  concentrate  pressure  and  force  it  out.  Proper 
starting  of  the  young  tree  is  promoted  by  cutting  away  cleanly  all 
laterals  which  have  grown  from  stem-buds.  In  such  cutting  back  the 
dormant  buds  at  the  base  of  such  a  lateral  should  be  preserved.  The 
development  of  form  from  a  yearling  branched  in  the  nursery  is  illus- 
trated in  chapter  on  pruning. 

Planting  Dormant  Buds. — The  chapter  on  planting  describes 
the  planting  of  yearling  trees.  The  lifting  of  dormant  buds  from  the 
home  nursery  and  planting  in  orchard  is  described  by  P.  W.  Butler,  of 
Placer  County,  as  follows : 


STARTING  DORMANT-BUD  PEACH   TREES  239 

Have  the  ground  prepared  and  stakes  placed  in  position  in  the  orchard  in 
early  February,  if  possible,  and  begin  the  planting  at  once,  while  the  trees  are 
in  dormant  bud.  Take  no  more  trees  from  the  nursery  than  can  be  planted  in 
half  a  day.  Plow  a  furrow  on  each  side  of  the  row,  six  inches  from  the  trees, 
turning  the  soil  from  them,  then  two  men  with  heavy  spades  or  shovels,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  tree,  can  readily  take  it  up  without  breaking  many  of  the  roots ; 
and  what  are  so  broken  should  be  smoothly  trimmed  with  a  sharp  knife.  Place 
the  trees  in  a  tub  of  water,  near  where  they  are  to  be  planted,  and  take  them 
from  it  only  a  few  at  a  time.  Put  them  in  a  basket  or  box  and  cover  with  wet 
sack,  that  they  may  be  kept  moist  until  placed  in  the  ground. 

On  planting,  place  the  bud  one  inch  below  the  level  of  the  ground,  but  do 
not  cover  it  until  after  it  has  grown  to  the  height  of  a  few  inches.  The  stock 
should  be  cut  off  at  the  bud  with  a  thin,  sharp  knife  (and  not  with  shears,  as  is 
often  done,  as  the  latter  method  will  sometimes  split  the  tree),  when  it  will  take 
in  moisture  and  not  heal  readily. 

Some  growers  do  not  cut  back  the  young  seedling  tree  until  growth 
has  started  out  well  on  the  dormant  bud,  girdling  the  bark  above  the 
bud  to  force  its  growth.  The  tender  shoot  is  protected  somewhat  by 
the  old  stem  to  which  it  can  be  tied.  The  removal  of  the  old  stem 
should  not  be  too  long  delayed,  for  the  wound  by  its  amputation  should 
heal  over  the  first  summer. 

Rather  more  care  is  needed  in  handling  dormant  buds  both  in 
planting  and  in  their  young  life  in  the  orchard.  Lookout  must  be  kept 
for  suckers  and  against  injury  in  cultivation.  Success  with  dormant 
buds  is  notable.  In  good  hands  they  commonly  outgrow  yearlings 
planted  at  the  same  time,  and  the  percentage  of  loss  from  failure  of 
the  bud  to  start  is  very  small.  Of  course,  every  bud  should  be  ex- 
amined before  planting,  to  see  that  it  has  a  healthy  color. 

In  the  selection  of  peach  trees  for  planting,  a  clean,  healthy  root 
only  should  be  taken.  During  recent  years  there  have  been  a  good 
many  young  roots  affected  with  knots  or  swellings  from  some  obscure 
cause.  Such  trees  should  be  burned.  If  planted,  the  knot  sometimes 
grows  to  an  enormous  size  and  little  or  no  top  growth  is  made. 


PRUNING  THE  PEACH 

As  has  already  been  stated,  the  peach  will  carry  a  top  of  great 
fruiting  longevity  if  the  grower  will  do  justice  to  the  tree  by  regular 
shortening  of  the  growth  and  forcing  out  new  wood,  upon  which  alone 
fruit  is  found.  Not  only  does  regular  pruning  do  this,  but  it  promotes 
longevity  and  vigor  in  the  framework  of  the  tree  upon  which  these 
bearing  shoots  come.  Left  unpruned,  the  peach  soon  becomes  bark- 
bound,  and  the  bark  itself  becomes  hardened  and  brittle.  Lower  shoots 
are  apt  to  dwindle,  and  the  tree  becomes  an  umbrella  of  foliage  and 
fruit  held  aloft  by  bare  branches  bark-burned  by  the  sun,  invaded  by 
borers,  exuding  gum,  covered  with  moss  and  lichens — a  picture  of 
distress  and  unprofitability  because  its  owner  does  not  give  the  tree  a 
chance  to  re-invigorate  itself  with  large  fresh  leaves  from  the  new 
wood  which  alone  can  carry  them. 

Vase-Form  with  Continuous  Leaders. — The  common  vase  form 
of  the  peach  tree  is  amply  described  in  Chapter  XII,  where  it  is  used 


240  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

to  illustrate  the  development  of  the  prevailing  California  method  of 
shaping  fruit  trees.  Recently  there  has  appeared  a  different  form 
which,  though  not  new,  is  being  given  local  names.  It  consists  in  build- 
ing the  tree  with  continuous  ribs  or  leaders,  a  variation  in  the  vase-form 
which  has  been  used  in  Europe  for  centuries,  perhaps.  The  following 
very  clear  account  of  it  is  prepared  by  Mr.  C.  F.  Collins,  horticultural 
commissioner  of  Tulare  County : 

Another  method  of  vase  form,  known  locally  as  the  Sims  method,  has  been 
practiced  for  many  years  by  William  Sims,  of  Farmerville,  and  is  now  practiced 
by  the  California  Fruit  Canners'  Association  in  its  large  orchard  near  there, 
by  Hunt  Bros,  in  their  orchards  near  Exeter,  and  by  many  individual  growers 
in  that  vicinity.  The  trees  are  cut  back  to  18  inches  at  planting,  and  at  the 
first  winter's  pruning  four  or  five  of  the  most  upright-growing  branches  are  left 
to  form  the  head.  These  are  cut  to  a  uniform  height  and  as  great  a  length 
as  the  season's  growth  will  allow.  On  a  vigorous  tree  this  will  be  about  6  feet. 
All  laterals  are  removed  from  these. 

The  second  winter  retain  one  strong  upright  branch  emerging  from  near  the 
end  of  each  branch  of  previous  season's  growth,  and  remove  all  laterals  from 
the  tree  larger  than  a  lead  pencil.  Toy  these  main  branches  at  a  uniform 
height  of  10  or  12  feet  from  the  ground,  according  to  the  growth  made.  Some- 
times a  lateral  is  allowed  to  grow  from  one  of  these  main  limbs  to  fill  in  an 
open  space  in  the  outline  of  the  tree.  At  the  end  of  the  second  winter's 
pruning,  we  have  a  low-headed  tree  with  four  or  five  main  branches  10  or  12 
feet  long,  and  so  upright  that  the  tree  is  only  6  or  7  feet  across  the  top.  Enough 
small  laterals  are  left  for  abundant  shade.  After  this  each  season  remove  all 
large  laterals,  leaving  only  the  small  fruiting  wood,  and  cut  this  back  to  the 
required  amount. 

Some  of  the  claims  made  for  this  system  are  that  no  propping  is  required 
to  support  the  limbs,  and  as  these  are  so  nearly  perpendicular  in  growth  the 
orchard  is  more  easily  worked  close  to  the  trees  and  the  trees  are  more  easily 
kept  down  to  a  proper  height  than  when  pruned  by  the  ordinary  method.  This 
system  certainly  works  admirably  in  the  sections  where  it  is  used,  and  in  my 
opinion,  on  true  peach  soil,  where  the  trees  are  vigorous  and  grow  large, 
strong  limbs,  it  is  far  superior  to  the  old  vase  form,  but  it  is  a  question  if  it  would 
prove  as  satisfactory  in  many  of  our  orchards  where  the  trees  make  a  more 
feeble  growth,  and  especially  with  a  tree  of  as  slender  growth  as  the  Muir.  Of 
course,  with  a  less  vigorous  tree  it  might  require  three  or  even  four  years  to 
get  the  tree  to  a  proper  height  by  this  method. 

Special  Points  on  Peach  Pruning. — Whatever  plan  for  low, 
vase-form  be  adopted,  there  are  points  which  should  always  be  borne 
in  mind  as  deductions  from  the  experience  of  successful  peach  growers 
in  all  parts  of  the  State.  A  few  instances  will  be  given : 

"The  peach,  fruiting  only  on  wood  of  the  previous  year's  growth,  bears  fruit 
farther  away  from  the  body  of  the  tree  each  year,  and  the  small  shoots  of  from 
one-eighth  to  three  sixteenths  in  diameter  begin  to  decline  when  the  fruit  is 
removed.  To  have  healthy  growth,  all  of  these  small  branches  must  be  removed 
the  first  winter  following  their  fruiting,  when  there  is  a  greater  tendency  to 
form  small  new  growths,  which  may  fruit  the  following  season.  In  the  peach, 
it  will  seldom  be  found  necessary  to  remove  any  interior  branches,  except  suck- 
ers, until  they  have  produced  a  crop,  when  they  will  begin  to  decline  and  should 
be  removed. 

"I  would  certainly  not  cut  peach  trees  back  less  than  one-half  of  the  new 
growth  in  the  winter  pruning,  and  our  trees  are  getting  too  large  for  their  age 
even  with  that  amount  of  pruning.  This  has  suggested,  in  other  localities,  sum- 
mer pruning  or  shortening  in,  with  success  in  some  places.  So  far  my  own  expe- 
rience is  favorable.  It  will  be  noticed  on  trees  kept  growing  rapidly  that  the 
fruit  buds  are  near  the  ends  of  the  shoots,  and  it  seems  to  take  away  too  many 


PRUNING  BEARING  PEACH  TREES  241 

of  these  buds  to  cut  back  one-half  in  the  winter  pruning,  but  by  cutting  back 
about  one-half  the  new  growth  in  August,  fruit  buds  are  developed  lower  down, 
and  where  they  would  not  be  developed  without  the  summer  pruning." — 
H.  Culbertson,  El  Cajon,  San  Diego  County. 

"Prune  the  peach  every  year,  cutting  back  and  thinning  out  the  center,  using 
great  care  not  to  cut  out  too  many  of  the  little  fruit  shoots  of  new  wood  growing 
on  the  main  branches,  but  removing  the  slender  branches  of  the  old  wood, 
leaving  as  many  branches  of  the  new  growth  as  the  tree  will  support.  In  this 
case  judgment  must  be  used  as  to  what  the  tree  will  support.  The  soil  may  be 
wet  or  dry,  rich1  or  poor,  the  grower  must  be  the  judge.  To  grow  small  fruit, 
prune  lightly;  to  grow  large  fruit,  prune  with  care  and  judgment.  To  get  this 
judgment  you  must  have  some  practical  experience.  I  prefer  doing  the  work 
when  the  sap  begins  moving  in  the)  spring  of  the  year.  All  cuts  heal  over  better 
then  and  the  pruner  can  see  how  the  buds  are  setting  and  use  his  own  judgment 
as  to  how  much  wood  he  wants  cut  out." — R.  C.  Kells,  Yuba  City,  Suiter  County. 

"Cutting  back  the  peach  must  be  more  severe,  as  the  growth  of  the  new  wood 
diminishes.  Not  more  than  five  or  six  fruit  buds  should  be  left  on  a  shoot, 
and  if  the  fruit  all  sets,  it  must  be  also  thinned.  The  trees  should  be  trained^ 
low  and  their  vigor  encouraged  by  permitting  a  reasonable  amount  of  young" 
shoots  to  grow  around  the  lower  part  of  the  main  limbs.  When  this  method 
is  continued  systematically  every  season,  the  trees  will  bear  large  crops  of  fruit, 
of  good  quality,  for  many  years.  When  they  are  allowed  to  overbear  for  one 
or  two  seasons'  the  fruit  will  decrease  in  size,  and  soon  become  almost  worth- 
less ;  the  trees  will  be  enfeebled,  and  in  consequence  very  liable  to  be  attacked 
by  disease.  The  only  thing  to  be  done  in  this  case  is  to  cut  off  the  whole  top 
of  the  tree,  allowing  it  to  form  a  new  head.  I  have  seen  old  peach  orchards 
thus  renovated,  and  the  results  are  often  very  flattering,  but  it  is  far  better  not 
to  allow  them  to  get  into  a  condition  where  this  desperate  remedy  is  necessary." 
— Leonard  Coates,  Morganhill. 

Cutting  Back  the  Peach  Is  not  Shearing. — Some  undertake  the 
annual  pruning  of  the  peach  by  a  shearing  process,  treating  a  fruit 
tree  as  one  would  a  hedge — cutting  everything  to  a  line.  There  has 
been  a  good  deal  of  this  done  in  California,  but  it  is  wrong  neverthe- 
less. Shortening  in  the  new  growth  of  the  peach  each  year  is  a  proper 
practice.  It  is  the  first  step  toward  preventing  over-bearing  of  small, 
unmarketable  fruit  and  saving  the  tree  from  profitless  and  injurious 
effort.  Thinning  the  shoots  by  removing  all  but  one  when  two  or 
three  start  from  the  same  point  is  also  working  toward  large  fruit  and 
regular  bearing  in  the  tree.  This  shortening  and  thinning  of  the  new 
wood  must  also  be  followed  by  thinning  of  the  young  fruit  just  after 
the  natural  drop  and  it  is  seen  that  the  tree  carries  too  many.  Proper 
pruning  can  not  be  done  by  shearing  because  it  is  apt  to  shorten  the 
strong  shoots  too  much  and  the  weak  shoots  too  little.  Each  shoot 
must  be  cut  by  itself  according  to  its  growth  and  its  ability  to  carry 
more  or  less  fruit.  Shearing,  too,  does  not  thin  out  the  shoots  but  con- 
tinually multiplies  them  until  the  tree  is  full  of  brush  as  a  hedge. 


THINNING  PEACHES 

Thinning  out  fruit  on  the  peach  tree  is  not  only  the  secret  of  ob- 
taining good,  marketable  fruit,  but  joins  hands  with  pruning  in  pre- 
serving the  health  and  future  production  of  the  tree.  The  importance 
of  thinning  has  been  urged  in  a  previous  chapter,  but  the  following  is  a 
very  strong  statement,  by  Mr.  Culbertson : 


242  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

In  my  own  experience  there  is  no  single  operation  in  connection  with  fruit 
growing  of  more  importance  than  thinning.  The  past  season,  in  order  to  test 
the  difference  in  expense  of  preparing  large  and  small  peaches  for  drying,  I 
timed  the  cutting,  and  found  it  took  double  the  time;  hence,  double  the  expense, 
which  meant  a  difference  of  about  $15  per  ton  of  dried  fruit.  Add  to  this  a 
difference  of  two  cents  per  pound  in  price  makes  $55  per  ton.  Suppose  an 
orchard  under  good  treatment  produces  a  ton  of  peaches  to  the  acre,  then  $55 
would  represent  the  difference  in  profits.  Unthinned  or  small  fruit  is  certainly 
undesirable. 

As  to  how  much  thinning  should  be  done  there  are  diverse  opinions.  Some 
take  off  one-half,  others  three-fourths.  Some  growers  thin  to  meet  a  certain 
ideal,  but  find  it  difficult  to  explain  in  words.  The  common  rule  of  leaving  a 
specimen  of  fruit  every  four  or  six  inches  is  a  safe  rule;  that  means  many  must 
come  off.  Different  conditions  of  soils,  climates,  and  irrigation  vary  the  amount 
to  thin  out,  more  or  less.  More  may  be  left  where  the  tree  is  on  land  giving  a 
strong,  vigorous  growth. 

In  thinning  peaches  I  have  been  practicing  a  method  that  gives  good  results 
and  is  easily  learned.  The  peach  bears  on  three  sizes  of  branches,  that  are  one- 
eighth,  three-sixteenths,  and  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  first  has  two 
peaches,  the  second  three,  and  the  third  four;  this,  of  course,  after  there  has 
been  a  judicious  course  of  pruning  and  the  trees  under  irrigation;  trees  on  dry 
land  should  have  only  one-half  as  many  left.  To  reach  this  result  often  a  dozen 
may  have  to  come  off,  allowing  only  two  to  remain.  The  more  there  are  the 
greater  the  necessity  for  thinning. 

The  time  for  thinning  peaches  is  as  soon  as  one  can  be  sure  which  are  likely 
to  remain  on  the  tree  and  which  will  drop  off  of  their  own  accord. 


IRRIGATION  OF  THE  PEACH 

As  the  peach  is  the  greatest  deciduous  fruit  of  the  interior  valleys 
and  foothills,  it  is  also  the  deciduous  fruit  which  is  chiefly  grown  with 
irrigation.  Most  of  the  specific  conclusions  set  forth  in  Chapter  XV 
are  based  upon  experience  with  the  peach  and  the  reader  is  advised  to 
consider  them  from  that  point  of  view.  One  of  the  most  important 
points  of  success  in  irrigating  the  peach  is  to  use  enough  water  earlier 
in  its  growth  so  that  application  need  not  be  made  within  about  three 
weeks  of  ripening.  Enough  water  before  that  will  usually  insure  size 
on  properly  thinned  trees  and  the  withholding  of  water  near  ripening 
will  secure  good  quality.  After  the  crop  is  gathered,  irrigation  can  be 
resumed  to  continue  the  late  summer  growth  for  next  year's  fruit  buds 
and  to  save  the  tree  from  injury  during  the  long  autumn  drouth.  Very 
great  disappointment  in  thrift  and  bearing  of  peaches  has  resulted  from 
lack  of  irrigation  in  the  early  autumn  in  the  interior  valley.  Even  in 
places  where  the  trees  make  a  good  crop  by  rainfall  or  underflow,  there 
may  be  great  injury  to  the  tree  by  inadequate  soil  moisture  during  the 
remainder  of  the  growing  season. 


WORKING  OVER  PEACH  TREES 

The  fashion  in  peaches  changes  from  time  to  time  according  to  the 
demands  of  the  canners  or  the  market  for  dried  fruit.  The  grower 
often  finds  varieties  which  he  first  selected,  less  healthy,  less  pro- 


WORKING-OVER   OLD   PEACH    TREES  243 

ductive,  or,  for  other  reason,  less  desirable  than  others.  There  is, 
therefore,  often  occasion  for  working  over  trees.  Budding  if  often 
resorted  to,  buds  being  successfully  set  in  quite  old  wood,  providing 
buds  from  well-matured  wood  are  taken.  Wood  buds  from  young 
trees  unaccompanied  by  fruit  are  best,  but  because  of  greater  certainty 
of  securing  the  variety  desired,  it  is  common  to  take  wood  and  fruit 
buds  together  from  bearing  trees.  A  larger  cut  of  bud  and  adjacent 
bark  is  taken  when  working  in  old  bark  than  for  use  on  seedlings. 
When  a  branch  is  budded,  it  is  sometimes  broken  at  a  distance  beyond 
the  bud  and  allowed  to  hang,  the  idea  being  to  furnish  the  bud  some 
but  not  too  much  sap.  Some  growers  thus  bud  and  break  part  of  the 
branches,  allowing  others  to  remain  unworked,  to  maintain  the  growing 
processes  of  the  tree.  These  branches  and  those  in  which  buds  have 
not  taken,  are  cut  off  and  grafter  the  following  spring.  The  almond 
is  successfully  grafted  over  with  the  peach,  and  this  course  has  been 
followed  with  thousands  of  unproductive  almonds. 

Grafting  the  Peach. — Grafting  the  peach  by  the  ordinary  top- 
grafting  with  a  cleft  graft  seldom  succeeds.  A  side  graft  with 
saw  and  knife  is  better.  It  is  described  by  J.  W.  Mills,  formerly  of 
the  University  Branch  Experiment  Stations,  in  southern  California,  as 
follows : 

Saw  grafting  is  rapidly  taking  the  place  of  cleft  grafting,  for  it  does  away 
with  all  difficulties  arising  from  splitting,  and  there  is  no  cavity  left  in  the  heart 
of  the  limb  or  tree.  The  process  is  to  saw  off  the  limb  at  the  desired  place  as  in 
cleft  grafting,  then  saw  across  the  corner  and  down  the  side  at  an  angle  of  about 
45  degrees  and  trim  out  with  a  sharp  knife.  Place  the  knife  blade  a  little  to 
one  side  of  the  saw  cut,  a  little  farther  from  the  edge  at  the  top  than  at  the 
bottom,  and  by  pressing  on  the  knife  the  whole  sides  of  the  crevice  will  be 
trimmed  smoothly  at  one  stroke;  this  operation  repeated  on  the  other  side  of 
the  saw  cut  will  make  a  neat  notch  in  the  end  of  a  solid  limb.  By  cutting  a 
little  deeper  from  the  saw  cut  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  and  if  the  amateur 
does  not  trim  his  scion  at  the  right  angle,  he  can  insert  it  gently  in  the  crevice  or 
notch  and  see  just  where  to  trim.  If  he  is  so  slow  that  the  fresh  cut  shows 
signs  of  discoloration,  he  can  make  a  fresh  surface  by  placing  his  knife  parallel 
to  the  edges  and  shaving  off  a  thin  slice.  He  still  retains  the  same  angle,  but  the 
scion  will  set  a  little  deeper,  which  is  no  objection.  By  cutting  a  thin  layer  off 
the  top  of  the  stump  next  to  the  notch  will  show  exactly  where  the  inside  layer 
of  bark  is.  The  inside  of  the  scion  must  be  even  with  the  inside  layer  of  the 
bark  of  the  stump  or  limb  that  is  being  grafted.  If  the  scion  is  inclined  slightly 
out  or  in  at  the  top,  it  will  make  a  correct  union  at  some  point  and  be  sure  to 
grow.  If  the  inclination  is  very  slight  the  union  will  extend  over  considerable 
length,  and  will  make  a  much  better  start  than  if  the  union  is  at  only  one  point, 
owing  to  the  enlarged  surface  through  which  the  sap  is  transmitted.  One  of 
the  most  important  points  in  grafting  is  to  have  good  wax  and  go  over  the  grafts 
a  few  days  after  they  are  put  in  and  rewax  them. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  PEACH 

Curl-Leaf. — The  most  prevalent  trouble  with  the  peach  tree  in 
California  is  the  curl-leaf.  It  was  noticed  from  the  first  planting  of 
peach  trees  by  Americans,  nearly  sixty  years  ago,  and  free  conjecture 
as  to  its  cause  was  indulged  in  until  it  was  shown  to  be  a  specific  fungus, 


244  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

and  its  prevention  by  washes  of  fungicidal  character  demonstrated. 
The  treatment  will  be  described  in  the  chapter  on  tree  diseases.  The 
facts  of  its  occurrence  may  be  stated  as  follows : 

Curl-leaf  is  much  more  prevalent  in  some  sections  than  others,  and 
in  one  place  than  another  in  the  same  section,  and  some  sections  are 
practically  free  from  it.  Some  varieties  are  much  more  subject  to 
curl-leaf  than  others ;  generally  speaking,  some  curl  nearly  everywhere, 
others  curl  in  one  place  and  not  in  another,  others  are  practically  free 
from  curl  in  all  situations. 

Curl-leaf  occurs  in  various  degrees.  Mild  cases  do  not  seem  to 
injure  either  tree  or  fruit;  severe  cases  destroy  the  fruit  and  sometimes 
the  tree  itself.  The  disease  is  almost  always  at  its  height  when  the 
young  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  small  peas.  If  the  curl  is  "bad,"  the 
fruit  will  fall  to  the  ground,  there  not  being  healthy  leaves  enough  to 
afford  the  required  support.  If,  however,  the  curl  is  moderate  and 
partial,  only  a  part  and  sometimes  none  of  the  fruit  will  be  lost.  The 
disease,  as  is  well  known,  is  of  brief  duration,  say  twelve  to  twenty 
days,  after  which  the  trees  resume  a  healthy  appearance  in  every 
respect,  and  if  the  fruit  has  been  able  to  survice  the  ordeal,  it  also 
appears  to  grow  and  become  as  perfect  as  if  no  check  had  been  given 
to  its  growth.  But  it  is  better  to  save  the  tree  the  burden  of  a  new 
foliage  growth. 

Mildew. — This  disease,  which  occurs  in  the  form  of  whitish 
felted  patches  on  leaf  and  twig  early  in  the  spring,  and  finally  affects 
the  fruit,  has  long  been  troublesome  in  this  State,  and  occurs  on  certain 
susceptible  varieties  in  many  localities  from  the  coast  to  the  Sierra 
foothills.  Observation  in  this  State  has  fully  affirmed  the  statement  of 
Downing,  that  the  serrate,  glandless-leaved  varieties  are  liable,  and 
those  with  good  glands  on  the  leaf  stems  are  free. 

The  conclusion  would  be  that  where  mildew  prevails,  varieties  with 
serrate,  glandless  leaves  should  be  avoided.  But  it  has  been  found  that 
some  glandless-leaved  varieties,  although  subject  to  mildew,  resist 
curl-leaf.  Therefore  it  may  be  worth  while  to  combat  the  mildew. 
This  has  been  done  effectually  by  treatment  which  will  be  described  in 
a  later  chapter. 

As  with  curl-leaf,  mildew  is  prevalent  some  years  and  slight  in 
others. 

The  most  serious  disease  which  has  thus  far  stricken  the  peach  in 
California  is  locally  known  as  the  "peach  blight,"  the  work  of  a  shot- 
hole  fungus  (coryneum).  This  also  has  been  satisfactorily  checked  by 
spraying,  as  will  be  described  in  the  Chapter  on  Diseases  of  Trees  and 
Vines. 

A  common  trouble  of  the  peach  known  as  "split-pit,"  has  recently 
been  studied  by  the  California  Experiment  Station  and  the  tentative 
conclusion  has  been  reached  that  split-pits  are  physiological  phenomena 
and  not  caused  by  disease  germs.  Whether  this  abnormal  growth  is 
due  to  weakness  of  variety  or  to  cultural  conditions  is  not  determined. 
It  is  true  that  varieties  differ  in  amount  of  splitting,  and  selection  is 
being  made  to  some  extent  on  that  basis. 


TABULATED    STATEMENTS  245 

Peach  Varieties  Approved  by  California  Growers. 


Upper 

Central 

Interior 

Mountain 

California 

VARIETIES.                               coast 

coast 

valley  and 

valley 

Southern 

valleys. 

valleys. 

foothill. 

region. 

Coast. 

Alexander  * 

* 

** 

* 

* 

Amsden  

* 

* 

Albright    

.  .  . 

* 

Bergen    

.  .  . 

.  .  . 

* 

Bilyeu    

* 

Briggs'  May  * 

* 

* 

* 

* 

California  Cling  

* 

** 

... 

Decker    

* 

Early  Crawford    ** 

** 

** 

** 

**  — 

Early   York    

* 

* 

* 

Elberta    ** 

** 

** 

* 

**  - 

Foster  

** 

*# 

* 

**_^ 

George  Fourth   

* 

George's  Late  Cling   

* 

* 

* 

Gen.  Bidwell   

* 

* 

Globe    * 

* 

* 

Golden  Cling  (Sellers)  

* 

* 

* 

Kale's  Early  * 

** 

** 

* 

*     *• 

Heath  Cling  

* 

** 

* 

Henrietta   (Levy's)    

* 

** 

* 

Honest  Abe   

* 

' 

Honey  (Lukens')    

* 

* 

Imperial    * 

* 

* 

Indian  Blood  

* 

* 

Jones's  Large  Early   

.  .  . 

* 

La  Grange   

* 

Late  Crawford    * 

** 

** 

* 

**  — 

Lemon  Cling   * 

* 

* 

** 

Lovell  

** 

** 

* 

**   — 

May  Flower  * 

* 

* 

McDevitt   Cling    * 

* 

* 

McClish  Cling  * 

* 

McKevitt    Cling    

* 

Mary's  Choice   

* 

Morris's  White  

* 

* 

* 

Muir  * 

** 

** 

* 

**  — 

Newhall  

* 

* 

* 

Nicholl's  Cling   * 

* 

* 

* 

Oldmixon  Free  

* 

Orange   Cling    * 

** 

** 

* 

*# 

Peen-to    

** 

Persian    Cling    

* 

Phillips's  Cling   * 

** 

** 

* 

**  — 

Piquet's  Late   

* 

* 

* 

Runyon's  Orange  Cling....         * 

* 

* 

* 

* 

Salway   * 

** 

** 

**  *. 

Smock    

* 

Snow    

* 

* 

St.  John  

* 

** 

* 

Strawberry   

* 

* 

* 

Stump     

* 

* 

** 

Susquehanna    

*     . 

** 

* 

Triumph    

* 

** 

Tuskena  (Tuscan)  * 

** 

** 

* 

**  — 

Wheatland  

* 

* 

Wylie  Cling   * 

Yellow  Tuscany   

* 

... 

... 

** 

indicates  that  the  variety  is  approved  in  the  region  designated. 
*Most  highly  commended. 


246 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  :  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  PEACH 


Nearly  all  varieties  of  the  peach  have  been  tried  in  California,  and, 
as  with  other  fruits,  it  has  been  found  that  varieties  must  be  chosen 
with  reference  to  their  success  in  special  locations.  Choice  also  has 
to  be  made  according  to  the  purpose  of  the  grower,  whether  for  early 
marketing,  for  sale  to  canners,  for  drying,  or  distant  shipment  or  for 
late  marketing.  As  with  apples,  there  is  little  use  of  planting  early 
varieties  (unless  it  be  for  home  or  local  use)  except  in  very  early 
regions.  An  early  peach  from  a  late  region  is  killed  by  competition 
with  better  middle  season  sorts  from  the  earlier  regions. 

Dates  of  Ripening  of  Leading  Varieties. — The  relative  ripening 
of  a  large  number  of  peach  varieties,  as  noted  at  the  University  Experi- 
ment Station,  at  Pomona,  will  be  useful  to  planters  in  determining 
proper  succession  of  varieties,  although  of  course  the  exact  dates  will 
not  widely  apply. 


VARIETY. 

First  Flower. 

Full  Flower. 

Ripe. 

Briggs'  Red  May  

March 

4 

March 

24 

June 

16 

Amsden's  June  

March 

8 

March 

25 

June 

17 

Alexander    

March 

17 

March 

31 

June 

17 

Large  Early  York  

March 

4 

March 

18 

July 

15 

Yellow  St.  John  

March 

4 

March 

12 

July 

17 

Crawford's  Early   

March 

2 

March 

15 

July 

21 

Foster    

.1  March 

4 

March 

15 

July 

21 

Oldmixon  Free   

March 

7 

March 

18 

July 

25 

Morris  White    

March 

4 

March 

15 

Aug. 

3 

Muir    

March 

8 

March 

23 

Aug. 

5 

Susquehanna  

March 

4 

March 

14 

Aug. 

5 

Crawford's  Late   

March 

2 

March 

14 

Aug. 

8 

Newhall    

March 

4 

March 

14 

Aug. 

8 

Rtmvon's  Orange  Cling  

March 

2 

March 

14 

Aug. 

8 

California  Cling   

March 

2 

March 

16 

Aug. 

12 

Stump  the  World  

,  March 

2 

March 

16 

Aug. 

12 

Lovell   

Feb. 

28 

March 

9 

Aug. 

13 

Nichols'  Orange  Cling  

March 

4 

March 

14 

Aug. 

14 

Seller's  Cling  

March 

2 

March 

14 

Aug. 

14 

McDevitt's  Cling  

March 

2 

March 

18 

Aug. 

16 

McKevitt's   Cling    

March 

2 

March 

19 

Aug. 

19 

Wilkin's  Cling  

March 

3 

March 

14 

Aug. 

20 

Indian  Blood   

March 

5 

March 

25 

Aug. 

20 

Yellow  Tuscany  Cling   

March 

5 

March 

19 

Aug. 

21 

Lemon  Cling   

March 

14 

April 

1 

Aug. 

21 

Smock's  Late  Free  

March 

4 

March 

18 

Aug. 

28 

Picquet's  Late   

March 

5 

March 

18 

Sept. 

1 

Stalev's  California   

March 

2 

March 

15 

Sept. 

6 

Henrietta    (Lew's)    

March 

6 

March 

15 

Sept. 

15 

Heath's   Cling    

March 

7 

March 

14 

Sept. 

15 

Salwav   

March 

7 

March 

9 

Sept. 

18 

In  an  early  region  one  can  plant  early,  middle,  and  late  varieties 
to  advantage,  and  thus  secure  a  very  long-fruiting  season.  The  peach 
season  in  interior  districts  begins  at  the  first  of  June  with  the  Alexan- 
der, and  continues  to  the  end  of  Nevember  with  local  seedlings — giving 
six  months  of  peaches.  Of  course,  the  very  early  and  very  late  sorts 
are  only  of  use  for  marketing  as  table  fruit.  The  most  important  series 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  POPULAR  PEACHES  247 

is  a  fine  succession  of  mid-season  peaches  suitable  either  for  canning, 
drying,  or  distant  shipment.  Such  a  selection  can  be  made  from  the 
tables  and  descriptions  which  will  be  given  later. 

Color  is  a  most  important  item  in  the  peach.  While  canners  and 
Eastern  shippers  use  the  beautiful  white  peaches  to  advantage,  the 
fashion  for  canning  and  drying  is  now  strong  in  support  of  the  yellow- 
fleshed  clingstone  varieties.  The  yellow  freestone  peaches  are  also  in 
greatest  demand.  The  color  about  the  pit  is  also  an  important  point. 
Canners  demand  a  peach,  whether  white  or  yellow,  which  is  almost 
free  from  color  at  the  pit,  because  the  extraction  of  the  red  color  dyes 
the  juice;  in  drying,  the  demand  just  now  is  for  a  yellow  peach  with  a 
red  center,  because  the  colors  give  the  dried  fruit  a  more  attractive 
appearance.  Of  course  there  is  a  market  for  dried  white  peaches  but 
the  preference  is  for  the  yellow. 


PEACHES  APPROVED  IN  CALIFORNIA 

The  following  are  the  peaches  chiefly  grown  in  California,  arranged 
approximately  in  the  order  of  ripening: 

Briggs'  Red  May  (California). — Originated  as  a  chance  seedling  in  nursery 
row,  on  the  farm  of  John  G.  Briggs,  on  the  Feather  River,  about  one  mile  from 
Yuba  City,  about  1870.  It  was  found  to  be  about  ten  days  earlier  than  the  Early 
Tillotson,  which  was  then  the  stand-by  for  an  early  peach.  Fruit  medium  to 
large,  round;  white  skin,  with  rich,  red  cheek;  partially  free,  a  standard  errly 
variety;  subject  to  mildew. 

Jones'  Large  Early  (New  York). — Large,  roundish,  flattened,  white  with 
deep  crimson. 

Alexander  (Illinois). — Most  widely  grown  as  best  early  variety.  Fruit 
medium  to  large;  greenish  white,  nearly  covered  with  deep  red;  flesh  firm,  juicy, 
and  sweet;  bears  transportation  well;  pit  is  partly  free. 

Triumph  (Georgia). — Medium  sized,  early,  yellow,  partial  cling;  very  good. 

Amsden  (Missouri). — Resembles  preceding,  but  averages  smaller;  claimed  by 
some  to  be  slightly  earlier;  rather  less  liable  to  curl-leaf. 

Honey  (Lukens). — Medium,  oblong  pointed,  white  mottled  carmine;  very 
sweet;  related  to  Peen-to. 

Peen-to. — Flat  peach  or  saucer  peach  of  China;  good  in  Southern  California. 

Early  Imperial  (California).— Originated  by  W.  W.  Smith,  Vacaville,  and 
planted  to  secure  a  yellow  freestone  earlier  or  larger  than  St.  John.  Most 
growers  find  it  no  improvement  on  St.  John. 

Yellow  St.  John  (New  Orleans). — Earliest  yellow  peach;  averages  smaller 
than  Yellow  Crawford,  but  classed  as  large;  roundish,  orange  yellow  with  deep 
red  «heek;  juicy,  sweet  and  high  flavored;  freestone. 

Hole's  Early  (Ohio). — Medium  to  large,  nearly  round;  skin  greenish,  mostly 
covered  and  mottled  with  red  when  ripe;  flesh  white,  melting,  juicy,  rich  and 
sweet ;  fair  for  local  market  and  shipping ;  widely  grown ;  freestone. 

Strawberry  (New  Jersey). — Medium  size,  oval;  stem  cavity  deeply  sunk; 
suture  extending  half  way  round;  skin  almost  wholly  marbled  with  deep  red; 
flesh  whitish,  juicy,  rich  and  delicate;  tree  healthy. 

Bergen' s  Yellow  (New  York). — Large,  roundish;  suture  deep;  orange  yellow, 
red  cheek ;  approved  in  Southern  California. 

Foster  (Massachusetts). — Uniformly  large,  slightly  flattened;  slight  suture; 
stem  moderately  depressed;  flesh  yellow,  very  rich  and  juicy;  color  deep  orange, 


248  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

dark  red  in  the  sun;  freestone;  tree  hardy  and  productive;  very  widely  grown 
in  California  and  popular.  Ripens  before  Early  Crawford,  which  it  sometimes 
resembles,  but  is  of  better  quality. 

Crawford's  Early  (New  Jersey). — Very  large,  oblong,  swollen,  point  at  the 
top  prominent,  suture  shallow;  skin  yellow,  with  red  cheek;  flesh  yellow,  rich, 
and  excellent ;  freestone ;  tree  very  healthy  and  productive ;  probably  the  most 
largely  planted  variety  in  California. 

George  the  Fourth  (New  York). — Large,  round,  deeply  divided  by  broad 
suture ;  sides  unequal ;  skin  pale  yellowish  white,  dotted  with  red,  and  red  cheek ; 
flesh  pale,  red  at  pit,  from  which  it  parts  freely;  quality  good.  Somewhat 
troubled  with  curl-leaf. 

Snow  (American). — Large,  globular;  skin  clear,  beautiful,  almost  wholly 
white ;  flesh  white  to  the  free  stone,  juicy,  rich,  and  sprightly. 

Mary's  Choice  (New  Jersey). — Large,  yellow,  resembling  Early  Crawford, 
but  ripening  later. 

Red  Cheek  Melocoton  (American). — Large,  roundish  oval,  swollen  point  at 
top;  yellow,  with  deep  red  cheek;  flesh  yellow,  red  at  stone,  which  is  free,  juicy, 
good  flavor.  Approved  in  Humboldt  and  San  Benito  Counties. 

Tuskena  (Alabama  or  Mississippi). — Wrongly  called  "Tuscan"  and  "Tustin" 
cling  in  this  State ;  largely  planted  in  interior  valleys  and  foothills ;  very  large 
yellow  cling;  the  earliest  fine  cling  variety;  very  valuable  for  early  shipping. 
Ripens  with  Crawford's  Early. 

Oldmixom  Free  (American). — Large,  roundish  or  slightly  oval;  greenish  or 
yellowish  white,  marbled  with  red;  flesh  white,  tender,  and  excellent,  juicy  and 
rich;  high  flavor. 

Honest  Abe  (California). — "Originated  at  Healdsburg,  Sonoma  County. 
Large,  yellow,  with  red  cheek;  best  quality;  ripens  between  Crawford's  Early  and 
Late.  Does  not  curl." — James  Shinn. 

Morris  White. — Large,  oval;  skin  white  with  creamy  tint  when  fully  ripe; 
flesh  white  to  the  stone,  which  is  free;  melting,  juicy,  sweet,  and  rich;  especially 
good  for  home  use  and  canning;  somewhat  subject  to  curl-leaf. 

Wager  (New  York). — Lemon  yellow  tinged  with  red;  flesh  yellow,  rich,  juicy, 
sweet,  excellent,  having  much  the  appearance  and  flavor  of  apricots ;  stone  small 
and  free  from  the  flesh ;  quality  best. 

Muir  (California). — Originated  as  chance  seedling  on  the  place  of  John  Muir, 
near  Silveyville,  named  and  first  propagated  by  G.  W.  Thissell,  of  Winters.  Fruit 
large  to  very  large;  perfect  freestone;  flesh  clear  yellow,  very  dense,  rich  and 
sweet;  pit  small;  tree  a  good  bearer  and  strong  grower,  if  on  rich  soil,  to  which 
it  is  best  adapted ;  free  from  curl  in  Vacaville  district ;  fruit  a  good  shipper  and 
canner,  and  peculiarly  adapted  to  drying  because  of  exceptional  sweetness  and 
density  of  flesh ;  yield,  one  pound  dry  from  less  than  five  pounds  fresh.  One  of 
the  best  California  seedlings.  Claimed  by  some  to  be  identical  with  Wager. 

Muir  variations  with  large  flowers,  with  fruit  like  Muir,  but  not  splitting  at 
pit,  reported  by  W.  A.  Rosander,  Kingsburg;  A.  S.  Coon,  Fresno,  and  H.  R. 
Shaw,  Selma. 

Muir  Cling  by  W.  R.  Fletcher,  Green  Valley,  Sonoma  County.  Commended 
by  Green  Valley  Cannery;  propagated  by  A.  F.  Scheidecker,  Santa  Rosa,  1907. 

Wheatland  (New  York). — Large,  roundish;  skin  golden  yellow,  shaded  with 
crimson;  flesh  yellow,  rather  firm,  juicy,  sweet,  and  of  fine  quality. 

^Elberta  (Georgia). — Very  large;  round-oval  with  deep  suture;  golden-yellow, 
faint  red  stripes;  flesh  yellow,  fine,  juicy,  rich  and  sweet;  tree  prolific;  perfect 
freestone. 

Newhall  (California). — "Originated  with  Sylvester  Newhall,  of  San  Jose. 
Very  large,  skin  yellow,  with  a  dark  red  cheek;  flesh  deep  yellow,  juicy,  and  a 
rich,  vinous  flavor;  ripens  about  one  week  before  Crawford's  Late;  tree  very 
hardy,  healthy,  vigorous,  and  not  affected  by  curl ;  freestone." — John  Rock. 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  POPULAR  PEACHES  249 

Stump  the  World  (New  Jersey) .—Large,  strong;  skin  creamy  white,  with 
bright  red  cheek;  flesh  white,  juicy,  and  highly  flavored.  Commended  for 
family  use  by  the  Southern  California  Nurserymen's  Association.  Curls  some- 
what in  some  localities;  freestone. 

Crawford's  Late  (New  Jersey). — Very  large,  roundish,  yellow  with  dark  red 
cheek;  flesh  deep  yellow,  juicy,  and  melting;  flavor  rich  and  excellent;  a  popular 
and  widely-grown  variety,  but  very  subject  to  curl-leaf  in  some  localities;  free- 
stone. 

Lemon  Clingstone  (South  Carolina). — Large,  lemon-shaped  or  oblong,  having 
large,  projecting,  swollen  point  like  a  lemon;  skin  fine  yellow;  flesh  firm,  yellow 
with  sprightly  vinous  subacid ;  slightly  red  at  the  pit;  which  adheres  firmly. 

Orange  Clingstone. — Large,  round;  suture  distinctly  marked  and  extending 
nearly  around  the  fruit ;  no  swelling  at  apex,  like  Lemon  Clingstone ;  deep  orange 
color,  with  red  cheek;  flesh  yellow,  firm,  juicy,  with  rich  flavor;  somewhat  sub- 
ject to  mildew.  Though  largely  grown,  this  variety  has  been  largely  supplanted 
by  the  following  sub-varieties,  which  are  seedlings  from  it. 

Sellers'  Golden  Cling  (California). — Originated  on  the  farm  of  S.  A.  Sellers, 
Contra  Costa  County,  and  introduced  by  James  Shinn.  Very  large,  rich  golden 
color ;  tree  healthy ;  one  of  the  very  best  of  clings ;  ripens  with  Late  Crawford. 

Runyon's  Orange  Cling  (California). — "Originated  with  Mr.  Sol  Runyon  on 
the  Sacramento  River.  Superior  to  the  common  Orange  Cling.  Runyon's 
Orange  Cling  has  globose  glands,  and  is  not  subject  to  mildew  like  the  common 
sort.  Fruit  very  large,  yellow,  with  a  dark  crimson  cheek;  rich,  sugary,  and 
vinous  flavor.  Highly  esteemed  and  extensively  planted  in  the  Sacramento 
region  and  elsewhere." — John  Rock. 

Nichols'  Orange  Cling  (California). — Originated  by  Joseph  Nichols,  of  Niles, 
introduced  by  James  Shinn.  Large,  yellow,  with  purple  cheek;  flesh  yellow  and 
good.  Tree  healthy  and  a  heavy  bearer. 

Peck's  Orange  Cling  (California). — "Originated  at  Healdsburg,  Sonoma 
County.  Improved  seedling  of  Orange  Cling,  of  Downing.  Large,  handsome, 
yellow-fleshed,  free  from  curl,  hardy,  vigorous,  productive,  superior  for  market 
or  drying;  olanted  more  extensively  in  Santa  Rosa  Valley  than  in  any  other." — 
Luther  Burbank. 

Stilson  (California). — "Originated  at  Marysville  (?).  Perfect  shape;  very 
large ;  red  cheek  with  crimson  stripes ;  yellow-fleshed,  more  highly  colored  than 
Susquehanna;  table  and  market  quality  excellent;  ripens  after  Crawford's  Late; 
freestone."— P.  W.  Butler. 

Susquehanna  (Pennsylvania). — Large,  nearly  globular,  suture  half-round;  skin 
rich  yellow,  nearly  covered  with  red;  flesh  yellow,  sweet,  juicy,  with  rich,  vinous 
flavor ;  freestone ;  tree  healthy.  Very  widely  distributed  and  popular. 

McCowan's  Cling  (California). — Originated  with  Dr.  McCowan,  of  Ukiah. 
Yellow  cling;  round,  smooth  outline;  no  suture;  no  red  at  pit,  which  is  small; 
flesh  firm,  fine-grained,  and  sweet;  not  much  subject  to  curl;  fruit  apt  to  run 
small  unless  carefully  thinned ;  reported  an  irregular  bearer  in  Alameda  County ; 
liked  by  canners ;  approved  by  Placer  County. 

Lovell  (California). — Originated  as  chance  seedling  with  G.  W.  Thissell,  and 
named  by  him  in  1882;  propagated  by  Leonard  Coates,  of  Napa.  Yellow,  free- 
stone ;  size  uniformly  large,  almost  perfectly  round ;  flesh  fine,  texture  firm,  solid, 
clear  yellow  to  the  pit ;  tree  a  good  grower  and  bearer ;  superior  for  canning  and 
shipping,  and  dries  well.  Said  to  curl  in  some  places.  "The  richest  peach  I 
ever  saw  on  a  tray." — E.  A.  Bonine,  Los  Angeles  County.  The  most  popular 
yellow  freestone  for  canning  and  drying.  Sometimes  reported  as  "heavier"  than 
the  Muir. 

McKevitt's  Cling  (California). — Originated  as  a  chance  seedling  in  apricot 
orchard  planted  by  M.  R.  Miller,  on  place  owned  later  by  A.  McKevitt,  Vaca 
Valley;  named  in  1882  by  nurserymen  who  propagated  it.  A  white  clingstone; 
flesh  very  firm,  fine-grained,  sugary,  and  rich,  high  flavor,  white  to  the  pit;  skin 
strong,  and  fruit  excellent  for  shipping  or  canning ;  tree  remarkably  strong  in 
growth  and  free  from  disease.  Widely  distributed. 


250  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

McClish  Cling. — Yellow  cling,  grown  in  Sonoma  County. 

Wylie  Cling. — An  old  seedling  by  John  Wylie,  Green  Valley,  Sonoma  County, 
increasing  in  popularity  in  northern  Sonoma  County  as  superior  to  Orange  Cling 
in  not  splitting  at  the  pit,  and  not  dropping  from  the  tree.  A  fine  peach  for 
canning  and  drying. 

General  Bidwell  (California). — Originated  from  a  short  shoot  from  a  peach 
root  upon  which  an  apricot  had  grown  and  died,  on  Ranch  Chico.  Named  by  State 
Horticultural  Society,  September  4,  1886,  and  commended  for  '.cultivation. 
Ripens  one  week  later  than  Late  Crawford  and  ahead  of  Salway  and  Picquet's 
Late.  About  the  shape  of  the  Orange  Cling,  but  larger ;  very  yellow  with  reddish 
cheek;  flesh  very  solid,  juicy,  and  rich;  freestone  and  a  small  pit. 

California;  syn.  Edward's  Cling  (California). — "Originated  in  Sacramento. 
Very  large,  round,  regular ;  orange,  nearly  covered  with  dark,  rich  red ;  flesh  deep 
yellow;  flavor  delicate,  rich  vinous." — C.  W.  Reed. 

Picquet's  Late  (Georgia). — Large  to  very  large;  round,  sometimes  a  little 
flattened;  yellow,  with  red  cheek;  flesh  yellow,  melting,  sweet,  rich  and  fragrant; 
freestone;  not  subject  to  curl-leaf. 

Smock  Freestone  (New  Jersey). — "Large  yellow,  mottled  with  red;  moder- 
ately rich  and  juicy.  A  better  drying  peach  than  Salway." — E.  A.  Bonine. 

La  Grange  (New  Jersey)  — Large,  oblong;  greenish  white,  some  red  on  sunny 
side;  not  desirable  in  coast  regions;  freestone. 

Salway  (English). — Large,  roundish  oblate;  suture  broad,  deep,  extending 
beyond  the  apex;  skin  downy,  creamy  yellow,  rich,  clear,  crimson  cheek;  flesh 
deep  yellow,  red  at  the  pit;  juicy,  rich,  sweet,  vinous;  freestone;  a  standard  late 
peach  in  California ;  tree  very  healthy. 

Phillips'  Clin?  (California). — Originated  with  Joseph  Phillips,  of  Sutter 
County;  propagated  by  J.  T.  Bogue  of  Marysville.  Fine  large  yellow  cling,  no 
color  at  pit,  which  is  very  small ;  exceedingly  rich  and  high  colored ;  described 
by  Mr.  Skinner,  superintendent  Marysville  Cannery,  as  the  best  peach  he  ever 
used.  The  most  popular  yellow  clingstone.  Ripens  progressively  so  that  pick- 
ing can  cover  two  weeks  without  falling  from  tree.  Requires  good  land  and 
ample  moisture. 

Persian's  Cling  (California). — "Originated  in  Visalia,  probably  from  seed  of 
Heath  Cling,  and  a  few  days  earlier  than  its  parent.  Large ;  clear  white  skin 
and  flesh,  the  latter  very  sweet;  commended  for  canning." — /.  H.  Thomas,  Tulare 
County. 

Heath  (Maryland). — Described  by  Downing  as  the  most  delicious  of  all 
clingstones.  Very  large ;  skin  downy,  creamy  white,  with  faint  blush  of  red ;  flesh 
greenish  white,  very  tender  and  juicy,  with  most  luscious  flavor,  best  adapted  to 
interior  regions,  01^  places  free  from  curl. 

Steadly  (Missouri). — "Large  to  very  large;  white  skin;  flesh  white  at  the  pit, 
firm,  rich,  and  good  flavor ;  freestone.  Produces  very  heavy  yield  of  dried  fruit." 
— /.  H.  Thomas,  Tulare  County. 

George's  Late  Cling  (California). — "Originated  in  Sacramento.  Large;  white 
flesh,  colored  around  the  pit;  beautiful  yellow  color,  striped  and  splashed  with 
bright  red ;  a  very  heavy  and  uniform  bearer ;  a  good  shipper,  and  at  its  season 
of  ripening  there  is  no  peach  grown  in  Placer  County  that  yields  the  grower 
so  much  profit." — P.  W.  Butler.  Subject  to  mildew  in  some  localities. 

Yellow  Tuscany  {Dura  cini,  Tuscany). — A  very  large  yellow  cling;  propa- 
gated by  G.  Tosetti,  formerly  of  San  Leandro ;  tree  a  strong  grower  and  free 
from  curl-leaf;  very  productive.  On  the  basis  of  its  behavior  at  the  University 
Experiment  Station  at  Pomona,  this  variety  has  recently  been  largely  planted  in 
Southern  California.  It  is  counted  the  best  yellow  cling  for  canning  in  that 
section.  Ripens  with  Lemon  Cling. 

Albright's  Cling  (California). — "Originated  with  Mr.  Albright,  near  Placer- 
ville.  Very  large ;  yellow,  with  bright  cheek ;  rarely  equaled  in  quality  and  flavor. 
Described  as  larger,  more  highly  colored,  of  better  flavor,  better  shape,  and  the 
tree  a  more  prolific  bearer  than  the  Orange  Cling." — P.  W.  Butler.  Endures  long 
shipment  even  after  being  well  colored. 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF   POPULAR  PEACHES  251 

McDevitt  Cling. — "Originated  with  Neal  McDevitt,  of  Placer  County.  Uni- 
formly large,  rich,  golden  yellow,  becoming  red  when  ripe ;  flesh  very  firm  and 
solid;  superior  in  flavor;  excellent  shipper;  tree  good  and  regular  bearer. 

Staley  (California). — Very  large;  eleven  and  one-half  inches  in  circumference; 
somewhat  elongated  and  flattened  laterally;  rich,  creamy  white  with  very  faint 
touches  of  light  red ;  suture  shallow,  but  almost  continuous  around  the  peach ; 
stone  small  and  perfectly  free,  cavity  considerably  longer  than  stone;  flesh  white 
to  the  pit,  very  juicy,  fine,  tender;  flavor  delicious.  Originated  as  sucker  from 
peach  root  from  which  prune  had  been  broken  off  in  Selma,  Fresno  County. 
Ripens  twenty  days  after  Salway,  or  four  weeks  after  Susquehanna.  A  high-class 
white  freestone.  Introduced  by  F.  M.  Nevins,  Selma. 

Levy's  Late;  syn.  Henrietta  (District  of  Columbia). — Above  average  size, 
yellow  flesh,  red  cheek ;  late ;  clingstone.  Very  popular  in  San  Joaquin  Valley. 

Bilyeu's  Late  October. — "Large  greenish  white  with  red  cheek;  flesh  whitish, 
freestone ;  tree  a  rapid  grower  and  attains  great  size ;  prolific  bearer ;  fruit  ships 
well,  and  where  it  will  mature  no  peach  can  take  its  place ;  does  particularly  well 
in  the  foothills."— P.  W.  Butler. 

Decker  (California). — Grown  for  eastern  shipment,  in  Vaca  Valley,  and  in 
Sutter  and  Butte  counties. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
THE  NECTARINE 

The  nectarine  reaches  perfection  under  California  conditions,  as 
does  its  close  relative,  the  peach.  The  fruit  is,  in  fact,  as  Downing 
says,  only  a  variety  of  the  peach  with  a  smooth  skin;  only  a  distinct, 
accidental  variety  of  the  peach ;  and  this  is  rendered  quite  certain,  since 
there  are  several  well-known  examples  on  record  of  both  peaches  and 
nectarines  having  been  produced  on  the  same  branch.  Nectarine  pits 
usually  produce  nectarines  again,  but  they  occasionally  produce  peaches. 
Peach  seeds  occasionally  produce  nectarines;  the  Boston  variety  orig- 
inated from  a  peach  stone.*  All  these  facts  which  are  recorded  of  rela- 
tion between  the  peach  and  nectarine  have  been  verified  by  California 
observation. 

The  practice  of  growing  nectarines  is  also  exactly  like  that  employed 
with  the  peach.  It  is  propagated  and  pruned  in  the  same  ways,  except 
that,  as  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Culbertson,  the  nectarine  has  more  of  a 
tendency  to  form  short  interior  growths,  and  fruit  buds  are  formed  on 
the  larger  new  growths,  thus  enabling  the  pruner  to  cut  them  back 
more  closely,  and  yet  have  an  abundance  of  fruit  buds  remain.  The 
peach  and  nectarines  are  the  same  in  natural  adaptations  and  require- 
ments, and  in  diseases,  so  that  what  has  been  given  concerning  the 
growth  of  the  peach  in  this  State  has  an  apt  application  in  the  case  of 
the  nectarine. 

The  success  of  the  nectarine  worked  on  almond  stock,  as  has  been 
demonstrated  by  the  experience  of  many,  has  led  to  the  grafting  over  a 
good  many  unprofitable  almond  trees  to  nectarine,  though  this  has  not 
been  done  to  the  extent  to  which  the  French  prune  and  some  other 
plums  have  been  worked  on  old  almond  stocks. 

Comparative  Production  of  Nectarine  and  Peach. — It  may  be 
wondered,  considering  the  similarity  of  the  peach  and  the  nectarine, 
why  the  former  comes  so  near  being  our  leading  deciduous  fruit  and 
the  latter  is  the  least  grown,  but  one,  of  all  temperate  zone  fruits,  only 
the  lowly  quince  being  less  in  importance.  The  explanation  is  that 
the  fruit  buyer,  both  in  California  and  at  the  East,  prefers  the  peach, 
whether  it  be  fresh,  or  canned,  or  dried,  and  some  of  those  who  have 
tried  even  a  few  acres  of  nectarines  have  found  many  occasions  to  wish 
the  ground  had  been  given  to  peaches.  How  much  of  this  preference 
is  due  to  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  nectarine,  and  how  much  to  its 
somewhat  different  flavor,  it  would  be  difficult  to  actually  determine. 

That  the  nectarine  would  advance  in  popular  favor  has  been  prophe- 
sied for  some  years,  because  of  the  wonderful  excellence  of  the  nectar- 
ine as  grown  in  our  interior  valleys,  and  the  passing  beauty  of  the 
amber  translucency  of  the  dried  nectarine,  both  when  sun-dried  and 
when  produced  by  machine  evaporators.  The  excellence  of  the  canned 

*"Downing's   Fruit   and   Fruit   Trees,"   p.    565. 

252 


NECTARINE   NOT  COMMERCIALLY  GREAT  253 

nectarine  has  also  figured  in  the  anticipation.  It  is,  however,  question- 
able how  far  this  anticipation  has  been  realized,  for  it  is  estimated  that 
the  amount  of  dried  nectarines  is  less  than  two  per  cent  and  of  canned 
nectarines  less  than  one-half  of  one  per  cent  of  the  respective  forms  of 
peaches.  Nor  does  the  demand  call  for  change  in  this  proportion,  for 
there  is  a  slight  advantage  in  the  market  value  of  the  peach  even  in  its 
great  preponderance  of  supply.  During  the  last  decade  many  nectar- 
ines have  been  rooted  out  to  be  replaced  by  peach  trees,  or  have  been 
grafted  over  into  peaches.  There  are,  however,  some  growers  who  are 
confident  that  the  nectarine  will  in  the  future  rank  much  higher  in 
the  California  fruit  product.  It  would  please  growers  and  fruit  driers 
and  canners  to  popularize  the  nectarine,  for  its  smooth  skin  makes  it 
as  easy  to  handle  as  an  apricot,  and  the  beauty  of  the  product,  which 
certainly  exceeds  that  of  the  peach  and  is  rather  more  easily  attained, 
is  very  gratifying  to  the  producer. 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  NECTARINE 

Varieties  of  the  nectarine,  as  of  the  peach,  show  different  local 
adaptations,  and  are  valued  by  growers  accordingly.  The  varieties 
grown,  are,  however,  comparatively  few.  The  following  have  been 
found  most  satisfactory  in  California;  the  descriptions  are  somewhat 
condensed  from  Downing's  treatise,  modified  to  suit  local  growth,  and 
arranged  approximately  in  the  order  of  the  ripening  of  the  varieties. 

Advance. — Large,  round,  green,  marked  with  red  and  brown;  flesh  greenish 
white;  rich  and  well  flavored.  The  earliest  to  ripen. 

Lord  Napier  (English). — Large,  pale,  cream  color  with  dark  red  cheek;  flesh 
white,  melting,  tender  and  juicy,  separating  freely  from  stone;  leaf  glands  reni- 
form  and  flowers  large.  Especially  commended  as  a  heavy  and  regular  bearer ; 
pronounced  best  in  flavor  at  Pomona  Experiment  Station. 

Downton  (English). — Leaves  with  reniform  glands;  flowers  small;  fruit 
large,  roundish  oval;  skin  pale  green,  with  deep  violet  red  cheek;  flesh  pale 
green,  slightly  red  at  the  stone,  which  is  free,  melting  rich,  and  very  good. 

Early  Newington  (English). — Leaves  serrated  without  glands,  flowers  large; 
fruit  large,  roundish  ovate,  a  little  enlarged  on  one  side,  and  terminating  with  an 
acute,  swollen  point ;  skin  pale  green,  but  nearly  covered  with  bright  red  and 
coated  with  thin  bloom ;  flesh  greenish  white,  but  deep  red  at  stone,  which 
adheres  closely,  juicy,  sugary,  rich,  and  excellent. 

Hardwicke  (English.) — Leaves  with  globose  glands;  fruit  very  large,  round- 
ish, inclining  to  oval ;  skin  pale  green,  with  deep  violet  red  cheek ;  flesh  pale 
green,  slightly  marked  with  red  at  the  stone,  melting,  rich,  and  highly-flavored; 
freestone.  This  variety  is  a  favorite  in  Southern  California;  described  by  the 
Southern  California  Nurserymen's  Association  as  being  the  only  satisfactory 
bearer. 

Boston. — Raised  from  a  peach  stone  by  T.  Lewis,  of  Boston;  tree  hardy  and 
productive ;  leaves  with  globose  glands ;  flowers  small ;  fruit  large  and  handsome, 
roundish  oval,  bright  yellow,  with  deep  red  cheek;  flesh  yellow  to  the  stone 
(which  is  small  and  pointed),  sweet,  though  not  rich,  with  pleasant  and  peculiar 
flavor ;  freestone ;  a  general  favorite  in  California. 

New  White ;  syn.  Large  White. — Leaves  with  reniform  glands ;  flowers  large ; 
fruit  rather  large,  nearly  round ;  skin  white  with  occasionally  slight  tinge  of  red ; 
flesh  white,  tender,  very  iuicy,  with  rich,  vinous  flavor;  stone  small  and  free 
commanded  wherever  nectarines  are  grown  in  California,  and  more  freely  planted 
than  all  other  nectarines  combined. 


254  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

Stanwick. — Originated  in  England  from  seed  brought  from  Syria.  Large, 
roundish  oval,  slightly  heart-shaped  at  base ;  s^cin  pale,  greenish  white,  shaded 
into  deep,  rich  violet  in  the  sun;  flesh  white,  tender,  juicy,  rich,  sugary,  and 
delicious. 

Humboldt. — Very  large,  bright  orange  yellow  vigorously  marked  with  crim- 
son, flesh  orange,  tender;  juicy,  and  highly  flavored.  Described  as  one  of  the 
best  of  the  newer  varieties.  Ripens  late. 

As  the  future  for  the  nectarine  seems  to  rest  upon  drying  and 
canning  of  the  fruit,  the  light-skinned,  white  or  yellow-fleshed  varieties 
without  color  at  the  stone,  are  most  desirable.  For  drying  there  has 
been  thus  far  a  decided  preference  for  freestone  varieties,  though  pos- 
sibly the  present  popularity  for  cling  peaches  for  drying  may  extend 
to  the  clingstone  nectarines.  Much  color,  however,  either  in  skin  or 
flesh,  will  prevent  the  production  of  the  beautiful  translucent,  amber 
hue  of  the  dried  nectarine,  which  is  attractive  to  consumers.  Color  in 
the  flesh  is,  of  course,  undesirable  in  canning,  because  of  the  discolora- 
tion of  the  syrup.  These  facts  have  had  much  to  do  in  fixing  the  popu- 
larity of  the  varieties  named  in  the  foregoing  list. 

At  present  the  largest  orchards  of  nectarines  are  in  the  interior 
valley  locations,  which  are  also  fine  for  the  peach  and  are  perfectly 
adapted  both  to  the  growing  of  the  fruit  and  to  the  open-air,  sun-drying 
of  it. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
THE  PEAR 

The  oldest  deciduous  fruit  trees  in  California  are  pear  trees,  as  has 
already  been  stated  in  the  account  of  fruits  at  the  old  missions,  and 
some  of  the  trees  are  istill  bearing,  though  it  is  a  century  and  a  third 
since  their  planting.  Trees  planted  by  pioneers  in  the  old  mining  dis- 
tricts have  actually  assumed  semblance  to  adjacent  oaks.  Notable 
instances  are  found  in  the  Stillwater  district  of  Shasta  County  and 
elsewhere.  Near  San  Jose  there  is  a  tree  over  half  a  century  old,  with 
a  trunk  seven  and  a  half  feet  around  and  yielding  annually  about 
fifteen  hundred  pounds  of  fruit,  some  of  which  was  exhibited  at  the 
Columbian  Exposition.  .; 

The  pear  withstands  neglect  and  thrives  in  soils  and  situations 
which  other  fruit  trees  would  rebel  against.  It  defies  drouth  and  exces- 
sive moisture,  and  patiently  proceeds  with  its  fruitage  even  when  the 
soil  is  trampled  almost  to  rocky  hardness  by  cattle,  carrying  its  fruit 
and  foliage  aloft  above  their  reach.  And  yet  the  pear  repays  care  and 
good  treatment,  and  receives  them  from  California  growers,  for  the 
pear  has  been  one  of  our  most  profitable  fruits.  It  is  in  demand  for 
canning,  for  drying,  and  for  distant  shipment,  and  its  long  season  and 
the  slow  ripening  after  picking  allow  deliberation  in  marketing,  and 
admit  of  enjoying  low  rates  for  shipment  by  slow  trains.  One  of  the 
most  striking  demonstrations  of  the  commercial  suitability  of  the  Cali- 
fornia pear  is  found  in  successful  marketing  in  London.  Solomons, 
who  is  called  "London's  greatest  fruiter,"  said  in  1903  that  California 
Bartletts  from  Block  of  Santa  Clara  are  the  "best  in  the  world."  Even 
after  crossing  the  continent  they  seemed  to  endure  shipment  across  the 
Atlantic  better  than  eastern  pears. 

The  most  obvious  marks  of  the  California  pear  are  size  and  beauty. 
The  most  conspicuous  example  is  the  Bartlett,  which  is  the  pear  of 
California,  judged  by  its  popularity,  fresh,  canned  and  dried.  When 
well  grown,  its  size  is  grand,  and  its  delicate  color,  aroma  and  richness 
unsurpassed.  What  extreme  in  point  of  size  has  been  reached  is  not 
known  to  the  writer,  but  he  saw  at  the  San  Jose  Horticultural  Fair,  of 
1886,  thirteen  Bartlett  pears  grown  by  A.  Block,  of  Santa  Clara,  which 
weighed  fourteen  pounds,  the  heaviest  of  the  group  weighing  twenty- 
two  and  one-half  ounces.  Other  pears  have  made  standard  sizes  in 
California  far  in  advance  of  their  records  elsewhere.  There  was  in 
1870  a  Pound  pear  sent  from  Sacramento  to  the  late  Marshall  P. 
Wilder,  president  of  the  American  Pomological  Society,  which  weighed 
four  pounds  and  nine  ounces,  and  was  reported  by  Colonel  Wilder  to  be 
larger  than  anything  previously  reported  in  pear  annals.*  But  Cali- 
fornia has  recently  done  even  better,  for  a  pear  from  near  Marysville  in 
1904  was  reported  as  nine  inches  high,  sixteen  inches  around  the  base 

*"Tilton's  Journal  of  Horticulture,  March,  1871,  p.  87.  An  engraving  of  this  fruit, 
natural  size,  was  given  in  Pacific  Rural  Press,  November  8,  1873." 

255 


256  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

and  five  pounds  in  weight.  Notes  kept  by  the  writer  include  five  Vicar 
of  Winkfields  weighing  four  pounds  eight  ounces;  nine  Easter  Beurre 
weighing  twenty-four  and  one-half  pounds,  the  heaviest  single  speci- 
men weighing  two  and  three-fourths  pounds ;  thirty-five  Beurre  Clair- 
geau  weighing  thirty-seven  pounds,  the  heaviest  one,  nineteen  ounces ; 
Seckel  pears,  nine  and  three-fourths  inches  in  circumference — Down- 
ing's  figures  make  the  Seckel  five  and  seven-eighths  inches  around. 


LOCALITIES  FOR  THE  PEAR 

The  pear  has  a  wider  range  than  the  apple  in  local  adaptations.  It 
does  as  well  as  the  apple  in  the  coast  regions,  if  suitable  varieties  are 
grown;  it  thrives  far  better  than  the  apple  in  the  interior  valleys;  it 
rivals  the  apple  in  the  ascent  of  the  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and 
gains  from  the  altitude,  color  and  late  keeping,  as  does  the  apple.  By 
rejecting  a  few  naturally  tender  varieties,  or  by  proper  protection 
against  the  scab  fungus,  in  regions  where  its  attacks  are  severe,  one 
can  grow  pears  almost  everywhere  in  California — providing  pear 
blight  can  be  held  in  check,  as  will  be  discussed  later. 

The  choice  of  location  is  governed  more  by  commercial  considera- 
tions than  by  natural  phenomena.  The  same  facts  which  make  the 
Bartlett  the  favorite  variety  with  planters,  also  should  regulate  the 
choice  of  locality  for  growing  it.  These  facts  were  expressed  by  the 
late  C.  W.  Reed,  of  Sacramento,  who  was  in  his  time  one  of  the  lead- 
ing pear  growers  and  shippers  of  the  State,  as  follows : 

In  the  Sacramento  Valley  proper  there  is  but  one  variety  of  pear  that  will 
justify  extensive  cultivation,  viz.,  the  Bartlett.  While  nearly  all  varieties  may  be 
grown  successfully,  and  many  varieties  may  be  desirable  for  home  purposes,  yet 
for  profitable  orchards  we  have  to  confine  ourselves  to  this  one  variety,  except  in 
high  altitudes,  or  localities  where  the  fruit  only  matures  very  late.  The  reason 
for  this  will  be  better  understood  by  the  inexperienced  if  explained.  The  Bartlett 
pear  having  qualities  that  make  it  a  universal  favorite  for  shipping,  canning,  and 
for  domestic  market,  no  other  variety  is  wanted  while  it  is  obtainable.  With  the 
difference  in  the  time  of  its  ripening  in  different  localities  that  are  adjacent,  our 
markets  are  supplied  with  this  variety  about  four  months  each  season,  viz.,  July, 
August,  September  and  October.  While  this  pear  is  in  the  markets,  any  other 
variety  to  compete  with  it  must  sell  at  very  low  prices. 

Of  course  experienced  pear  growers,  whose  taste  would  soon  cloy 
with  a  continuous  diet  of  Bartletts,  and  who  know  fully  the  superior 
quality  of  other  varieties  which  ripen  soon  after  it,  would  dispute  the 
position  taken  by  Mr.  Reed,  but  for  present  California  taste  and  trade 
he  is  undoubtedly  correct.  As  the  canners  and  shippers  and  local  con- 
sumers all  call  for  Bartletts,  and  as  they  usually  sell  at  the  East  for 
nearly  twice  the  price  of  other  varieties,  the  choice  of  location  to  secure 
a  Bartlett,  either  very  early  or  very  late,  is  the  part  of  wisdom,  for 
either  end  of  the  season  usually  yields  better  prices  than  the  middle. 
Some  growers  are  even  opening  the  Bartlett  season  by  growing  Clapp's 
Favorite,  which  sells  well  because  it  is  taken  for  a  Bartlett,  and  closing 
the  season  with  the  Winter  Bartlett,  a  local  variety  recently  introduced. 
The  earliest  Bartletts  come  from  the  interior  valley  sometimes  as  early 
as  the  last  week  in  June;  the  next,  from  the  valleys  adjacent  to  the 


SOILS   FOR  THE   PEAR  257 

Bay  of  San  Francisco ;  the  next,  from  the  higher  foothills  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada ;  and  the  last,  so  far  as  present  experience  goes,  although  some 
coast  and  mountain  situations  are  quite  late,  reach  the  market  from  the 
Vacaville  district.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  this  district,  which  has 
long  been  famous  for  marketing  the  first  early  fruits,  should  also 
market  very  late  ones.  It  is  true,  however,  that  early  fruits  hasten  to 
maturity  and  late  fruits  are  retarded.  Late  fruits  push  along  until 
about  midsummer,  then  stop  growing  for  a  month  or  two  during  the 
hottest  weather,  and  afterwards  proceed  on  their  course  and  finish  up 
well.  W.  W.  Smith,  of  Vaca  Valley,  has  picked  Bartletts  as  late  as 
November  19,  but  that  is  unusually  late.  In  years  with  heavy  late 
spring  rains  the  Bartlett  ripens  earlier  in  the  Vaca  Valley  than  in  or- 
dinary seasons,  and  when  the  fruit  sells  well  in  the  East,  the  Bartletts 
are  gathered  green  and  shipped  all  through  the  season,  as  their  first 
growth  usually  makes  them  large  enough  for  this  purpose. 

There  is  produced  in  some  situations  a  "second  crop"  of  Bartletts 
and  of  other  varieties,  which  is  of  account  when  pears  are  scarce  and 
is  sometimes  dried  with  profit.  For  such  fruit  the  bloom  appears  upon 
the  tips  of  the  shoots  of  the  current  season's  growth.  The  fruit  is 
sometimes  coreless  and  has  led  to  claims  of  "seedless  pears."  Bartlett 
pears  have  actually  been  picked  in  the  foothills  above  Peatz  in  Butte 
County  on  February  25,  1905,  and  described  as  "fine,  delicious  and 
ripe."  This  fact  must  be  regarded  as  a  token  of  local  climatic  salubrity 
and  not  of  economic  or  pomological  account. 

Bartletts  can  also  be  successfully  held  in  storage  for  a  time  if  fitted 
for  it.  The  experiments  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, conducted  in  Southern  Oregon,  show  that  the  Bartlett  season  can 
be  extended  from  six  to  seven  weeks  by  leaving  the  fruit  on  the  trees 
two  weeks  longer  than  is  at  present  the  practice  and  by  storing  for  four 
or  five  weeks  at  a  temperature  of  32°  or  34°  F.  after  the  fruit  has  been 
precooled. 

SOILS  FOR  THE  PEAR 

The  pear,  if  it  is  not  allowed  to  dry  out  entirely,  will  generally  do 
well  on  shallow  soil  and  over  a  tight^  clay  hard-pan,  where  most  other 
fruits  would  be  unsatisfactory  or  fail  utterly.  The  trees  will  thrive  in 
clay  loams,  and  even  in  adobe,  if  properly  cultivated.  In  laying  out 
fruit  farms,  which  often  include  a  variety  of  soils,  even  in  comparatively 
small  area,  the  pears  and  plums  (if  on  the  right  stock,  as  will  be  seen), 
should  be  set  in  the  lower,  moister,  stiffer  soil,  and  other  fruits  on  the 
lighter,  warmer,  and  better  drained  portions.  The  pear,  however, 
enjoys  the  better  situation,  though  it  will  thrive  on  the  poorer.  The 
tree  seems  to  attain  its  greater  growth  and  heaviest  bearing  on  the 
alluvial  soils  of  the  valleys  and  near  the  banks  of  rivers  and  streams. 
All  pears  will  be  later  in  maturing  and  have  better  keeping  qualities  if 
grown  on  a  clay  subsoil.  Thus  it  appears  that  the  pear  will  flourish 
whether  the  water  is  near  or  far  from  the  surface.  On  wet  land  the 
apple  is  apt  to  die  in  a  few  years,  or  become  worthless.  On  dry  land 
the  apple  lives  longer,  but  the  fruit  is  small  and  tasteless.  But  the  pear 
tree  may  bear  good  fruit,  under  the  same  conditions. 


258  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

It  has  been  learned  by  experience  that  the  pear  will  flourish  on  soil 
somewhat  alkaline.  At  the  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
at  Tulare,  this  subject  was  demonstrated  in  detail.  It  was  shown  that 
though  the  pear  endures  a  certain  amount  of  alkali  its  limit  of  endur- 
ance may  be  often  exceeded  and  there  is  little  warrant  to  select  alkali 
soil  for  pears,  unless  it  be  to  fill  a  space  that  would  otherwise  be  vacant 
in  the  orchard.  If  it  is  not  too  alkaline  the  pears  will  thrive.  If  gyp- 
sum be  used  in  planting,  somewhat  stronger  alkali  will  be  endured  than 
otherwise. 

PROPAGATION  AND  PLANTING 

The  use  of  dwarfing  stock  for  the  pear  has  been  nearly  abandoned 
in  this  State,  though  in  early  years  the  quince  was  largely  used.  The 
most  prominent  orchard  on  quince  stock  is  that  of  A.  Block,  of  Santa 
Clara,  where  may  be  seen  dwarf  trees  originally  planted  eight  feet 
apart  in  squares,  but  now  wider  spaced  by  removing  part  of  the  trees ; 
the  remainder  doing  exceedingly  well  under  liberal  manuring  and  irri- 
gation. It  would,  however,  require  special  investigation  to  determine 
whether  these  trees  are  still  dependent  upon  the  quince  or  whether 
they  have  developed  roots  from  the  pear  wood  above. 

It  is  quite  possible  that,  at  least  for  gardens,  there  may  be  in  the 
future  more  use  made  of  dwarf  trees,  but  for  commercial  orchards 
there  appears  no  need  of  dwarfing.  The  common  conclusion  is  that  it 
is  better  to  have  fewer  trees  and  larger  ones,  but  since  the  pear  blight 
became  an  issue  in  this  State  the  Angiers  quince  has  been  advocated  as 
a  means  of  maintaining  a  sound  root  and  keeping  the  warfare  above 
ground. 

The  following  varieties  are  commended  for  cultivation  on  quince 
stock  as  dwarfs,  experience  proving  them  vigorous  growers  and  abun- 
dant bearers  in  suitable  localities:  Bartlett,  Beurre  Hardy.  Doyenne 
du  Cornice,  Duchess  d'Angouleme,  Glout  Morceau,  Pound,  Beurre  Diel, 
White  Doyenne,  Easter  Beurre,  Winter  Nelis,  P.  Barry,  Winter  Bart- 
lett. 

But  the  pear  is  usually  grown  in  California  on  its  own  roots :  that 
is  upon  imported  French  pear  seedlings.  It  comes  into  bearing  early 
enough,  and  is  a  long-lived  tree  unless  badly  attacked  by  blight.  Trees 
are  grown  by  either  budding  or  grafting,  as  described  in  the  chapter 
on  that  subject.  Only  good  seedling  roots  should  be  used,  and  not 
suckers  from  old  trees.  The  Japanese  stock,  so  called,  being  seedlings 
from  the  Sand  pear,  of  Asia,  is  now  being  widely  used  because  of  con- 
fidence in  it  as  measurably  blight  resistant,  while  it  is  also  less  subject 
to  attack  by  woolly  aphis,  has  been  used  to  some  extent,  but  no  definite 
results  reported.  Propagation  upon  rooted  cuttings  of  the  Le  Conte, 
which  has  a  measurable  resistance  to  the  pear  blight,  has  been  advised 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  less  susceptible  roots,  but  Japanese  seed- 
lings are  easier  to  secure  and  to  work  with  than  rooted  cuttings.  Mr. 
M.  B.  Waite,  orchard  pathologist  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  has  in  progress  a  test  of  many  cross-bred  seedlings  in  the 
hope  of  reaching  a  hardier  seedling  stock  for  pears  than  is  now  known. 


PRUNING  THE  PEAR  259 

He  also  proposes  top  grafting  the  Bartlett  upon  Winter  Nelis,  Seckel, 
Angouleme,  Lawson  and  other  partially  immune  varieties  to  increase 
the  chances  of  securing  a  somewhat  resistant  tree-body  and  sound  roots. 
Fortunately  the  pear  is  readily  grafted-over  by  the  common  methods, 
and  some  growers  are  planting  Winter  Nelis  on  Japanese  roots,  expect- 
ing to  top-graft  them  with  Bartlett  in  the  orchard. 

Distance  in  Planting. — If  the  pears  are  to  have  the  whole 
ground,  it  is  usual  to  plant  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  feet  apart  on 
the  square.  As  the  tree  is  slower  to  attain  size  and  full  bearing  than  the 
stone  fruits,  and  as  it  is  a  long-lived  tree,  the  pears  are  sometimes  set 
twenty-four  feet  with  plums  in  quincunx.  Peaches  and  apricots  are 
;ilso  set  between  pears  sometimes,  when  the  soil  chosen  for  pears  suits 
them  also. 

PRUNING 

Usually  the  pear  is  grown  in  the  vase  form,  as  described  in  the 
general  chapter  on  pruning.  With  regular,  upright  growers,  heading 
low  and  cutting  to  outside  buds  results  in  a  handsome,  gently-spreading 
top,  and  effectually  curbs  the  disposition  which  some  varieties,  notably 
the  Bartlett,  have  to  run  straight  up  with  main  branches  crowded  to- 
gether. 

The  development  of  the  vase-form  with  a  few  continuous  leaders,  in 
a  general  way  as  prescribed  for  the  peach  in  Chapter  XX,  is  practicable. 
Such  leaders  are  to  be  covered  with  short,  fruit-bearing  laterals.  Thin- 
ning and  shortening  of  laterals  can  be  done  by  summer  pruning. 

As  with  other  fruit  trees,  the  pear  must  be  studied  and  pruning 
must  be  done  with  an  understanding  of  the  habit  of  the  variety  under 
treatment.  Irregular  and  wayward  growers,  which,  in  windy  places, 
also  have  their  rambling  disposition  promoted  by  prevailing  winds, 
often  give  the  grower  much  perplexity.  The  general  rules  of  cutting 
to  an  outside  bud  to  spread  the  tree,  to  an  inside  bud  to  raise  and  con- 
centrate it,  and  to  an  outside  bud  one  pear  and  an  inside  bud  the  next, 
if  a  limb  is  desired  to  continue  in  a  certain  course,  are  all  helpful  to 
the  primer.  But  with  some  pears,  of  which  the  Winter  Nelis  is  a  con- 
spicuous example,  it  is  exceedingly  hard  to  shape  the  tree  by  these 
general  rules,  and  some  growers  abandon  all  rules,  merely  shortening 
in  where  too  great  extension  is  seen,  or  to  facilitate  cultivation,  and 
trust  to  shaping  the  tree  when  it  shall  have  finished  its  rampant  grow- 
ing period.  It  will  be  interesting  to  cite  a  few  methods  of  California 
pear  growers : 

"The  Winter  Nelis  pear  is  an  uncouth  grower.  Let  the  trees  alone  until  they 
have  borne  a  good,  heavy  crop,  and  the  limbs  come  down  and  spread  out  nicely ; 
this  will  occur  in  five  or  six  years  after  setting.  This  will  give  you  an  idea 
what  you  want  to  do  with  the  balance  of  the  top  that  is  not  borne  down  with 
the  fruit.  My  plan  is  to  cut  straggling  branches,  thin  out  so  that  the  branches 
will  not  wind  around  each  other,  but  don't  cut  the  top,  for  you  will  find  that  the 
more  you  cut  the  more  wood  you  get,  and  after  the  tree  comes  into  full  bearing 
is  plenty  of  time  to  head  back." — A.  CadweU,  Pctaluma. 

"Our  orchard  in  Napa  county  was  not  in  a  very  windy  place,  but  still  windy 
enough  to  throw  our  Nelis  trees  out  of  form.  To  get  any  regularity  of  shape, 
we  cut  off  every  year  all  the  shoots  growing  low  down  on  the  leeward  side, 


260  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

shortening  in  what  are  left  as  occasion  may  require,  to  an  inside  bud.  On  the 
windward  side  we  rarely  cut  any  branch  out,  but  shorten  in  a  little  to  an  outside 
bud,  frequently  being  obliged  to  cut  back  a  strong  shoot  to  a  lateral  which  is 
growing  outward." — Leonard  Coates,  Morganhill. 

"It  is  hard  to  get  a  misshapen  Winter  Nelis  tree  into  shape.  Let  the  grower 
take  his  shears  and  go  around  the  tree  and  examine  the  difficulty  until  he  is 
conversant  with  it,  and  then  commence  to  prune,  not  to  heavily,  though.  Cut 
the  limbs  that  lean  too  far  leewards  back  a  little  with  an  inside  bud,  and  train  all 
future  limbs  toward  the  weather  side  of  the  tree;  cut  limbs  this  year  so  that 
the  coming  buds  will  form  limbs  growing  in  the  direction  of  the  weather  side  of 
the  tree.  But  use  moderation  and  take  your  time  for  it,  and  don't  cut  too  many 
big  limbs  off  three-year-old  trees — none,  in  fact,  if  it  can  be  helped.  In  bringing 
limbs  to  proper  place,  I  have  found  a  piece  of  cornstock  the  required  length  for 
the  intended  place,  inserted  endwise  between  the  limb  and  the  body  of  the  tree  to 
be  spread,  to  be  a  very  good  brace,  easily  made,  and  not  likely  to  injure  the  tree." 
— T.  E.  Owen,  Santa  Cruz. 

These  methods  will  suggest  others  by  which  one  can  bring  the  most 
irregular  grower  into  shape.  If  the  tree  is  cut  at  planting  so  as  to  form 
the  head  low,  it  may  be  safely  left  until  bearing  age  for  shaping.  The 
tree  naturally  makes  a  viny  growth  of  young  wood,  and  the  object  of 
leaving  it  alone  is  that  one  limb  holds  the  others  more  upright  until  the 
main  limbs  become  large,  or  stiff  enough  to  keep  the  shape ;  so  they 
may  be  left,  after  being  thinned  out  to  form  three  to  five  limbs,  as  judg- 
ment may  direct.  Some  trees  will  be  best  with  three  or  four,  others 
five. 

The  experience  of  pear  pruning  just  cited  has  been  secured  in 
regions  more  or  less  subject  to  coast  influences.  In  the  hot  interior 
valleys,  with  the  pear  as  with  the  apple,  care  must  be  taken  to  prune 
so  as  not  to  open  the  tree  too  much  to  the  sun,  but  to  shorten  in  and 
thin  out  only  so  far  as  is  consistent  with  maintaining  a  good  covering 
of  foliage. 

The  pruning  of  bearing  pear  trees  is  much  like  that  of  the  apple,  to 
be  determined  largely  by  the  habit  of  the  tree,  and  to  secure  a  fair 
amount  of  fruit  on  branches  with  strength  and  stiffness  enough  to  sus- 
tain it. 

Summer  pruning  will  promote  fruiting  either  in  a  young  or  an  old 
tree  and  some  practice  it  to  secure  early  bearing  of  young  trees,  but 
the  common  practice  is  winter  pruning  to  secure  strong  wood  and 
prevent  overbearing. 

THINNING  PEARS 

It  is  quite  important  to  attend  to  thinning  the  fruit  on  overloaded 
trees.  Even  the  popular  Bartlett  will  often  give  fruit  too  small  for 
profitable  sale  unless  thinned.  With  pears,  as  other  fruits,  thinning 
should  not  be  done  until  it  is  seen  that  the  fruit  is  well  set.  Dropping 
off  from  natural  causes  sometimes  thins  the  crop  quite  enough. 

IRRIGATION  OF  THE  PEAR 

In  some  situations  the  pear  needs  irrigation,  though  it  will  endure 
drouth  which  would  destroy  most  other  fruit  trees.  There  is  no  profit 
in  small,  tough  fruit.  As  stated  in  the  chapter  on  irrigation  the  wood 


PEAR  BLIGHT  AND  ITS  TREATMENT  261 

growth  and  fruit  show  whether  proper  moisture  needs  are  met  or  not. 
Early  pears  are  advanced  in  development  by  irrigation  in  some  parts  of 
the  State,  and  this  is  an  important  factor  in  their  value. 

BLIGHT  OF  THE  PEAR 

The  pear  blight  appeared  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  about  1900. 
In  1904,  after  having  nearly  wiped  out  bearing  trees  in  the  southern 
counties  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  the  disease  began  to  devastate  the 
orchards  along  the  Sacramento  River  through  the  vast  area  of  rich 
valley  land  which  it  traverses  and  on  which  is  situated  our  most  ex- 
tensive pear  acreage.  In  1905  resolute  warfare  was  made  upon  the 
blight,  with  a  large  appropriation  of  State  funds,  by  the  plant  disease 
experts  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  of  the 
California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
local  horticultural  authorities.  It  was  probably  the  greatest  campaign 
ever  made  against  a  single  tree  disease  although  some  insect  warfares 
have  been  greater.  The  outlines  of  the  plans  followed  and  the  results 
attained  are  to  be  found  in  the  publications  of  the  institutions  engaged.* 

In  a  later  chapter  on  Diseases  of  Trees  and  Vines,  an  outline  of 
procedure  against  pear  blight  will  be  given.  It  is  apprehended  that 
neither  paying  crops  nor  living  trees  can  be  counted  upon  in  the  future 
unless  the  disease  is  successfully  kept  under  control  by  successful 
fighting  or  by  recourse  to  some  form  of  natural  immunity  which  can  be 
discovered  or  developed  by  plant  breeding.  It  is  probable  that  pears 
can  not  be  grown  in  the  future  as  cheaply  and  profitably  as  in  the 
past  and  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  bravery  or  daring  in  pear  invest- 
ments at  the  present  time.  It  is  encouraging,  however,  to  note  that  in 
California  the  disease  shows  signs  of  relaxing  the  virulence  which 
characterized  its  first  attacks  and  it  is  reasonable  to  believe  that  here  as 
elsewhere  it  may  be  possible  to  have  the  blight  and  pears  also.f  The 
reader  must  keep  himself  continually  of  the  various  phases  of  the 
problem  as  they  will  arise,  by  careful  study  of  California  horticultural 
journals  and  of  later  publications  from  the  official  sources  which  have 
been  indicated. 

The  very  exuberance  of  the  pear  in  California  seems  to  increase  the 
virulence  of  the  blight.  The  long  growing  season  with  its  continual 
production  of  new  soft  tissue,  the  unseasonable  bloom  which  attracts 
bees  to  bring  new  supplies  of  blight  germs,  the  break  of  new  shoots 
from  root,  trunk  and  main  branches — all  these  make  the  tree  subject 
to  repeated  renewals  of  the  disease  in  all  its  most  vulnerable  parts.  How 
far  growth  can  be  repressed  by  scant  cultivation  or  by  summer  prun- 
ing ;  how  far  suppression  of  later  shoots  and  blooms  is  practicable  and 
whether  the  tree  can  be  depleted  so  that  it  can  only  make  fair  sized 
fruit  and  no  surplus  soft  tissue  for  blight  invasion — all  these  are  cul- 
tural problems  which  make  pear  growing  very  interesting  to  the  enquir- 

*Reports  of  the  California  Commissioners  of  Horticulture,  1901  to  1906,  including  Reports 
on  California  Fruit  Growers'  Conventions  for  1905-6-7,  Horticultural  Commissioner,  Sacra- 
mento. Report  of  Plant  Pathologist,  University  Experiment  Station,  Berkeley,  1906  and  1908. 

fThe  character  of  such  a  fight  and  what  it  costs  is  graphically  portrayed  by  E.  A.  Gam- 
mon in  the  Report  of  California  Fruit  Growers'  Convention  of  1909,  and  in  Pacific  Rural 
Press,  June  22,  1910. 


262  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

ing  mind.  A  Sonoma  grower  suggests  that  pruning  may  be  used 
to  control  pear  blight  in  the  following  manner:  It  is  the  natural 
tendency  of  the  pear  and  apple  while  young  to  form  fruiting  spurs  upon 
the  body  and  larger  branches  of  the  tree.  These  fruiting  spurs  produce 
blossoms  from  year  to  year,  which  are  in  turn  as  liable  to  be  visited 
by  bees  or  other  insects  carrying  the  destructive  spores  of  the  disease 
as  are  the  blossoms  at  the  ends  of  the  branches.  It  is  evident,  there- 
fore, that  a  blossom  situated  upon  the  body  or  larger  branches  of  a  tree, 
becoming  infected,  would  communicate  the  disease  directly  to  the 
framework  of  the  tree,  with  the  result  that  it  would  be  fatally  injured; 
but  if  these  fruiting  spurs  are  all  removed  from  the  body  and  larger 
branches  by  pruning,  the  possibilities  of  infection  in  this  way  are  over- 
come. The  available  means  of  gaining  entrance  to  the  tree  by  this 
parasite  is  confined  to  the  smaller  branches,  which  if  affected  can  be  cut 
away  without  severely  injuring  or  disfiguring  the  tree.  All  suckers  at  the 
base  of  the  tree  should  be  removed  at  the  point  where  they  emerge  from 
the  trunk  or  the  roots  as  they  favor  the  entrance  of  blight  to  the  root. 
The  scab  fungus  which  seriously  affects  some  varieties,  and  notably 
the  Winter  Nelis,  in  the  Coast  region,  is  identical  with  the  scab  of  the 
apple  and  will  be  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  tree  diseases.  Because 
of  the  liability  of  the  Winter  Nelis,  to  this  disease,  and  because  of  its 
irregular  bearing  in  the  Coast  region,  there  have  been  many  trees 
grafted  over  into  varieties  better  suited  to  Coast  conditions.  The  Beurre 
Clairgeau,  because  of  its  health,  prolific  bearing,  and  acceptability  to 
shippers,  was  largely  introduced  in  this  way,  but  it  has  not  sold  as  well 
as  expected.  Ordinary  top  grafting  succeeds  admirably  with  the  pear. 
Clapp's  Favorite  and  other  varieties  have  also  been  worked  upon 
Winter  Nelis  but  they  are  apt  to  be  more  susceptible  to  blight  than 
Winter  Nelis  so  this  old  practice  is  now. of  less  value  than  formerly. 

GATHERING   AND    RIPENING   OF    PEARS 

Many  pear  growers  make  the  common  mistake  of  allowing  the 
fruit  to  hang  too  long  on  the  tree,  instead  of  gathering  and  ripening 
in  a  cool,  dark  place.  Pears  should  be  picked  at  the  first  indication  of 
ripeness,  the  first  sign  being  a  tendency  of  the  stem  to  part  from  the 
spur  when  the  pear  is  gently  raised  up.  This  test  applies  especially  to 
the  Bartlett.  Picking  at  this  stage  and  laying  away  in  the  dark  ripens 
up  the  Bartlett  well.  When  picked  at  this  stage  and  sent  overland  by 
slow  freight,  they  ripen  en  route  and  the  boxes  open  well  on  the  Eastern 
markets.  There  are  a  few  varieties  which  shrivel  if  ripened  under 
cover,  but  the  rule  is  a  good  one,  and  the  grower  will  soon  note  the 
exceptions.  Many  desirable  varieties  have,  no  doubt,  been  pronounced 
poor  and  insipid  because  allowed  to  ripen  on  the  tree. 

To  ripen  well,  pears  should  be  packed  in  tight  boxes  or  inclosed 
in  drawers.  They  do  not  do  as  well  as  apples  on  shelves  open  to 
circulation  of  air.  As  already  stated,  the  oily-skinned  apple  endures 
exposure  and  maintains  a  smooth,  ruddy  cheek  and  sound  heart  in 
spite  of  wind,  rain  and  rough  weather.  The  pear  under  similar 
conditions  decays  rapidly. 


BLOOMING  DATES  OF  PEARS 


POLLINATION  OF  PEARS 


263 


As  very  few  varieties  of  pears  are  largely  grown  in  California 
and  as  the  Bartlett  generally  bears  well  when  grown  in  large  acreages 
by  itself,  the  Eastern  claim  that  the  Bartlett  is  self-sterile  does  not 
seem  to  be  justified  in  California  experience.  Recent  observations 
indicate  that  even  at  the  east  the  Bartlett  is  self-fertile  when  conditions 
are  favorable  to  setting  of  the  fruit  and  self-sterile  when  they  are 
otherwise.  As  conditions  are  usually  favorable  in  California  this  may 
be  the  reason  why  its  self-fertility  is  more  conspicuous  here  than  at 
the  east.  It  has  been  individually  noted,  however,  that  the  White 
Doyenne  is  a  good  fertilizer  for  the  Bartlett.  The  Winter  Nelis  is 
one  of  the  pears  commercially  worth  growing  which  is  most  apt  to 
be  fruitless,  but  thus  far  association  with  other  varieties  has  not 
been  demonstrated  to  be  a  full  remedy.  For  the  assistance  of  those 
who  desire  to  test  pear  pollination  the  following  statement  is  made 
of  the  relative  dates  of  bloom  of  a  large  number  of  varieies,  based 
upon  records  kept  in  Tulare  County : 


VARIETY. 

First  Bloom. 

Full  Bloom. 

Barry    

March  10 

March  20 

Bartlett    

March  14 

March  24 

Belle  Lucrative  

March  14 

March  26 

Beurre  Clairgeau   

March  11 

March  22 

Beurre  d'Amanlis  

March  10 

March  20 

Beurre  d'Anjou   

,  March  16 

March  24 

Beurre  Diel   

March  20 

March  30 

Beurre  Giffard  

March  16 

March  26 

Beurre  Gris  d'Hiver  

March  14 

March  24 

Beurre  Hardy  , 

March  18 

March  28 

Clapp's  Favorite  

March  14 

March  24 

Colonel  Wilder  

March  14 

March  24 

Counseiller  de  la  Cour  

March  12 

March  22 

Dearborn's  Seedling  

March  16 

March  28 

Doyenne  d'Alencon  , 

March  18 

March  28 

Doyenne  d'Ete    

March  18 

March  28 

Doyenne  du  Cornice  

March  16 

March  26 

Duchesse  d'Angoulene   

March  12 

March  20 

Easter  Beurre   

March  14 

March  20 

Flemish  Beauty  

March  20 

March  30 

Forelle    

March    2 

March  10 

Frederick   Clapp    

March  16 

March  26 

Howell   

March  14 

March  24 

laminette   

March  12 

March  22 

Joseph  de  Malines  

March  12 

March  22 

Keifer's  Hybrid  

March    2 

March  10 

Kennedy    

March  14 

March  24 

Lawrence    

March  12 

March  22 

Lawson   

March  16 

March  26 

Le  Conte  

Feb.      28 

March    2 

Louise  Bonne  de  Jersey  

March  10 

March  20 

Seckel  

March  14 

March  24 

Sheldon    

March  18 

March  28 

Souvenir  du  Congres  

March  20 

March  29 

Swan's  Orange  

March  14 

March  24 

Vernon   

March    8 

March  19 

White  Doyenne    

March  14 

March  24 

Winter  Nelis  

March  12 

March  20 

264  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

VARIETIES    OF   THE    PEAR 

Though  large  collections  of  famous  Eastern  and  European  pears 
have  been  brought  to  California,  the  peculiarity  of  the  local  market 
and  demand  for  canning  and  shipping  has  led  to  concentration  upon 
very  few  sorts.  The  pears  chiefly  grown  in  California  are  the  follow- 
ing, arranged  approximately  in  the  order  of  their  ripening: 

Harvest;  syn.  Sugar  Pear  (American). — Small,  roundish,  pale  yellow,  brown- 
ish in  sun,  brown  and  green  dots;  flesh  whitish,  rather  dry  but  sweet;  tree 
upright,  young  wood  olive  yellow  brown. 

Madeleine  (French). — Medium,  obovate  pyriform,  stalk  long  and  slender,  set 
on  the  side  of  a  small  swelling:  pale  yellowish  green,  rarely  brownish  blush; 
calyx  small,  in  shallow,  furrowed  basin;  flesh  white,  juicy,  delicate. 

Wilder  Early  (American). — Small  to  medium,  yellow  with  red  cheek;  sweet, 
and  good.  Recently  introduced  and  profitable  for  local  sale  in  San  Diego 
county.  Should  not  be  confused  with  Col.  Wilder,  a  California  seedling  which 
has  gone  out  of  use. 

Bloodgood  (New  York). — Tree  short,  jointed,  deep  reddish  brown  wood; 
fruit  medium  turbinate,  inclining  to  obovate,  thickening  abruptly  into  stalk; 
yellow,  sprinkled  with  russet  dots ;  calyx  strong,  open,  almost  without  depression ; 
stalk  obliquely  inserted,  without  depression,  short,  fleshy  at  its  base;  flesh  yellow- 
ish white,  melting,  sugary,  aromatic;  core  small. 

Clapp's  Favorite  (Massachusetts). — Tree  a  strong  grower;  young  shoots  dark 
reddish  brown ;  fruit  large,  slightly  obtuse  pyriform ;  pale  lemon  yellow  with 
brown  dots;  flesh  fine,  melting,  juicy,  with  rich,  sweet  delicate,  vinous  flavor; 
resembles  Bartlett,  but  lacks  musky  flavor. 

Dearborn's  Seedling  (Massachusetts). — Young  shoots  long,  reddish  brown; 
under  medium  size;  roundish  pyriform;  smooth,  clear,  light  yellow,  with  few 
minute  dots;  stalk  slender  set  with  very  little  depression;  calyx  spreading  in 
shallow  basin ;  flesh  white,  very  juicy,  melting,  sprightly. 

Lawson;  syn.  Comet  (New  York). — Medium  to  large,  bright  crimson  on 
yellow  ground ;  flesh  fine,  rich  and  sweet. 

Souvenir  du  Congres  (French). — Large  to  very  large  (exceeding  Bartlett  and 
Clapp's  Favorite,  to  both  of  which  it  bears  a  strong  resemblance)  ;  skin  smooth, 
bright  yellow  when  fully  ripe,  brilliant  carmine  in  the  sun;  flesh  resembling 
Bartlett,  but  has  not  the  musky  flavor ;  firm  to  the  core ;  tree  a  good  grower,  but 
somewhat  subject  to  smut. 

Bartlett  (English). — Tree  a  strong  grower,  early  bearer,  and  healthy;  fruit 
large,  smooth,  clear  yellow,  sometimes  with  delicate  blush ;  stalk  moderately  long, 
stout  and  inserted  in  shallow  cavity;  calyx  open;  flesh  white,  fine  grained,  juicy, 
buttery,  highly  perfumed  (musky),  vinous  flavor. 

Beurre  Hardy. — Large,  long  obovate,  sometimes  obscurely  pyriform;  skin 
greenish  with  thin,  brown  russet;  stalk  an  inch  long;  cavity  small,  uneven, 
oblique,  basin  shallow;  buttery,  somewhat  melting,  rich,  slightly  subacid;  tree  a 
strong  grower. 

Flemish  Beauty  (Belgian). — Large,  obovate,  often  obscurely  tapering  to  the 
crown,  very  obtuse,  surface  slightly  rough,  with  some  reddish  brown  russet  on 
pale  yellow  ground;  flesh  juicy,  melting,  and  good  if  picked  early  and  ripened  in 
the  house. 

Seek  el  (Pennsylvania). — Rather  small,  regularly  formed,  obovate;  brownish 
green,  becoming  dull  yellowish  brown,  with  russet  red  cheek;  stalk  slightly 


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DESCRIPTIONS  OF  POPULAR  PEARS  265 

curved,  and  set  in  strifling  depression;  calyx  small  and  set  in  a  very  slight 
depression;  flesh  whitish,  buttery,  very  juicy  and  melting,  with  peculiarly  rich, 
spicy  flavor  and  aroma. 

Hoiuell  (Connecticut). — Rather  large,  roundish  pyriform,  light  waxen  yellow, 
often  with  finely-shaded  cheek  thickly  sprinkled  with  minute  russet  dots  and 
some  russet  patches ;  stalk  medium,  without  cavity  and  sometimes  lipped ;  some- 
times in  small  cavity;  calyx  open  in  large,  uneven  basin;  flesh  whitish,  juicy, 
brisk,  vinous. 

Duchess  d'Angouleme  (France). — Very  large,  oblong  obovate;  somewhat 
uneven,  knobby  surface;  dull  greenish  yellow,  streaked  and  spotted  with  russet; 
stalk  long,  stout,  bent,  deeply  set  in  irregular  cavity;  calyx  set  in  somewhat 
knobby  basin ;  flesh  white,  butterv.  and  juicy,  with  rich  flavor. 

Louise  Bonne  of  Jersey  (France.) — Larere  oblong  pyriform,  a  little  one-sided; 
glassy,  pale  green  in  shade,  brownish  red  in  the  sun,  numerous  gray  dots;  stalk 
curved,  rather  obliquely  inserted,  without  depression,  or  with  a  fleshy,  enlarged 
base ;  calyx  open  in  a  shallow  uneven  basin ;  flesh  very  juicy,  and  melting,  rich, 
and  excellent ;  very  prolific. 

Beurre  Diel  (Belgium). — Large,  varying  from  obovate  to  obtuse  pyriform; 
skin  rather  thick,  lemon  yellow,  becoming  orange  yellow,  marked  with  large 
brown  dots  and  marblings  of  russet;  stalk  stout,  curved  in  rather  uneven  cavity; 
calyx  nearly  closed  in  slightly  furrowed  basin ;  flesh  yellowish  white,  a  little 
coarse-grained  near  the  core;  rich,  sugary,  buttery,  delicious. 

White  Doyenne;  syn.  Virgalieu  (French.) — Medium  to  large,  regular,  obo- 
vate ;  smooth,  clear  pale  yellow  sprinkled  with  small  dots,  sometimes  red  cheeked ; 
stalk  brown,  little  curved,  in  small  round  cavity;  calyx  small,  closed  in  shallow 
basin;  flesh  white,  fine-grained,  buttery,  rich,  and  high  flavored. 

Beurre  Bosc  (Belgium.) — Large  pyriform,  a  little  uneven,  often  tapering  long 
and  gradually  into  the  stalk;  skin  pretty  smooth,  dark  yellow,  dots  and  streaks 
of  cinnamon  russet,  slightly  red  on  one  side ;  stalk  long,  rather  slender,  curved ; 
calyx  short,  in  shallow  basin;  flesh  white,  melting,  buttery,  rich,  with  slightly 
perfumed  flavor. 

Onondaga;  syn.  Swan's  Orange  (Connecticut). — Large,  obtuse,  oval  pyriform, 
neck  very  short  and  obtuse,  body  large  and  tapering  to  obtuse  apex ;  flesh  melting, 
sprightly,  vinous.  A  vigorous,  upright  grower,  healthy;  yellow  shoots;  sells  well 
in  distant  markets. 

Beurre  Clairgeau  (France.) — Large,  pyriform,  but  with  unequal  sides;  yellow, 
shaded  with  orange  and  crimson,  thickly  covered  with  russet  dots,  sometimes 
sprinkled  with  russet ;  stalk  short,  stout  and  fleshy,  inserted  by  a  lip  at  an  inclina- 
tion almost  without  depression ;  when  lip  is  absent,  the  cavity  is  uneven ;  calyx 
open;  flesh  yellowish,  buttery,  juicy,  granular,  sugary,  perfumed,  vinous;  apt  to 
ripen  early  for  a  winter  pear. 

Beurre  d'Anjou  (France). — Large,  obtuse  pyriform;  stem,  short,  thick,  and 
fleshy,  in  a  cavity,  surrounded  by  russet;  calyx  small,  open  in  small  capity,  rus- 
setted ;  skin  greenish,  sprinkled  with  russet,  sometimes  shaded  with  dull  crimson, 
brown  .and  crimson  dots;  flesh  whitish,  not  very  fine,  melting,  juicy,  brisk,  vinous 
flavor,  perfumed ;  tree  a  fair  grower,  but  somewhat  affected  by  fungus. 

Dana's  Hovey;  syn.  Winter  Seckel  (Massachusetts). — Small,  obovate,  obtuse 
pyriform ;  greenish  yellow  or  pale  yellow,  with  much  russet  and  brown  dots ; 
stalk  rather  short;  a  little  curved,  set  in  slight  cavity,  sometimes  lipped;  calyx 
open  and  basin  small;  flesh,  yellowish,  juicy,  melting,  sweet,  aromatic. 

Vicar  of  Winkfield  (France.) — Large  and  long  pvriform;  pale  yellow,  fair 
and  smooth,  sometimes  with  brownish  cheek  and  marked  with  small  brown  dots ; 
stalk  slender,  obliquely  inserted  without  depression;  calyx  large,  open,  set  in  a 
basin  very  slightly  sunk;  flesh  greenish  yellow,  juicy,  with  good  sprightly  flavor. 


266  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  :   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 


Doyenne  du  Comics  (France.) — Large,  varying,  roundish  pyriform,  or  broad, 
obtuse  pyriform ;  greenish  yellow  becoming  fine  yellow,  shaded  with  crimson, 
,  slightly  marked  with  russet  spots,  and  thickly  sprinkled  with  russet  dots;  stalks 
short,  stout,  inclined  and  set  in  shallow  cavity,  often  russetted ;  calyx  small,  open ; 
basin  large,  deep  and  uneven ;  flesh  white,  fine,  melting,  aromatic.  Very  profitable 
during  last  few  years  in  eastern  shipments. 

Glout  Morceau  (Flemish). — Rather  large,  varying  in  form,  but  usually  short 
pyriform,  approaching  obtuse  oval;  neck  very  short  and  obtuse;  body  large  and 
tapering  towards  crown ;  often  considerably  ribbed ;  green,  becoming  pale  greenish 
yellow ;  stalk  stout,  moderately  sunk ;  calyx  large,  basin  distinct,  rather  irregu- 
lar; flesh  white,  fine-grained,  buttery,  melting,  rich,  sweet,  and  fine  flavor. 

Block's  Acme  (California  seedling,  b^  A.  Block,  of  Santa  Clara). — Large  and 
very  handsome,  surpassing  Beurre  Clairgeau  in  size  and  color ;  regularly  formed, 
pyriform,  skin  pale  yellow,  covered  with  russet  all  over,  which  becomes  a  line 
glowing  red  on  the  side  exposed  to  the  sun;  flesh  white,  crisp,  and  melting,  juicy, 
sweet,  and  slightly  musky;  a  pear  that  will  rank  foremost  with  our  best  snipping 
pears ;  reserved  by  originator  for  his  own  export  trade. 

Winter  Nelis  (Belgium). — Medium,  roundish,  obovate,  narrowed  in  near  the 
stalk;  yellowish  green,  dotted  with  gray  russet  and  a  good  deal  covered  with 
russet;  stalk  rather  long,  bent,  and  set  in  narrow  cavity;  calyx  open  in  shallow 
basin ;  flesh  yellowish,  white,  fine  grained,  buttery,  very  melting,  and  full  of  rich, 
sweet,  aromatic  juice. 

P.  Barry  (California  seedling,  by  B.  S.  Fox). — Fruit  large,  elongated  pyri- 
form, a  little  obtuse;  skin  deep  yellow,  nearly  covered  with  a  rich  golden  russet; 
stalk  of  medium  length  and  thickness,  set  rather  obliquely  on  a  medium  cavity, 
sometimes  by  a  lip;  flesh  whitish,  fine,  juicy,  melting,  sweet,  slightly  vinous  and 
rich.  An  early  and  prolific  bearer.  December  to  January.  P.  Barry  is  recom- 
mended for  planting  by  the  Southern  California  Nurserymen's  Association.  It 
is,  to  some  extent,  displacing  the  Winter  Nelis  as  a  more  healthy  tree  and  a 
more  certain  bearer.  Has  sold  well  in  eastern  shipments. 

Easter  Beurre  (France). — Large,  roundish,  obovate  obtuse,  often  rather 
square  in  figure;  yellowish  green,  sprinkled  with  many  russet  dots  and  some 
russet  patches ;  stalk  rather  short,  stout,  set  in  an  abruptly  sunken,  obtuse  cavity ; 
calyx  small,  closed,  but  little  sunk  among  plaited  folds  of  angular  basin ;  flesh 
white,  fine  grained,  very  buttery,  melting,  and  juicy,  sweet,  rich  flavor;  was  suc- 
cessfully shipped  from  California  to  England  as  early  as  1872.  Bears  more 
regularly  but  usually  sells  for  less  than  Winter  Nelis. 

Pound. — Large,  pyriform,  yellowish-green  with  red  cheek,  esteemed  for  cook- 
ing; reaches  enormous  size  in  this  State,  as  already  noted. 

Kieffer  and  Le  Conte. — These  pears,  recently  introduced  as  especially  hardy 
varieties,  are  grown  to  a  limited  extent  in  all  parts  of  the  State,  but  are  usually 
condemned  as  inferior  to  the  European  varieties.  The  Kieffer  is  best  in  interior 
regions. 

Crocker's  Bartlett  (California). — Chance  seedling  on  place  of  L.  L.  Crocker, 
Loomis,  Placer  county.  Introduced  by  Mr.  Crocker  in  1902.  Described  in  year 
book,  1905,  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture;  medium  to  large,  oblong,  obo- 
vate, pyriform ;  rich  golden  yellow,  somewhat  russetty ;  quality  very  good ;  keeps 
until  March.  Claimed  to  be  blight-resistant  and  regula'rly  productive. 

Winter- Bartlett  (Oregon). — Chance  seedling  in  a  dooryard  in  Eugene,  Oregon. 
Introduced  in  California  by  Geo.  C.  Roeding,  of  Fresno.  Closely  resembles 
Bartlett  in  shape  and  appearance  and  flavor  but  a  little  coarser;  ripens  four 
months  later  than  Bartlett  in  interior  situations  in  California  and  promising  as 
a  winter  pear.  Abandoned  by  some  growers  for  coarseness  and  disliked  by 
canners  for  developing  a  pink  color. 


TABULATED   STATEMENT 


267 


Pear  Varieties  Approved  by  California  Growers. 


Upper             Central  Interior  Mountain        California 

VARIETIES.                               coast  coast             valley  and  valley  and  Southern 

valleys.            valleys.  foothill.  plateaux.  Coast. 

Angouleme   (Duchess)    ....         *  *  *  *  * 

Anjou    *  *  *  * 

Bartlett    **  **  **  **  ** 

Bosc    *  *  * 

Clairgeau  *  *  * 

Clapp's  Favorite ... 

Cornice   * 

Easter  Beurre   *  **  **  ...  * 

Flemish  Beauty  *  *  * 

Glout  Morceau *  **  ...  * 

Hardy,  Beurre *  *  ...  * 

Howell     *  *  *  ...  * 

Kieffer    

Lawson   ...  **  *  * 

Louise,  Bonne  de  Jersey * 

Madeleine   *  *  *  * 

P.  Barry  **  **  *  *  * 

Seckel    *  *  *  **  ** 

Souvenir  de  Congres *  *  *  **  ... 

Vicar  of  Winkfield *  * 

Wilder,  Early    ...  * 

White  Doyenne *  *  *  ...  ... 

Winter  Bartlett  *  *  *  ...  * 

Winter  Nelis   *  **  **  *  ** 


*Indicates  that  the  variety  is  approved  in  the  region  designated. 
**Most  highly  commended. 


CHAPTER   XXIII 
PLUMS    AND    PRUNES* 

The  plums  of  California  are  exceptionally  fine  in  appearance  and 
of  high  quality.  Both  tree  and  fruit  have  thus  far  escaped  the  parasites 
which  have  wrought  greatest  injury  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
continent.  The  curculio  has  never  been  found  here,  and  the  "black 
knot,"  though  detected  in  some  of  the  indigenous  species  of  the 
genus  prunus^  has  never  been  observed  in  our  orchards.  The  tree 
suffers,  it  is  true,  as  do  most  other  fruit  trees,  from  various  pests  and 
diseases  but  their  work  is  a  light  affliction  compared  with  the  ravages 
of  the  curculio  and  black  knot  which  Eastern  plum  growers  have  to 
contend  against.  Because  of  reduced  planting  during  the  last  few 
years,  the  plum  stands  second  in  point  of  number  among  the  fruit  trees 
of  California,  for,  as  noted  in  Chapter  XX,  the  peach  now  holds  first 
place.  Of  the  plums,  at  least  four-fifths  of  the  acreage  are  those 
varieties  designated  as  prunes.  This  is,  of  course,  owing  to  the  profita- 
ble shipping  demand  for  our  prune  product,  while  ordinary  dried,  pitted 
plums  are  expensive  in  production  and  do  not  always  command  good 
prices.  There  is,  however,  a  large  trade  at  the  East  in  our  fine  plums 
in  a  fresh  state.  Some  varieties  stand  shipment  well,  and  are  large, 
handsome  and  in  some  cases  possessed  of  unique  characters,  resulting 
from  Mr.  Burbank's  work  with  the  Japanese  species  as  will  be  noted 
later.  Considerable  shipments  of  fresh  plums  have  been  made  from 
California  to  England. 

By  choosing  varieties  ripening  in  succession,  the  plum  season 
extends  from  May  to  December,  thus  enabling  the  California  plum 
grower  to  strike  the  Eastern  markets  both  early  and  late.  It  is  on 
record  also,  that  second  crop  plums  have  ripened.  In  1904  Judge  Leib, 
of  San  Jose,  sent  to  Luther  Burbank,  on  December  1,  ripe  fruit  from 
a  tree  which  ripened  its  first  crop  on  July  4,  of  the  same  year. 

There  is  also  considerable  demand  for  plums  by  the  canners  who 
do  not  use,  however,  the  varieties  in  chief  demand  for  shipping. 


LOCALITIES    FOR   THE   PLUM 

The  plum  has  an  exceedingly  wide  range  in  California.  The  trees 
are  thrifty  and  profitable  even  from  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  coast 
and  in  coast  valleys,  where  the  sea  winds  and  fogs  intrude  eastward 
across  the  great  interior  valleys,  and  upwards  upon  the  sides  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada.  In  the  upper  half  of  the  State,  at  least,  wherever  there 

*A11  prunes  are  plums,  but  all  plums  are  not  prunes.  A  prune  is  a  plum  which  can  be 
dried  without  the  removal  of  the  pit  without  fermenting:  The  result  being  a  fleshy  pulp 
with  a  high  degree  of  sweetness.  All  plums  which  will  not  do  this  are  not  prunes,  even 
though  the  word  may  appear  in  their  California  common  names. 

tFound  on  primus  demissa,  in  Yosemite  Valley  and  in  Coast  Range  in  San  Mateo 
County,  by  Dr.  H.  W.  Harkness.  Report  State  Board  of  Horticulture,  1883,  pp.  54,  55. 

268 


LOCALITIES  FOR  PLUMS  AND  PRUNES  269 

is  sufficient  moisture  in  the  soil,  good  plums  can  be  grown.  The  tree 
is  quite  hardy,  but  in  situations  open  to  the  sweep  of  the  winds  there 
has  been  found  to  be  decided  advantage  in  belts  of  sheltering  trees  for 
protection.  At  some  points  subject  to  direct  coast  influences,  there  is 
sometimes  loss  by  cracking  of  the  fruit.  It  is  seldom  encountered  in 
the  interior  valley,  except  near  the  rivers  or  in  draws  where  the  damp 
coast  air  makes  its  way  through.  It  seems  to  be  worst  where  there  are 
marked  differences  in  atmospheric  humidity  within  short  periods  of 
time.  Where  the  percentage  is  quite  uniformly  high  or  low  there  seems 
to  be  less  trouble.  Some  years  conditions  usually  restricted  to  more 
exposed  coast  situations  prevail  in  the  interior  valley,  and  the  result  is 
unusual  prevalence  of  mildew  and  other  moist  fungi  and  cracking  of 
fruit  also,  though  they  have  no  relation  to  each  other  except  that  the 
same  conditions  favor  both.  Only  certain  varieties  are  thus  affected, 
and  they  can  be  avoided  where  the  trouble  is  found  to  exist. 

It  was  for  a  long  time  held  that  southern  California  was  not 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  the  plum,  but  the  experience  of  the  last  few 
years  has  shown  that  the  conclusion  was  too  broad.  The  "French 
prune"  demonstrated  its  success  adjacent  to  the  Coast  in  Santa  Barbara 
County,  and  elsewhere,  in  the  low,  rich  lands  of  the  Santa  Ana  Valley, 
of  Orange  County,  in  the  interior  at  various  points  on  the  rim  of  the 
San  Gabriel  Valley,  in  Los  Angeles  County,  notably  at  Pomona,  and 
still  farther  inland  in  the  San  Bernardino  Valley,  but  the  Southern 
California  prune  product  is  small  because  the  land  and  water  can  be 
more  profitably  used  for  other  fruits.  There  is,  however,  difficulty  in 
some  dry  uplands  where  the  tree  is  shy  in  fruiting  and  subject  to  serious 
gumming ;  but  this  is  encountered  locally  in  all  parts  of  the  State.  Irri- 
gation does  not  always  overcome  these  troubles,  and  .yet,  no  doubt,  the 
arrangement  of  proper  moisture  conditions  is  important.  The  tree 
should  be  helped  to  make  one  good  growth  and  to  ripen  its  wood  in 
the  fall.  To  have  growth  checked  by  drouth  and  a  second  start  made 
later  in  the  season  is  not  desirable. 

Still  it  must  be  admitted  that  prune  planting  in  the  interior,  pro- 
ceeding with  such  rapidity,  has  encountered  some  soils  and  situations 
in  which  bearing  has  not  been  altogether  satisfactory.  New  planters 
should  confer  with  older  residents  before  making  investments  in  prune 
planting  in  interior  valleys  and  foothills. 

All  the  foregoing  observations  are  based  upon  the  behavior  of 
plums  of  European  origin ;  descendants  of  the  prunus  domestica.  One 
of  the  grandest  contributions  to  the  extension  of  the  range  of  the  plum 
in  California  was  the  introduction  of  the  Asiatic  species,  prunus 
triflora  and  simoni.  Varieties  of  these  species  directly  introduced  or 
locally  developed  by  Burbank  and  others,  have  proved  productive  in 
places  where  the  domestica  varieties  were  abandoned  as  shy  or  sterile. 
To  estimate  the  value  of  these  varieties  one  has  only  to  visit  the  home 
fruit  gardens  of  southern  California  or  inspect  the  fruit  stands  of  Los 
Angeles  which  are  continuous  exhibits  of  fine  specimens  of  these 
varieties  in  their  seasons.  Even  in  places  where  the  domestica  varieties 
are  largely  grown  the  Asiatic  varieties  are  also  prominent  as  is  shown 


270  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

by  the  fact  that  the  Wickson,  a  Burbank  triflora-simoni  hybrid,  is  the 
leading  shipping  plum  of  California,  and  shipping  plums  are  chiefly 
grown  in  the  central  and  northern  regions  of  the  State.  Other  notable 
Burbank  plums  of  recent  introduction  will  be  included  in  the  descrip- 
tions of  varieties  at  close  of  this  chapter. 


SOILS   AND    STOCKS    FOR   THE    PLUM 

With  the  plum,  as  with  the  apricot,  the  subject  of  soils  and  stocks 
are  intimately  related,  but  the  whole  matter  has  been  wonderfully 
simplified  by  the  experience  of  the  last  few  years.  This  relief  has 
come  through  the  adoption  of  the  myrobalan,  or  cherry  plum  (prunus 
myrobalaria)  has  a  general  all-around  stock  for  plums  and  prunes. 
Before  this  practice  was  taken  up  the  effort  to  grow  the  plum  on  its 
own  roots  generally  resulted  in  getting-  an  orchard  full  of  suckers,  and 
to  avoid  this,  plums  were  worked  on  peach  roots  wherever  this  root 
would  succeed  in  the  soil  to  be  planted.  But  some  varieties  of  plums 
do  not  take  kindly  to  the  peach,  and  then  "double  working"  (putting 
first  on  the  peach  a  plum  which  is  known  to  take  well  and  then  on  that 
plum  wood  the  variety  desired)  was  followed.  The  use  of  the  myro- 
balan does  away  with  the  suckering  nuisance,  and  the  need  of  double 
working. 

There  was  considerable  discussion  a  few  years  ago  as  to  what  is 
the  true  myrobalan,  and  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  some  of  the 
refined  distinctions  formerly  claimed  have  been  abandoned.  Seedlings 
grown  from  the  seed  of  the  myrobalan  vary  as  do  other  fruit  seedlings, 
both  in  fruit  and  in  foliage  and  habit  of  trees,  and  perhaps  this  fact 
has  given  rise  to  the  distinction  between  "true"  and  "false"  myrobalan, 
so-called.  Practice  has  proceeded  without  much  reference  to  the 
discussion,  and  our  nurserymen  now  have  large,  thrifty  myrobalan 
trees  from  which  they  secure  their  seed  supply.  Growing  stock 
from  myrobalan  cuttings  is  but  little  practiced.  The  myrobalan  is  now 
the  accepted  plum  stock  for  California,  except  in  light,  alluvial,  well 
drained  soils,  where,  for  the  French  prune,  peach  or  almond  may  be 
preferred.  Though  described  by  some  authorities  as  a  dwarfing  stock, 
it  is  found  to  be  sufficiently  free  growing  in  California  to  suit  all 
purposes,  and  to  form  a  good  foundation  for  full  standard  trees,  though 
the  peach  and  almond  roots  in  proper  soils  give  a  quicker  and  greater 
growth.  Experience  has  shown  that  the  myrobalan  root  thrives  in 
this  State  both  in  low,  moist,  valley  lands;  in  comparatively  dry  lands; 
if  not  too  light  and  leachy?  and  in  stiff  upland  soils. 

In  some  soils  especially  adapted  to  the  peach,  peach  roots  are 
preferred  as  stock  for  the  French  prune,  but,  as  already  said,  all  plums 
can  not  be  worked  directly  on  the  peach  root,  the  Robe  de  Sergeant, 
Columbia,  Yellow  Egg,  Washington,  and  Sugar  Prune,  for  example. 
Sometimes  the  bud  or  scion  may  make  a  large  growth,  but  the  two 
woods  do  not  unite,  and  the  trees  break  off  sooner  or  later. 

Some  work  the  plum  on  the  apricot  root,  and  report  success  when 
the  soil  suits  the  apricot  root,  and  the  gophers  do  not  get  at  it.  But  it 


PLANTING   PLUMS   AND  PRUNES  27] 

sometimes  happens  that  the  French  prune  parts  from  the  apricot  root 
even  after  growing  some  time  upon  it.  There  are,  however,  instances 
of  the  French  prune  thriving,  and,  apparently  making  good  union  with 
the  apricot  root  and  some  of  the  softer  wood  varieties,  like  the  Sugar 
Prune,  take  kindly  to  it. 

Some  plums  do  well  on  the  almond  root  and  some  do  not.  The 
French  prune  succeeds  admirably  both  when  worked  on  young  almond 
stocks  and  top  grafted  in  old  almond  trees.  Success  is  also  reported 
with  the  Fellenberg  on  the  almond.  But  the  almond  root  is  suited 
especially  for  warm,  dry  soils.  Excellent  results  from  the  use  of 
almond  stock  are  reported  from  the  interior  valley  and  the  Sierra 
foothills. 

Propagating  by  Sprouts. — The  French  practice  of  growing  cer- 
tain varieties  of  the  plum  by  means  of  sprouts  from  the  base  of  old  trees 
was  successfully  followed  in  this  State  by  Felix  Gillet,  of  Nevada  City, 
and  was  strongly  commended  by  him  as  securing  a  tree  which  will  not 
gum,  which  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  the  same  practice  prevails  in 
France.  Sprouts  growing  at  the  foot  of  old  and  large  trees,  and  but 
few  are  found  to  each  tree,  are  taken  off  and  planted  close  together  in 
a  bed  to  make  them  root  well,  and  the  ensuing  spring  planted  in  nur- 
sery rows,  where  they  are  trained  like  any  other  trees,  and  transplanted 
where  to  remain,  when  branched.  For  this  method  it  is  necessary  that 
the  parent  tree  should  be  upon  its  own  roots,  else  one  is  apt  to  get 
suckers  from  a  wild  stock.  Sprout-grown  trees  can  not,  however,  be 
defended  unless  some  special  point  like  that  claimed  by  Mr.  Gillet  can 
be  attained  bv  them. 


PLANTING  AND  PRUNING 

As  with  other  trees,  there  is  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  best  dis- 
tance apart  for  plum  trees.  The  present  tendency  is  toward  wider 
planting;  not  nearer  than  twenty  feet  is  the  usual  advice,  and  on  rich' 
land,  twenty-two  or  twenty-four  feet  is  better. 

The  plum,  in  California,  is  a  most  rapid  grower ;  six  to  ten  feet  from 
the  bud  or  graft  in  a  season,  and  about  as  much  after  the  first  winter's 
cutting  back,  is  not  at  all  unusual.  At  this  rate  of  progress  then,  the 
tree  soon  runs  up  and  away,  in  a  spindling,  sprawling  fashion,  unless 
severely  cut  back  for  the  first  few  years.  Neglected  trees  of  some  va- 
rieties show  long,  streaming  branches,  arching  outward,  and  exposing 
the  bark  to  sunburn  (to  which  it  is  very  sensitive),  breaking  the  tree 
to  pieces  as  the  fruit  gets  weight,  and,  even  if  supported  by  props, 
breaking  off  at  the  bearing  of  the  prop.  This  condition  of  the  tree 
can  only  be  obviated  by  low  heading  and  moderate  cutting  back  each 
year,  with  due  regard  to  limiting  the  amount  of  bearing  wood  to  get 
large  fruit.  For  such  plum  varieties  the  suggestions  on  forming  the 
tree  and  subsequent  treatment  in  Chapter  XII  will  be  found  helpful. 
This  reference  to  repressive  treatment  for  brittle-wood  plums  is  em- 
phasized by  experience  with  the  Sugar  Prune  and  Golden  Prune,  of 
which  Mr.  Leonard  Coates  of  Morgan  Hill  says : 


272 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 


"The  sugar  prune  is  a  great  bearer,  but  the  tree  must  receive  very  different 
pruning  from  that  of  the  French  prune.  The  annual  growth  must  be  shortened 
in  every  winter  from  one-half  to  two-thirds,  and  all  laterals  and  fruit  spurs  must 
be  cut  back  at  every  pruning.  Of  course,  judicious  thinning  out  of  wood  is  also 
needed.  This  will  result  in  a  very  large,  showy,  product  for  long-distance  ship- 
ments, as  fresh  fruits,  which  have  brought  satisfactory  returns." 

Pruning  the  French  Prune. — Growers  of  the  French  prune,  and 
other  varieties  of  similar  growth  of  strong  and  pliable  wood,  have 
reached  substantial  agreement  as  to  the  best  practice.  The  old  method 
of  cutting  back  bearing  trees  has  been  abandoned.  Cutting  back  the 
young  tree  to  secure  sufficient  low  branching  is  followed  by  thinning 


Pruning  after  first  summer's 
growth  in  orchard. 


Growth  during  second  summer 
in  orchard. 


of  shoots  from  this  low  head  so  that  the  tree  shall  not  become  too  dense 
or  carry  too  much  bearing  wood.  The  strength  in  the  head  depends 
upon  proper  spacing  and  arrangement  of  the  branches  as  insisted  upon 
in  the  chapter  on  pruning ;  and  large,  well-ripened  fruit,  which  is  essen- 
tial to  successful  and  profitable  drying,  is  conditioned  upon  avoiding 
excess  of  branches  and  admission  of  sufficient  light  to  the  tree. 

A  rather  longer  central  stem  is  retained  than  in  the  old  style,  and 
a  central  stem  throughout  is  admissible  if  one  prefers  it  and  does  not 
desire  to  dispense  with  it  as  the  first  step  toward  securing  a  more  open 
tree.  Some  retain  the  longer  stem  at  planting,  others  cut  back  to 


PRUNING  THE  FRENCH   PRUNE  273 

eighteen  inches,  develop  three  side  branches  upon  that  and  train  the 
branch  from  the  top  bud  for  a  lengthening  of  the  stem,  and  bring  out 
more  branches  upon  that  the  second  year,  and  then  dispense  with  its 
farther  extension.  The  engravings  on  page  272  show  this  method  of 
developing  the  head  of  a  young  French  prune.  The  tree  was  cut  back 
at  planting  in  orchard  to  a  straight  switch  about  eighteen  inches  high. 
At  the  end  of  the  first  summer  this  showed  the  form  in  the  first  picture, 
which  is  marked  for  the  first  winter  pruning.  The  second  engraving 
shows  the  branching  developed  from  this  during  the  second  summer's 
growth,  also  marked  to  prune  away  some  undesirable  branches.  Upon 
a  tree  of  this  form  further  cutting  back  is  not  desirable  as  it  has  enough 
well-placed  branches  to  form  the  tree. 

How  long  cutting  back  shall  continue  depends  partly  upon  the  local- 
ity and  partly  upon  the  notion  of  the  owner.  In  interior  localities  the 
tree  grows  with  great  rapidity  and  branches  more  freely.  During  the 
third  summer  it  will  bear  some  fruit  if  not  cut  back  the  previous  winter, 
and,  where  growth  is  so  rapid,  there  is  little  danger  of  injuring  the 
tree  by  early  bearing.  In  the  coast  valleys  cutting  back  may  continue 
another  year,  and  fruiting  be  thus  postponed  a  year  to  get  another 
summer's  freer  wood  growth. 

Though  cutting  back  may  properly  cease  early  with  the  French 
prune,  it  is  a  great  mistake  to  allow  the  trees  to  go  unpruned.  Removal 
of  defective  wood,  prevention  of  branch  crowding  and  overbearing 
are  of  the  highest  importance,  as  insisted  upon  in  the  chapter  on  prun- 
ing. Removing  surplus  laterals  at  their  starting  points,  and  cutting 
back  leaders  to  laterals  already  grown  and  not  to  encourage  new  branch- 
ing will  result  in  a  more  open  tree,  which  is  generally  very  desirable. 

Special  Studies  of  Varieties  in  Pruning. — The  points  just  ad- 
vanced apply  especially  to  the  management  of  the  French  prune.  In 
addition  to  what  has  been  already  said  about  the  Sugar  prune,  the 
grower  must  be  exhorted  to  study  the  habit  of  the  variety  he  has  to 
deal  with.  The  general  rules  for  handling  trees  with  different  habits 
of  growth  are  applicable  to  a  certain  extent  to  the  plum.  When  to 
apply  a  rule  or  make  an  exception  must  be  learned  by  observation  and 
experience.  Some  plums,  like  the  Silver  prune,  have  something  of  the 
growth  habit  of  the  peach,  and  this  is  also  very  true  of  some  of  the 
Japanese  varieties.  Cutting  back  in  winter  and  pinching  in  summer 
are  both  useful  facts  in  securing  lower  branching  and  low-growing 
fruit  spurs. 

The  formation  of  the  vase-form  with  continuous  laterals,  as  dis- 
cussed in  Chapters  XII  and  XX  is  being  successfully  practiced  by 
some  growers  with  plum  varieties  which  need  short  pruning. 

Grafting  the  Plum. — The  plum  has  been  grafted  and  regrafted 
in  the  constant  effort  to  secure  varieties  promising  superiority  in  va- 
rious directions.  Within  the  scope  of  their  affinities  plums  graft  easily 
by  common  top-grafting  methods,  and  if  the  roots  are  strong  the  new 
growth  is  so  rapid  as  to  need  special  attention.  Mr.  Luther  Bowers 
gives  these  hints  about  pruning  such  growths:  "From  practical  ex- 
perience I  have  found  out  that  the  Sugar  prune  wood  should  only  be 


274  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  :   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

summer  pruned  and  only  cut  while  the  shoots  are  tender,  or  so  soft 
that  the  top  can  be  pinched  out;  this  will  cause  the  top  to  be  well 
branched  and  this  should  be  done  at  least  twice  during  the  first  year 
of  the  graft.  This  system  will  avoid  long,  slender  limbs.  After  a 
graft  is  two  years  old  I  would  never  cut  the  top  off  of  a  limb.  If  a 
tree  gets  too  thick  a  top,  I  would  cut  out  some  of  the  main  branches." 


THE  PLUMCOTS 

One  of  the  most  striking  achievements  of  Mr.  Burbank  from  the 
fruit  grower's  point  of  view  is  the  cross  of  the  plum  and  the  apricot, 
which  he  has  very  fitly  named  the  "plumcot."  He  has  combined  in  a 
single  fruit  enough  of  the  diverse  characters  of  two  fruits  so  that  the 
ordinary  observer  can  recognize  the  combination  clearly  and  distinguish 
the  gift  of  each  to  it.  Mr.  Burbank  has  secured  several  such  crosses, 
the  first  of  which  to  be  made  public  is  the  "Rutland,"  introduced  by 
Mr.  George  C.  Roeding  in  1907.  The  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  an 
ordinary  apricot  with  a  deep  purple  velvety  skin.  One  of  its  striking 
features  is  the  brilliant  red  flesh  possessed  of  a  strong  sub-acid  flavor 
rendering  it  suitable  for  cooking,  jellies  and  jams,  and  it  is  in  good 
demand  for  such  uses.  When  fully  ripe,  it  is  an  excellent  dessert  fruit 
possessing  an  apricot-plum  flavor.  The  amalgamation  of  the  apricot 
and  the  plum  has  produced  a  fruit  unique  in  character,  and  its  economic 
value  is  still  to  be  determined  by  the  exploitation  of  its  uses. 


HOW  A  PRUNE  QUEST  DISTURBED  THE  PLUM  FAMILY 
IN  CALIFORNIA 

Referring  to  the  distinction  between  plums  and  prunes  cited  at  the 
opening  of  this  chapter,  and  to  the  extent  and  methods  of  the  great 
prune  industry  of  the  State  which  will  appear  in  Chapter  XXXVIII,  it 
may  be  stated  here  that  the  California  prune  product  was  obviously 
undertaken  in  emulation  of  the  globe-trotting  French  prune,  which 
had  attained  position  as  the  leading  commercial  dried  fruit  of  the  world 
long  before  California  arose  on  the  horticultural  horizon.  Naturally, 
French  settlers  in  California  bethought  themselves  of  transplanting 
this  great  industry  to  their  new  home,  and  Mr.  Louis  Pellier  introduced 
scions  from  the  district  of  Agen  to  his  place  near  San  Jose  in  1856. 
the  product  was  good,  and  planting  for  a  large  output  was  entered 
upon,  though  slowly  at  first.  There  was  disappointment  over  the  fact 
that,  while  all  fruits  came  surprisingly  large  in  California,  the  dried 
prunes  were  smaller  than  the  great  French  prunes  in  cartons  and  canis- 
ters which  sold  for  great  prices.  Had  we  secured  the  true  French 
prune ;  did  they  not  have  larger  ones  which  they  were  holding  back 
from  us  ?  This  was  the  great  question  of  five  decades  ago.  Some  nur- 
serymen of  that  day  had  spirits  of  enterprise  larger  than  their  con- 
sciences. If  the  people  demand  larger  prunes  they  must  have  them, 


THE  EFFORT  TO  GET  A  PERFECT  PRUNE  275 

surely.  Because  of  the  small  average  size  of  the  prunes  of  Pellier's 
introduction,  they  christened  that  variety  "petite  prune  d'Agen,"  which 
was  subsequently  corrupted  into  "petty  prune" — a  free  translation  and 
a  mispronunciation  at  the  same  time,  for  a  prune  which  seemed  to  be 
too  small  and  inferior.  The  people  must  have  something  large,  and 
propagators  offered  trees  of  the  "gros  prune  d'Agen,"  or  the  "Hun- 
garian prune."  It  was  a  double  misnomer,  because  Europe  does  not 
have  any  "gros  prune  d'Agen"  and  the  variety  did  not  come  from  either 
France  or  Hungary,  but  was  the  old  large  light  red,  English  plum, 
properly  called  Pond's  Seedling,  re-christened  in  California  to  meet  a 
long-felt  want.  But  it  did  not  meet  such  a  want;  it  would  not  dry 
sweet  nor  fleshy,  but  became  merely  a  skin  and  pit,  with  a  sour  streak 
between.  Still  the  question  persisted :  Have  we  the  true  French  prune  ? 
It  was  definitely  settled  by  the  late  W.  B.  West  of  Stockton,  who  visited 
France  in  1878,  and  after  close  examination  of  the  trees,  announced 
that  the  variety  grown  in  California  was  really  the  prune  d'Agen,  and 
that  we  had  made  no  mistake  so  far  as  getting  the  main  standard 
variety  of  French  prune  was  concerned. 

But  still  we  needed  a  variety  which  would  run  more  to  large  sizes, 
and  how  to  get  it,  with  sweetness  and  flesh,  characters  which  would 
resemble  the  best  French  product,  was,  and  even  now  is,  still  a  question. 
One  of  the  early  introductions  to  meet  this  end  is  now  generally  known 
as  Robe  de  Sergeant.  Here  again  confusion  attends  the  name.  Robe 
de  Sergeant  is  one  of  the  synonyms  of  prune  d'Agen,  and  yet  the  fruit 
we  secured  was  different.  Much  discussion  was  given  to  the  elucida- 
tion of  this  problem,  and  the  conclusion  seemed  to  be  that  the  variety 
is  grown  in  France,  but  in  another  district,  and  is  generally  considered 
inferior  to  the  prune  d'Agen.  Still  it  runs  larger,  and  has  sold  well, 
even  though  of  distinctly  different  quality,  and  would  probably  have 
cut  a  much  larger  figure  in  California  prune  production  if  it  had  shown 
itself  to  be  more  free  and  regular  in  bearing.  Next  came  the  "prune 
d'ente,  or  Imperial  epineuse,"  introduced  at  about  the  same  time  by 
John  Rock  and  Felix  Gillet,  which  has  been  quite  widely  planted,  but 
because  of  shy  bearing,  especially  when  attacked  by  the  thrips,  and 
because  of  the  difficulty  in  drying  such  a  large  prune,  this  variety,  of 
which  so  much  was  expected,  has  fallen  into  disfavor  for  the  low  lands 
of  the  Santa  Clara  Valley,  though  on  the  mountains  west  of  this  valley 
and  in  the  prune  valleys  north  of  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco  it  has 
proved  very  popular  and  profitable  when  planted  on  uplands. 

Other  introductions  made  much  earlier,  like  the  German  and  Italian, 
also  fell  out  of  the  race  very  early,  for  shy  bearing  and  for  different 
flesh  characters.  Although  the  latter  leads  in  Oregon  and  other  States 
north  of  us,  it  is  out  of  California  calculations.  The  conclusion  of  the 
whole  matter  now  is  that  we  have  never  secured  from  abroad  a  better 
than  the  one  which  came  fifty  years  ago — the  true  prune  d'Agen.  We 
have  learned  to  grow  it  better,  to  seek  places  where  it  grows  larger 
and  in  full  quality ;  to  use  irrigation  when  it  is  needed  by  the  tree  to  do 
its  best ;  to  guard  against  overbearing  by  reducing  the  amount  of  bear- 
ing wood  and  excessive  branching ;  to  strengthen  the  soil  by  fertiliza- 
tion, and  to  grade  the  fruit  into  sizes  which  commend  themselves  to 


276  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  :  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

different  demands.  Here  we  are  again,  doing  our  main  business  at  the 
old  stand,  but  knowing  how  to  do  it  better.  Have  we  anything  more  to 
expect?  Probably  nothing  from  old  varieties,  for  we  have  prospected 
them  all  from  a  prune-making  point  of  view,  taking  Coe's  Golden  Drop 
plum,  or  its  seedling,  for  the  Silver  Prune,  and  canceling  all  others  as 
possibly  good  plums  for  various  uses,  but  not  for  prunes. 

Probably  our  only  expectation  lies  along  the  line  of  plant  breeding, 
although  nothing  to  supplant  the  prune  d'Agen  has  yet  been  attained. 
The  Giant  prune  is  a  large  red  plum ;  several  Oregon  prunes  are  simply 
large  red  plums.  The  standard  of  sugar  in  the  prune  d'Agen  as  grown 
in  California  is  from  15  to  23  per  cent  of  sugar  in  the  fresh  juice,  ac- 
cording to  degree  of  ripeness  and  localities  in  which  the  fruit  is  grown. 
The  sugar  in  Pond's  Seedling  and  in  the  large  red  plums  just  named 
is  less  than  10  per  cent — sometimes  very  much  less.  But  percentage 
of  sugar  in  the  juice  is  not  the  whole  story;  there  are  tissue  or  flesh 
characters  which  are  essential  also.  Mr.  Burbank's  Sugar  prune  an- 
swers the  sugar  requirement;  it  is  a  free  bearer  and  early  ripening 
variety,  and  it  dries  easily  though  large,  and  the  small  dried  product 
thus  far  made  has  sold  well,  but  it  has  not  the  fine  grain  nor  distinctive 
flavor  of  the  prune  d'Agen,  and  the  pit  is  large  and  rough.  It  becomes 
a  good  plum  for  shipping  and  possibly  for  other  plum  purposes.  But 
Mr.  Burbank  has  held  the  plum  family  in  training,  and  his  latest  intro- 
duction, the  Standard  prune,  seems  to  be  making  good,  and  in  1914  is 
being  widely  planted. 

Others  are  also  working  at  the  problem,  and  the  next  generation  of 
California  prune  growers  may  attain  what  the  last  and  present  have 
striven  for.  .The  most  promising  line  at  the  present  time  is  the  search 
for  better  types  of  the  prune  d'Agen  which  are  found  here  and  there, 
arising  from  natural  variation.  Mr.  Leonard  Coates  of  Morgan  Hill 
is  giving  particular  attention  to  this  subject,  and  has  demonstrated  the 
existence  of  very  superior  variations. 


POLLINATION  OF  PLUMS 

The  shy  bearing  of  certain  plums  is  probably  due  to  lack  of  pollina- 
tion, either  through  the  self-sterility  of  the  variety  or  lack  of  acceptable 
pollinating  agencies.  Bearing  can  be  induced  in  many  cases,  no  doubt, 
by  either  planting  or  grafting-in  of  effective  pollinating  varieties.  But 
this  is  not  always  profitable.  For  instance,  there  are  many  instances 
proving  that  the  Tragedy  can  be  brought  to  greater  bearing  by  the 
presence  of  Clyman,  but  an  early  variety  like  the  Clyman  is  not  worth 
growing  for  sale  in  a  late  district,  though  in  an  early  district  both  are 
valuable  as  shipping  plums  and  should  be  planted  together.  The  Hun- 
garian is  well  pollinated  by  the  Peach  and  the  Grand  Duke  plums.  The 
bearing  of  Wickson  is  greatly  increased  by  association  with  Climax  The 
pollination  of  plums  not  not  yet,  however,  been  given  as  much  attention 
as  of  other  fruits. 


TABULATED  STATEMENT  277 

Plums  and  Prunes  Approved  by  California  Growers. 


Upper 

Central 

Interior 

Mountain 

California 

VARIETIES. 

coast 

coast 

valley  and 

valleys  and 

Southern 

valleys. 

valleys. 

foothill. 

plateaux 

Coast. 

Abundance    

* 

** 

Agen,  Prune  d'  

** 

** 

** 

** 

** 

Bradshaw    

* 

* 

Burbank  

* 

** 

** 

** 

California  Red    

* 

Chalco    

* 

Climax   

* 

** 

* 

Clyman   

* 

** 

. 

.  .  . 

Coe's  Late  Red  

* 

Columbia  

* 

* 

* 

* 

Damson   

* 

* 

* 

* 

** 

Diamond    

* 

** 

Formosa    

* 

** 

German  Prune  

* 

* 

* 

* 

Giant   

* 

** 

Golden   Drop,    Coe's.... 

* 

* 

* 

* 

Golden  Prune  

** 

* 

Grand  Duke  

* 

** 

Green  Gage    

* 

* 

* 

Hale   

* 

* 

Imperial  Epineuse    

* 

** 

* 

Imperial  Gage   

* 

Italian  Prune  

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

Jefferson  '.  

* 

** 

* 

Kelsey    

* 

* 

** 

** 

Peach    

* 

* 

* 

* 

Pond    (Hungarian)    

* 

* 

** 

* 

* 

Red  June  

* 

* 

* 

* 

Robe  de   Sergeant  

** 

** 

Santa  Rosa   

* 

* 

* 

Satsuma   

* 

* 

* 

** 

Silver   

* 

* 

* 

Standard   

* 

* 

Sugar   

# 

** 

** 

* 

* 

Tragedy    

** 

** 

* 

Washington    

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

Wickson   

* 

** 

** 

* 

Yellow  Egg  

* 

** 

** 

** 

* 

*Indicates  that  the  variety  is  approved  in  the  region  designated. 
**Most  highly  commended. 


VARIETIES  OF  PLUMS  AND  PRUNES 

As  with  other  fruits,  comparatively  few  varieties  of  the  plum  are 
largely  grown  in  California,  and  the  list  is  continually  changing  by 
rejection  of  old  varieties  and  introduction  of  new  which  are  largely  of 
Burbank  origin: 

Simon  (Prunus  Simoni). — Medium  to  large,  roundish,  flattened,  with  cavities 
at  base  and  apex ;  brick  red,  small  yellow  spots ;  stalk  stout  and  short ;  flesh  yel- 
low, adhering  to  flattened  pit;  largely  grown  for  shipment  in  early  interior 
regions  where  it  has  good  quality ;  lacks '  flavor  and  cracks  badly  near  the 
coast.  Being  displaced  by  Burbank  varieties. 

Climax  (Burbank). — Large;  very  early;  heart-shaped;  deep  red;  flesh  yellow. 
Popular  for  shipping  in  places  where  it  does  not  crack  badly.  Growing  in  favor. 


278  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Clyman  (California  seedling  introduced  by  Leonard  Coates). — Large,  round- 
ish oblong,  flattened  suture  indistinct;  mottled  reddish  purple,  beautiful  blue 
bloom ;  freestone ;  flesh  firm,  dry  and  sweet ;  prolific ;  the  leading  early  plum  for 
shipment. 

Red  June  (Japanese). — Medium  to  large,  deep  red  flesh  light  yellow,  firm, 
good  quality.  The  best  of  the  early  Japanese  plums. 

California  Blue. — Seedling  of  Peach  plum  by  W.  W.  Smith,  Vacaville ;  large, 
good  flavor;  early;  "first  really  good  blue  plum." 

Tragedy  (California  seedling). — Medium  to  large,  suture  shallow,  wide  and 
extending  beyond  apex ;  dark  purple ;  flesh  yellowish  green,  sweet  and  well 
flavored ;  freestone.  Very  valuable  for  shipping  from  early  regions  in  all  parts 
of  the  State.  Largest  in  amount  of  shipments  in  1913. 

Abundance  (Japanese). — syns.  Yellow-fleshed  Botan,  Mikado  of  Hinclay. — 
Large,  globular  with  point  at  apex ;  cherry  color  covered  with  white  bloom ; 
flesh  yellow,  juicy  anl  rich.  Popular  for  shipment  from  eary  regions. 

California  Red  (California  seedling). — Introduced  by  J.  T.  Bogue,  of  Marys- 
ville.  Large,  light  red,  firm  flesh  and  small  pit.  A  good  shipping  plum. 

Peach  (French,  prune  peche). — Very  large,  roundish  oblate,  regular,  flattened 
at  ends ;  suture  distinct,  shhallow ;  color  varying  from  salmon  to  light  brownish 
red;  stalk  very  short,  cavity  narrow,  shallow,  flesh  rather  coarse,  juicy  sprightly, 
free  from  the  nearly  round,  very  flat,  much  furrowed  stone ;  shoots  smooth. 
Becoming  less  prominent  variety  for  early  eastern  shipment. 

Femmonzi  (probably  domestica  seedling). — Found  in  pioneer  orchard  of  Mr. 
Crooks,  Madera  county,  foothills.  Grown  and  made  public  by  Frank  Femmons, 
for  whom  it  was  named  by  Leonard  Coates.  A  very  large,  handsome,  dark 
plum,  sweet  and  rich  and  good  in  shipment.. 

Royale  Hative  (French). — Medium  roundish,  slightly  wider  at  base;  light 
purple  stalk  half  an  inch  long,  stout,  scarcely  sunk ;  flesh  amber  yellow,  with  rich, 
high  flavor,  nearly  free  from  the  small,  flattened,  ovate  stone;  shoots  very 
downy.  Grown  as  an  early  market  plum  for  eastern  shipment. 

Bradshaw. — Large,  obovate,  with  obtuse  suture  on  one  side,  sometimes  with 
very  slight  neck;  dark  purple,  with  light  blue  bloom;  stalk  three-fourths  inch 
long;  ca~vity  narrow;  flesh  a  little  coarse,  becoming  light  brownish  purple,  at 
first  adhering,  but  becoming  nearly  free  when  fully  ripe;  juicy,  good,  slightly 
acid;  tree  vigorous;  shoots  purple,  smooth.  Reported  from  Sacramento  county 
as  blooming  late  and  seldom  injured  by  frost.  Not  in  high  favor. 

Green  Gage  (French). — Rather  small,  round;  suture  faint  green,  becoming 
yellowish  green,  usually  with  reddish  brown  dots  and  network  at  base;  stalk 
half  to  three-fourths  inch,  scarcely  sunk;  flesh  pale  green,  melting,  juicy,  exceed- 
ingly rich,  and  flavor  excellent;  shoots  smooth. 

Burbank. — Tree  imported  from  Japan  by  Luther  Burbank.  Named  "Burbank" 
by  Professor  Van  Deman.  Tree  usually  vigorous,  with  strong,  upright  shoots, 
and  large,  rather  broad  leaves ;  comes  into  bearing  very  early.  Almost  globular, 
being  five  and  a  half  inches  around  horizontally,  and  five  and  five-eighths  inches 
around  vertically;  rich  cherry  red,  slightly  mottled  with  yellow,  and  freely 
dotted  with  same  tint;  flesh  deep  yellow,  juicy,  very  sweet,  and  of  fine,  somewhat 
peculiar,  but  very  agreeable  flavor;  pit  is  very  small,  three-fourths  by  a  trifle 
over  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  Next  to  Tragedy  in  amount  of  shipments  to  the 
east  in  1913. 

Duane's  Purple  (New  York). — Very  large,  oblong  oval,  longer  on  one  side; 
slightly  narrowed  towards  the  stalk;  reddish  purple,  bloom  lilac;  stalk  three- 
fourths  inch;  slender;  cavity  narrow,  flesh  juicy,  moderately  sweet,  and  moderate 
flavor,  mostly  adhering  to  stone ;  shoots  very  downy  and  leaves  large  and  downy 
underneath. 

Washington  (New  York). — Very  large,  roundish  oval,  suture  obscure,  distinct 
at  base;  yellowish  green,  faintly  marbled,  often  with  pale  red  blush;  stalk  half 
to  three-fourths  inch ;  slightly  downy ;  cavity  wide,  shallow ;  flesh  rather  firm, 
sweet,  mild,  very  rich  and  luscious,  free  from  the  pointed  stone;  shoots  downy; 
very  vigorous. 

Grand  Duke. — Large  oval,  necked ;  deep  purple  with  blue  bloom ;  flesh  greenish 
yellow,  fair  quality.  A  good  shipper,  following  Hungarian  in  ripening. 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  POPULAR  PLUMS  279 

Wickson. — A  crossbred  by  Luther  Burbank;  form  suggests  the  Kelsey,  but 
more  symmetrical ;  in  ripening  the  color  develops  from  a  deep  cherry  red  down 
to  a  rich  claret  as  full  ripeness  is  attained.  The  color  is  solid  and  uniform.  The 
flesh  is  of  amber  tint,  very  juicy  and  translucent;  the  pit  isf  small  and  shapely, 
the  flavor  is  striking  and  agreeable,  but  likely  to  be  deficient  near  the  coast.  The 
most  popular  shipping  plum  in  the  State,  judged  by  number  of  growers  reporting 
favorably,  but  not  largest  in  eastern  shipments  in  1913. 

Yellozv  Egg;  syns.  White  Egg,  White  Magnum  Bonum  (English). — Very 
large,  oval,  narrow  at  ends,  necked  at  base,  suture  disttinct;  stalk  one  inch,  not 
sunk,  surrounded  by  fleshy  ring  at  insertion ;  light  yellow,-  bloom  thin,  white, 
flesh  firm,  rather  acid  until  fully  ripe,  and  then  sweet,  adheres  to  the  pointed 
stone. 

Jefferson  (New  York). — Large,  oval,  base  slightly  narrowed,  suture  slight; 
greenish  yellow,  becoming  golden,  with  reddish  cheek ;  bloom  thin,  white ;  stalk 
one  inch,  but  little  sunk  or  not  at  all;  flesh  rich  yellow,  very  rich,  juicy,  high 
flavored  and  luscious,  adheres  partly  to  its  long,  pointed  stone;  shoots  smooth; 
tree  a  slow  grower,  but  productive. 

Columbia  (New  York). — Very  large,  nearly  globular,  one  side  slightly  larger; 
brownish  purple,  reddish  brown  where  much  shaded,  with  many  fawn-colored 
dots;  bloom  blue,  copious-  stalk  one  inch,  rather  stout;  cavity  small;  flesh 
orange,  very  rich  and  sweet,  free  from  the  stone,  which  is  very  small  and  com- 
pressed. Shoots  downy,  stout,  blunt,  spreading;  leaves  nearly  round. 

Satsuma ;  syn.  Blood  Plum  of  Satsuma. — Introduced  and  first  fruited  in  this 
country  by  Luther  Burbank,  of  Santa  Rosa.  Described  by  Prof.  H.  E.  Van 
Deman,  U.  S.  Pomologist,  as  follows:  "Leaves  more  lanceolate  than  those  of 
Kelsey ;  fruit  averages  about  two.  and  a  quarter  inches  in  diameter,  nearly  round, 
and  but  slightly  sutured  on  one  side;  surface  dark  red,  under  a  thick  bloom; 
dots  rather  conspicuous  and  numerous ;  flesh  dark  purplish  red,  which  has  caused 
the  name  of  'Blood  Plum  of  Satsuma'  to  be  given  by  some ;  stone  very  small  and 
pointed."  Chiefly  grown  in  Southern  California  for  local  use  and  trade. 

Red  Magnum  Bonum;  syn.  Red  Egg. — Large,  oval,  tapering  to  the  stalk; 
suture  strong,  one  side  swollen ;  deep  red  in  the  sun ;  slight  bloom ;  stalk  one  inch, 
slender,  cavity  narrow;  flesh  greenish,  coarse,  subacid ;  shoots  smooth. 

Diamond. — Large,  deep  purple;  handsome  but  not  high  quality;  ripens  after 
Japanese  and  sells  well  at  the  east  as  a  cooking  plum. 

Imperial  Gage  (New  York). — Medium  size,  oval,  suture  distinct;  stalk  three- 
fourths  inch,  slightly  hairy,  evenly  sunk;  green,  slightly  tinged  with  yellow,  with 
marbled  green  stripes;  bloom  copious  and  white;  flesh  greenish,  juicy,  melting, 
rich,  and  delicious,  usually  free  from  the  oval,  pointed  stone ;  tree  very  vigorous 
and  productive ;  shoots  long  upright,  slightly  downy ;  leaves  with  slight  shade 
of  blue.  A  popular  canning  variety. 

Damson  (English). — Small,  roundish,  oval;  purple,  with  thick  blue  bloom; 
melting,  juicy,  subacid. 

German  Prune  (Common  Quetsche,  Germany). — "This  name  has  been  applied 
in  this  State  to  numerous  plums  and  prunes  which  are  sold  under  it.  The  fruit 
of  the  true  German  prune  is  long  oval,  and  swollen  on  one  side ;  skin  purple,  with 
thick  blue  bloom;  flesh  firm,  green,  sweet,  with  a  peculiar  pleasant  flavor;  sepa- 
rates readily  from  the  stone." — John  Rock.  Complaint  is  made  in  many  localities 
of  the  tendency  of  the  variety  to  drop  before  ripening,  almost  the  whole  crop 
sometimes  dropping. 

Kelsey,  Japan. — Trees  brought  from  Japan  by  the  late  Mr.  Hough,  of  Vaca- 
ville,  in  1870,  and  purchased  by  the  late  John  Kelsey,  of  Berkeley,  who  propa- 
gated and  fruited  them  for  several  years.  First  wide  distribution  was  made  by 
W.  P.  Hammon  &  Co.,  in  1874,  who  named  the  fruit  after  Mr.  Kelsey.  The 
following  description  is  by  H.  E.  Van  Deman,  U.  S.  Pomologist,  from  California 
and  Florida  specimens :  "Tree  upright  in  growth,  leaves  narrow,  twigs  brownish 
gray.  Fruit  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  and  a  half  inches  diameter,  heart-shaped, 
with  a  distinct  suture  on  one  side  from  stem  to  apex ;  stem  is  short,  and  set  in 
a  depression  at  the  larger  end;  colors  mixed  yellow  and  purple,  which  vary  in 
depth,  but  rarely  make  a  brilliant  appearance,  covered  with  a  bloom ;  flesh  yellow, 


280  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  :  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

very  firm,  and  clings  to  the  stone,  which  is  rather  small,  and  nearly  always  partly 
surrounded  by  a  cavity;  when1  fully  ripe  the  quality  is  very  good."  Very  widely 
grown;  is  in  less  favor  than  formerly  in  interior  valleys  where  color  is  not  well 
developed.  Where  the  fruit  is  of  good  color  it  is  profitable  for  shipping  and  is 
highly  regarded  everywhere  for  domestic  use. 

Quackenbos  (New  York). — Large,  oblong  oval;  deep  purple;  suture  faint; 
stalk  short,  slightly  sunk;  slightly  coarse,  sprightly,  sweet  and  subacid;  partly 
freestone. 

Victoria  (English). — Large,  obovate,  suture  distinct;  color  a  fine  light  reddish 
purple;  stem  half  inch,  cavity  rather  deep  and  narrow ;  flesh  yellow,  pleasant; 
clingstone;  next  to  Pond's  Seedling  in  size,  beauty  and  productiveness. 

Hungarian  Prune;  English  Pond's  Seedling;  Gros  Prune  d'Agen  (English). — 
This  variety  was  brought  to  San  Jose  probably  about  1856,  and  .in  some  unac- 
countable way  was  first  contrasted  with  the  French  prune  and  called  the  "great 
prune  of  Agen;"  afterwards,  also  in  a  mysterious  way,  it  took  the  name  of 
"Hungarian  prune."  It  is  still  marketed  by  these  names  both  here  and  at  the 
East.  The  true  name  is  English  Pond's  Seedling.  Fruit  very  large,  ovate, 
slightly  tapering  to  stalk;  skin  thick,  reddish  violet,  with  numerous  brown  dots, 
and  covered  with  handsome  bloom;  rather  coarse,  juicy,  sweet;  a  very  showy 
fruit;  tree  a  strong  grower  and  ^rolific  bearer;  fruit  has  a  tendency  to  double; 
sells  well  in  local  and  distant  markets  on  its  style  and  is  largely  grown.  Third 
in  amounts  of  eastern  shipments  in  1913. 

Giant. — Burbank  seedling ;  very  large,  dark  crimson  upon  yellow  ground  ; 
flesh  yellow,  flavor  good ;  freestone.  A  shipping  plum,  disappointing  as  a  drying 
plum. 

Splendor. — Burban'k  seedling;  medium  size  but  larger  than  French  prune; 
clear  red,  drying  dark,  does  not  shake  from  the  tree ;  earlier  than  French  prune. 

Sugar. — Burbank  seedling,  introduced  in  1898;  large  and  sweet;  sugar  in 
fresh  fruit  23.92  per  cent ;  not  of  highest  quality  as  a  cured  prune  but  sells  well ; 
also  good  for  shipping;  oval,  slightly  flattened;  dark  purple  with  thick  white 
bloom ;  freestone ;  early.  Needs  pruning  and  thinning  to  secure  size. 

Standard. — Burbank  cross  of  Sugar  and  Tragedy.  Large,  purple,  blue  bloom ; 
flesh  fine  grained,  amber  juicy  and  sweet;  freestone;  earlier  than  French  prune. 
Satisfactory  shipping  plum  and  considered  of  great  promise  for  drying. 

Imperial  Epineuse  syn.  Clairac  Mammoth. — Introduced  in  1884  by  Felix  Gillet 
and  in  1886  by  John  Rock.  Described  by  Mr.  Rock  as  follows:  "Uniformly 
large  size,  reddish  or  light  purple,  thin  skin,  sweet  and  high  flavor."  Described 
by  Mr.  Gillet:  "Uniformly  large,  more  oval  than  the  French  prune;  nearly  of 
the  same  color  but  somewhat  lighter  or  reddish  nurple;  earlier  than  the  French 
and  with  thinner  skin."  Fruit  grown  by  Mr.  Rock  analyzed  at  the  State  Uni- 
versity in  1898,  showed  20.4  per  cent  of  sugar  against  18.53  per  cent  average  of 
three  analyses  of  French  prune.  Blooms  about  ten  days  earlier  and  ripens  about 
three  weeks  earlier  than  the  French  prune. 

There  has  been  quite  widely  planted  another  prune  called  Imperial  which  is 
very  inferior  in  sugar  content  and  likely  to  prove  much  less  satisfactory. 

Prune  d'Agen;  syn.  Petite  Prune  d'Agen;  French  Prune,  etc. — This  is  the 
drying  prune  at  present  most  widely  grown  in  this  State.  It  is  described  by 
John  Rock  as  follows :  "Medium-sized,  egg-shaped,  violet  purple,  very  sweet, 
rich,  and  sugary;  very  prolific  bearer."  The  leading  drying-prune  of  California, 
commonly  called  "California  French  prune."  Its  standing  is  sketched  in  detail 
on  a  preceding  page. 

Robe  de  Sergeant. — Though  this  term  is  given  in  Downing  as  a  synonym  of 
prune  d'Agen,  and  seems  to  be  in  French  a  synonym  for  the  d'Ente  prunes; 
another  prune  grown  in  this  State  from  an  importation  by  John  Rock,  is  quite 
distinct  from  the  foregoing.  Mr.  Rock  describes  the  variety  as  follows :  "Fruit 
medium  size,  oval;  skin  deep  purple,  approaching  black,  and  covered  with  a 
thick  blue  bloom ;  flesh  greenish  yellow,  sweet,  and  well-flavored,  sugary,  rich  and 
delicious,  slightly  adhering  to  the  stone."  This  variety  makes  a  larger,  darker- 
colored  dried  prune  than  the  prune  d'Agen,  and  has  sold  in  some  cases  at  a  higher 
price.  It  has  recently  been  in  disfavor  in  coast  valleys  for  defective  bearing,  but 
is  more  satisfactory  at  some  interior  points. 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  POPULAR  PLUMS  281 

Bulgarian. — "An  undetermined  variety  grown  under  this  name,  chiefly  in  the 
vicinity  of  Haywards,  Alameda  County ;  above  medium  size ;  almost  round ;  dark 
purple;  sweet  and  rich,  with  pleasant  acid  flavor;  tree  a  vigorous  grower,  and 
an  early,  regular  and  profuse  bearer." — John  Rock. 

Coe's  Golden  Drop  (English). — Very  large,  oval,  suture  distinct,  one  side 
more  enlarged,  necked;  light  yellow,  often  dotted  red  to  the  sun;  stalk  three- 
fourths  inch,  rather  stiff;  flesh  yellowish,  firm,  juicy,  and  rich,  closely  adhering 
to  the  pointed  stone;  shoots  smooth,  rather  glossy.  A  standard  late  variety  for 
canning. 

Silver  Prune  (Oregon). — Originated  with  W.  H.  Prettyman,  who  says:  "It 
is  a  seedling  from  Coe's  Golden  Drop,  which  it  much  resembles,  but  it  is  much 
more  productive."  Profitable  as  a  bleached  prune,  but  defective  in  bearing  in 
some  California  districts.  A  red  variety  by  bud  variation  is  reported  by  Mr.  J.  G. 
Grundel  of  Alma. 

Golden  Prune. — Originated  from  the  seed  of  Italian  prune  by  Seth  Lewelling, 
of  Milwaukee,  Oregon,  and  described  by  him  as  larger  than  Italian;  light  golden 
color ;  exquisite  flavor ;  dries  beautifully.  Chiefly  grown  in  Contra  Costa  county. 
Good  for  drying  and  canning.  Requires  short  pruning. 

Santa  Rosa. — By  Luther  Burbank,  described  by  S.  F.  Leib  as  follows :  "It  is 
a  fine  grower,  the  wood  is  very  tough  and  the  limbs  will  not  break.  It  is  a  sure, 
regular  bearer  and  bears  always  most  abundantly.  It  does  not  have  any  off 
years.  The  fruit  runs  remarkably  fine,  even  in  size,  and  astonishingly  smooth 
and  clear  of  any  defects.  It  is  beautiful,  delicious,  and  a  very  fine  carrier  to 
Eastern  markets.  It  will  keep  well  in  hot  weather  for  a  week  after  it  is  ripe, 
so  there  is  no  occasion  to  pick  it  half  ripe  in  order  to  ship.  I  intend  to  plant  it 
very  largely  myself,  and  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  shipping  plums."  Intro- 
duced by  George  C.  Roeding.  Largely  planted  for  shipping  purposes. 

Formosa. — "Unusually  large,  thick,  healthy,  light  green  foliage ;  strong,  hard, 
wiry  wood;  blooms  with  the  Burbank  and  Abundance,  and  always  escapes  late 
spring  frosts,  and  alwavs  bears  profusely  even  when  continuous  rainy  weather 
prevents  full  pollination  in  most  other  plums.  No  disease  has  ever  found  lodg- 
ment with  Formosa.  The  fruit  is  of  uniform  size,  averaging  about  six  inches 
in  circumference  one  way  by  eight  the  other.  Fruit  yellow  with  a  pale  bloom  until 
nearly  ripe,  turning  to  a  clear  rich  red.  Flesh  pale  yellow,  unusually  firm,  sweet, 
rich,  delicious,  with  a  delightful  apricot  flavor,  nearly  freestone.  Formosa  has 
been  very  thoroughly  tested  for  its  keeping  qualities,  which  are  unequaled  except 
by  Santa  Rosa,  Wickson,  Burbank.  and  a  few  others." — Luther  Burbank.  This 
variety  is  notably  making  good  in  the  Placer  County  foothills  as  a  shipping  plum. 

Gaviota. — Burbank  cross  of  Japanese  and  native  American ;  very  large,  deep 
red ;  flesh  yellow,  firm  and  sweet ;  pit  small ;  rather  late  bloomer.  Favored  in  the 
Vacaville  district  for  shipping. 

Bavay's  Green  Gage;  syn.  Reine  Claude  de  Bavay  (French). — Large,  round 
oval,  greenish  yellow,  spotted  with  red,  with  small  violet-colored  longitudinal 
veins;  flesh  rather  firm,  juicy,  sugary,  rich,  of  fine  quality,  adhering  slightly  to 
the  stone ;  shoots  smooth,  leaves  roundish,  shining ;  a  free  grower  and  very  pro- 
ductive. 

Ickworth  Imperatrice  (English). — Large  to  medium  obovate,  purple,  with 
irregular  streaks  of  fawn  color;  stalk  medium;  flesh  greenish  yellow,  sweet, 
juicy,  rich,  mostly  adhering  to  the  rather  small  stone;  shoots  smooth;  very  late, 
hangs  long  on  the  tree,  and  keeps  well ;  endures  long  shipment  well. 

Fellenberg,  syns.  Large  German  Prune,  Swiss  Prune,  Italian  Prune. — Medium 
size,  oval,  pointed  and  tapering  at  both  ends ;  suture  small,  distinct ;  dark  purple, 
with  dark  blue  bloom;  stalk  one  inch,  scarcely  sunk;  flesh  'greenish  yellow,  juicy, 
sweet,  delicious,  parts  from  the  sto*»«;  tree  a  free  grower  and  very  productive; 
late,  excellent  for  drying.  But  little  grown  in  California,  but  largely  in  Oregon. 

Coe's  Late  Red;  syn.  Red  St.  Martin. — Size  medium,  roundish,  suture  distinct 
on  one  side ;  skin  light  purplish  red,  or  dark  red ;  bloom  thin,  blue ;  stalk  three- 
fourths  inch,  scarcely  sunk;  flesh  rather  firm,  crisp,  rich,  vinous;  very  late, 
shoots  downy. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

THE    QUINCE 

The  quince  enjoys  California  conditions  to  the  utmost,  and  rewards 
the  grower  with  large  crops  of  very  large  and  beautiful  fruit.  A  quince 
weighing  a  pound  is  no  curiosity,  and  it  is  unlikely  that  any  city  of  the 
world  can  show  such  fine  quinces  at  such  low  prices  as  San  Francisco. 
The  lesson  from  this  fact  is  that  the  fineness  of  the  fruit,  and  the  evi- 
dent adaptation  of  the  State  to  its  growth,  should  not  alone  be  con- 
sidered by  the  planter.  The  local  consumption  of  quinces  is  naturally 
small,  and  it  is  chiefly  for  home  preserving  jelly  making.  The  com- 
mercial jelly  makers  use  apple  juice  as  the  basis  of  nearly  all  their 
jellies,  only  using  a  little  quince  for  flavoring,  and  some  housewives 
follow  the  same  course.  The  hope  for  profitable  sale  of  the  fruit  in 
large  quantities  must  therefore  rest  on  distant  markets,  and  though 
those  well  acquainted  with  the  growth  and  sale  of  the  fruit  in  the  cities 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  have  predicted  a  great  demand  for  the  Cali- 
fornia quince  in  that  territory,  experiences  of  shippers  thus  far  have 
been  varied,  and  not  such  as  to  induce  the  extension  of  our  quince  pro- 
duction, at  present  at  least. 

But  though  the  quince  in  California  has  at  present  narrow  commer- 
cial limitations,  a  few  trees  should  find  a  place  in  every  orchard,  for 
family  use  or  local  sale. 


CULTURE  OF  THE  QUINCE 

The  quince  is  readily  grown  from  cuttings.  Take  good-sized  shoots 
of  well-matured  wood  of  the  current  year's  growth,  after  the  leaves 
drop  in  the  fall,  and  set  out  at  once  in  nursery  row  in  moist  alluvial 
soil,  or  in  any  loose  soil  which  is  well  drained  and  can  be  kept  moist 
enough  by  cultivation  or  irrigation. 

Quinces  are  planted  at  all  distances  apart,  and  are  grown  either  as 
bushes  or  trees.  Undoubtedly  the  best  way  is  to  plant  about  fourteen 
or  sixteen  feet  apart,  and  prune  into  low  standard  tree  form.  This  can 
be  done  much  as  already  advised  for  other  fruit  trees.  An  annual 
cutting  back  of  about  half  of  the  new  growth,  while  forming  the  tree, 
will  strengthen  the  trunk  and  limbs  and  prevent  the  running  out  of  long 
leaders,  which  droop  to  the  ground  on  all  sides  when  laden  with  fruit, 
and  are  often  broken  by  the  weight  and  the  wind.  Owing  to  the  dispo- 
sition of  the  quince  to  throw  out  several  small  shoots  at  a  single  point, 
it  is  advisable,  when  forming  the  tree,  to  remove  all  buds  but  one,  just 
as  the  growth  is  starting.  This  will  give  one  good,  strong  branch  where 
it  may  be  needed,  instead  of  several  weak  ones.  Pinching  off  shoots 
which  start  out  too  vigorously,  or  at  undesirable  points  is,  of  course, 
advisable. 

282 


POPULAR  VARIETIES  OF  THE  QUINCE  283 

Soils  for  the  Quince. — As  the  quince  grows  naturally  in  moist, 
though  not  wet  lands,  many  persons  think  it  always  does  best  in 
springy  ground  or  along  the  banks  of  rivulets ;  but  though  moist  soils 
are  preferable  to  dry,  such  positions  are  not  essential  to  obtaining  large 
crops  of  fine  fruit.  In  fact,  the  quince,  like  most  fruit  trees,  prefers  a 
well-drained  location,  and  does  best  on  a  soil  which  can  be  freely 
worked.  It  thrives  when  fanned  by  the  ocean  breeze  and  does  fairly 
well  in  the  interior,  providing  it  has  moisture  in  the  soil,  and  in  some 
situations  will  doubtless  require  summer  irrigation. 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  QUINCE 

Though  notably  all  varieties  of  the  quince  are  introduced  by  our 
nurserymen  and  carried  by  them  in  small  stock,  most  plantations  are 
of  the  "apple"  or  "orange"  variety.  The  following  may  be  enumerated, 
however,  as  growing  in  this  State : 

Apple  or  Orange. — Large ;  bright  yellow ;  the  best.    August  and  September. 

Rea's  Mammoth. — A  very  large  and  fine  variety  of  the  orange  quince;  a 
strong  grower  and  very  productive. 

Smyrna. — Introduced  from  Smyrna  in  1897  by  George  C.  Roeding  of  Fresno ; 
large,  lemon  yellow,  handsome,  tender  and  delicious  after  cooking;  keeps  well; 
tree  a  strong  grower,  with  heavy  foliage. 

Pineapple. — Originated  by  Luther  Burbank  and  distributed  by  him  in  1899; 
the  result  of  a  long  effort  to  secure  a  quince  which  would  cook  tender  like  an 
apple.  The  name  comes  from  its  flavor,  which  is  suggestive  of  the  pineapple. 
Resembles  Orange  quince,  but  is  smoother  and  more  globular. 

Portugal. — Very  large,  and  fine  flavor,  turns  a  fine  purple  or  deep  crimson 
when  cooked. 

The  Chinese  Quince. — A  most  extraordinary  fruit,  oblong,  of  immense  size, 
often  weighing  from  two  to  two  and  one-half  pounds ;  growth  rapid  and  distinct. 

West's  Mammoth. — Originated  by  W.  B.  West,  of  Stockton,  from  seed  re- 
ceived from  Boston  in  1853 :  of  the  Orange  quince  family ;  round,  clear  yellow ; 
very  large;  fine  flavor  and  for  the  class  a  very  good  keeper. 

Champion. — Fruit  very  large,  fair  and  handsome ;  tree  very  productive,  sur- 
passing any  other  variety  in  this  respect ;  bears  abundantly  when  young ;  flesh 
cooks  as  tender  as  an  apple,  and  without  hard  spots  or  cores;  flavor  delicate, 
imparting  an  exquisite  quince  taste  and  odor  to  any  fruit  with  which  it  is 
cooked. 


PART  FOUR:  THE  GRAPE 


CHAPTER  XXV 

THE    GRAPE    INDUSTRY    IN    CALIFORNIA 

The  grape  grows  in  all  parts  of  California,  from  near  sea  level  on 
the  coast  to  an  elevation  of  5000  feet  or  more  on  the  mountains.  It  is 
contented,  too,  with  nearly  all  fertile  soils,  from  the  deep  galley  loams, 
where  the  great  fat,  firm-fleshed  grapes  are  grown  for  raisin  and  table 
grape  shipments,  to  the  shallow  soils  of  the  high  foothills  and  mountain 
slopes,  where  the  grapes  are  less  in  quantity,  but  of  superior  aromatic 
qualities.  This  wide  adaptation  gives  an  immense  area  suited  for  grape 
culture,  but  the  chief  reason  for  the  achievement  and  the  promise  of  the 
grape  in  California  is  in  the  fact  that  the  European  species,  Vitis  vini- 
fera,  thrives,  and  thus  the  California  grower  has  command  of  all  that 
Europeans  have  accomplished  in  centuries  by  developing  special  varie- 
ties of  the  species  for  special  purposes.  The  grapes  of  the  States  east 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  only  grown  in  California  in  a  small  way 
because  the  European  varieties  are  the  only  ones  from  which  raisins 
can  be  made ;  they  also  furnish  the  world's  wine  and  brandy,  and  they 
give  size,  beauty,  and  shipping  quality  beyond  all  comparison  with 
American  varieties.  Wherever  wealthy  Eastern  connoisseurs  choose 
grapes  for  their  glass  houses,  they  select  European  varieties ;  the  Cali- 
fornian  grows  his  "hot  house  grapes"  in  the  open  air.  He  also  grows 
most  of  them  without  the  cost  of  trellising,  because  the  European 
varieties  generally  will  bear  well  in  short-pruned,  bush  form.  Cali- 
fornia has  a  large  acreage  of  grape  vines,  and  planting  has  been  very 
active  during  the  last  few  years,  because  good  prices  have  prevailed, 
especially  through  the  increased  opportunity  for  fresh  grape  shipments. 
At  the  same  time,  new  economic  and  commercial  problems  are  continu- 
ally arising  and  the  industry  has  to  readjust  itself  to  new  conditions, 
discussion  of  such  problems  does  not  come  within  the  scope  of  a  cul- 
tural treatise  like  this.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  grower  to  keep  himself  up 
to  date  on  such  subjects  by  faithful  reading  of  California  periodicals 
and  by  participation  in  public  assemblies  in  the  grape  interest.  Con- 
cerning cultural  difficulties,  the  protection  of  vine  from  its  enemies 
and  problems  in  vinification,  special  researches  are  constantly  pursued 
by  the  University  Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley  and  publications  are 
furnished  on  application. 

The  culture  of  the  grape  is  one  of  the  great  branches  of  California 
horticulture.  Its  three  chief  divisions  are :  Grapes  for  the  table,  grapes 
for  wine,  and  grapes  for  raisins.  In  all  these  branches  the  product  has 
far  exceeded  local  requirements  and  has  become  an  important  item  in 
the  export  trade  of  the  State.  The  attainments  of  the  industry  can  be 
roughly  measured  by  the  statistics  of  the  shipments  of  grapes,  raisins, 

284 


VALUE  OF  CALIFORNIA  GRAPE  PRODUCTS  285 

wine  and  brandy,  which  are  given  at  the  close  of  Chapter  VI.  The 
California  Board  of  Viticultural  Commissioners  reports  the  quantities 
and  products  of  California  grape  products  in  1913,  as  follows: 

Table  grapes,  7,363  carloads  at  $950  per  car $  6,994,850 

Wine  and  brandy,  42,134,988  gallons,  estimated  selling  for 15,000,000 

Raisins,  65,000  tons  (below  normal),  estimated  selling  for 4,840,275 


Total $26,835,125 


THE  GRAPE  AREA  OF  CALIFORNIA 

The  grape  has  a  very  wide  range  in  California.  If  the  immediate 
seacoast  and  the  higher  altitudes  on  the  mountains  be  excepted,  the 
grape  may  be  planted  with  a  good  chance  of  success  anywhere  if  soil 
and  local  topography  be  suitable.  As  has  been  shown  in  Chapter  I, 
the  vine  can  approach  quite  close  to  the  ocean  if  some  shelter  from 
prevailing  cool  winds  be  afforded,  and  quite  high  on  the  mountains  if 
one  keeps  out  of  depressions  where  late  frosts  are  frequent.  In  plant- 
ing the  grape  in  doubtful  situations  much  depends  upon  choice  of 
proper  varieties.  For  example,  in  the  cool  air  of  the  coast  region  and 
the  short  summer  of  the  higher  altitudes,  early  maturing  varieties  must 
be  the  main  reliance,  for  late  sorts  will  not  receive  heat  enough  to  bring 
them  to  full  maturity. 

Away  from  immediate  coast  influences,  and  up  to  perhaps  three 
thousand  feet  or  more  on  the  sides  of  the  Sierra,  the  grape  is  success- 
fully grown  both  upon  the  floors  of  the  valleys  and  upon  the  hillsides. 
But  there  is  still  need  of  choice  both  of  special  locations  and  of  varieties 
according  to  the  purposes  which  the  grower  has  in  view.  The  coast 
valleys  of  the  upper  part  of  the  State  produce  good  table  grapes,  but 
they  are  unfavorable  for  the  raisin  industry  because  of  the  deficient  sun- 
shine and  excessive  atmospheric  humidity  of  the  autumn  months.  The 
best  raisins  are  made  in  the  dry,  heated  valleys  of  the  interior,  and  the 
conditions  which  there  develop  the  fullest  quality  of  the  raisin  grape 
also  develop  the  sugar  in  some  kinds  of  wine  grapes  beyond  a  desir- 
able percentage.  Here  again  the  choice  of  suitable  varieties  intrudes 
itself,  for  the  varieties  which  yield  light  table  wines  in  the  coast  valleys 
may  yield  heavy  "heady"  wines  in  the  interior.  Valleys,  too,  as  a  rule, 
although  they  yield  larger  crops  of  grapes  and  greater  measure  of 
wine  than  similar  area  on  the  hillsides,  must  yield  the  palm  for  quality 
to  the  warm  soils  of  the  slopes.  And  here  enters  the  business  proposi- 
tion whether  large  amount  and  less  quality  is  better  than  less  amount 
and  higher  quality.  To  this  there  can  be  no  general  answer.  It  de- 
pends upon  the  disposition  which  is  to  be  made  of  the  crop,  and  the  de- 
mand for  it. 

The  coloring  of  certain  varieties  is  a  matter  underlying  their  profit- 
able production  for  fresh  shipments  and  this  is  determined  by  local 
conditions  concerning  which  the  best  information  is  actual  observation 
of  their  effects.  These  few  facts  out  of  many  which  could  be  stated 
will  serve  to  enforce  the  fact  that  wide  as  is  the  range  of  the  grape,  both 
localities  and  varieties  for  certain  purposes  must  be  intelligently  chosen. 


286  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

Much  has  been  learned  during  the  last  few  years,  but  it  will  require  the 
experience  of  another  generation,  perhaps,  to  make  the  matter  clear. 

Soils  for  the  Grape. — The  grape  will  thrive  on  a  great  variety 
of  soils,  in  fact,  on  any  of  those  enumerated  as  fruit  soils  in  Chapter 
III.  There  are  thrifty  vineyards  on  the  light,  deep  valley  loams,  on  the 
heavy  clayey  loams,  on  adobe,  and  on  the  red  soils  of  the  foothills. 
Even  on  shallow  soils  the  grape  will  do  well  if  given  sufficient  moisture, 
and  on  rocky  subsoils  it  thrives  if  there  be  crevices  for  the  roots  to 
penetrate,  or  if  the  rock  be  shattered  to  admit  the  roots  to  permeable 
substrata.  Standing  water  during  the  active  period  of  the  vine  is,  how- 
ever, unfavorable  to  growth,  and  alkali  is  adverse  to  satisfactory  results 
in  wine  making.  Almost  any  soil  which  does  not  hold  excess  of  water 
or  is  not  tainted  with  alkali  will  do  for  the  vine,  although  the  plant 
appreciates  good,  deep  soil,  and  will  grow  and  bear  fruit  in  proportion 
to  its  supply  of  it.  Of  course  the  economic  question  of  ease  of  culti- 
vation enters  into  the  choice  of  soil  for  the  grape,  as  for  other  fruits,  but 
its  claims  are  obvious  and  need  not  be  enlarged  upon. 

Length  of  Grape  Season. — By  choice  of  early  and  late  varie- 
ties the  grape  season  extends  over  half  a  year  in  California,  without 
recourse  to  artificial  means  of  preservation.  Where  the  fall  rains  are 
not  very  protracted,  the  late  varieties  sometimes  remain  in  good  con- 
dition on  the  vines  until  the  winter  pruning.  Good  grapes  have  been 
picked  from  the  vines  as  late  as  the  middle  of  January.  In  the  Lodi 
district  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  a  great  center  of  the  grape  shipping 
industry,  overland  shipping  begins  about  August  10,  with  Black  Prince. 
Tokays  from  light  soil  soon  follow,  then  from  the  heavy  soil,  and  in 
about  two  weeks  everything  is  going  at  full  blast,  keeping  up  strongly 
for  nearly  two  months.  Then  it  decreases  greatly  and  continues  into 
November  with  the  later  varieties,  like  Cornichon,  Emperor  and  Fer- 
rara.  There  are  also  a  number  of  other  shipping  varieties  grown  than 
those  named,  but  Tokays  far  outnumber  all  the  rest  put  together. 
There  is  much  latitude  in  grape  gathering,  for  grapes  can  stay  on  the 
vine  for  some  time  without  deterioration ;  besides  there  is  the  "second 
crop"  from  later  blooming  which  is  of  advantage  in  shipping,  but  ob- 
jectionable in  handling  for  raisins,  brings  less  price  for  wine  making. 
Tokays  may  be  picked  during  a  period  of  two  months  in  the  same 
vicinity  because  of  the  "second  crop"  and  because  the  ripening  comes 
earlier  or  later  according  to  soil,  as  noted  above.  Even  the  intrusion 
of  a  light  fall  rain,  such  as  they  have  in  the  interior,  may  help  size  and 
color,  but  a  heavy  rain  is  destructive  and  constitutes  a  constant  menace 
in  the  late  ripening  districts  near  the  coast,  while  occasionally  injurious 
to  the  interior  also. 

Shipping  Grapes  in  Sawdust. — The  table  grape  industry  of  Cal- 
ifornia seems  to  be  entering  upon  a  notable  extension  of  its  marketing 
season  and  area  through  the  demonstration  by  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry,  that  California  grapes  can  be  profitably  packed  in 
drums,  holding  about  35  Ibs.  of  grapes,  packed  in  redwood  sawdust, 
properly  prepared  and  held  safely  in  cold  storage  for  winter  sale  in  the 
East — as  Spanish  grapes  in  cork  dust  are  handled.  Better  results  are 


SHIPPING  GRAPES  FOR  LONG  KEEPING  287 

attained  with  sawdust  than  with  cork  dust.  Full  details  are  given  in 
Bulletin  35,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  December  31,  1913,  which  the  interested 
reader  should  secure.  The  shipments  of  1912,  about  thirty  carloads,  or 
8,596  drums,  sold  in  New  York  at  an  average  of  $2.90  per  drum,  which, 
after  deducting  all  costs  of  packing,  transportation,  storage  and  com- 
mission, would  net  the  grower  about  $60  per  ton  for  the  grapes.  The 
grapes  thus  handled  were  Emperors.  Thus  far  it  seems  to  be  dem- 
onstrated that  Muscats  can  be  sold  this  way  until  November  15th, 
Malagas  until  December  15th,  Emperors  until  about  January.  It  is 
expected  that  if  California  can  commercially  grow  the  Almeria,  the 
grape  used  in  Spanish  shipping,  it  can  be  safely  held  in  storage  until 
April  1. 


IS 


tl 


290 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


The  length  will  depend  altogether  on  the  soil  and  climate  where 
they  are  to  be  planted.  They  should  be  of  such  a  length  that  when 
planted  the  base  of  the  cutting  will  be  at  the  level  where  the  conditions 
are  most  favorable  to  root  formation.  If  the  base  is  too  deep,  it  will 
be  too  wet  and  too  cold  to  develop  roots.  Roots  will  start  higher  up 


Properly  made  cuttings. 

and  the  bottom  part  will  be  wasted,  or  worse  still,  may  decay  and  injure 
the  vine.  If  the  base  is  too  near  the  surface  the  whole  cutting  may  dry 
out  and  die  before  its  roots  have  developed  sufficiently  to  supply  it  with 
water. 

In  the  moister  soils  of  the  cooler  districts  a  cutting  10  inches  long 
is  sufficient  for  direct  planting  in  the  vineyard.    In  the  drier  and  warmer 


TREATMENT  OF  GRAPE  CUTTINGS  291 

interior  a  14-inch  to  16-inch  cutting  is  better,  while  in  the  driest  soils 
of  the  warmest  districts  it  is  often  necessary  to  have  a  cutting  18  to  20 
inches  long.  For  planting  in  the  nursery  a  12  or  14-inch  cutting  is 
about  the  most  convenient.  If  the  soil  of  the  nursery  is  wet  and  cold 
more  of  the  cutting  should  be  left  above  ground;  if,  on  the  contrary, 
the  soil  tends  to  be  hot  and  dry  the  cutting  must  be  planted  deeper  and 
even  covered  up  completely. 

It  is  not  necessary,  or  possible,  to  make  every  cutting  of  exactly 
the  same  length,  because  they  should  all  terminate  at  each  end  at  a 
node.  A  vine  cane  consists  of  nodes  where  the  buds  are  and  internodes 
between  them.  The  pith  is  interrupted  at  each  node  by  a  woody  parti- 
tion (called  the  "diaphragm")  which  extends  through  the  cane  at  each 
bud.  In  making  a  cutting,  therefore,  we  should  cut  exactly  through 
a  bud  both  at  the  top  and  at  the  bottom.  This  will  leave  the  woody 
partitions,  which  will  prevent  decay  at  the  bottom  and  drying  out  at 
the  top.  If  removed,  the  pits  in  the  upper  internode  will  be  exposed 
to  alternate  wetting  and  drying,  and  may  decay,  thus  weakening  or 
killing  the  bud  below. 

In  planting,  the  cutting  should  be  placed  with  just  one  bud  above 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  line  in  the  accom- 
panying engraving.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  leave  more  than  one  bud 
out  of  the  ground,  as  this  increases  the  danger  of  drying  out. 

Making  and  Caring  for  Cuttings. — Cuttings  can  be  taken  from 
the  vines  at  any  time  after  the  fall  of  the  leaf  and  before  the  spring 
flow  of  sap  begins.  The  earlier  cuttings — those  taken  before  January 
— are  more  likely  to  make  a  successful  start  and  after-growth  than 
those  cut  later  in  the  season. 

It  is  common,  however,  to  defer  preparation  of  cuttings  till  the 
pruning  is  done,  be  it  early  or  late,  and  this  will  generally  answer  the 
purpose,  if  care  be  taken  to  secure  the  cuttings  immediately  at  the 
priming;  but  if  the  branches  be  allowed  to  lie  upon  the  ground  for 
days,  exposed  to  sun,  wind,  or  frost,  before  the  cuttings  are  secured, 
their  chances  of  growth  are  seriously  lessened,  and  a  good  part  of  the 
failures  in  planting  are  due  to  such  cuttings. 

Cuttings  should  be  taken  from  the  short- jointed,  well-ripened  wood 
of  the  previous  year's  growth,  cut  squarely  and  smoothly  as  already 
described.  Cuttings  from  the  outer  ends  of  long  canes  are  not  so  likely 
to  root,  nor  to  grow  so  vigorously,  as  those  from  stronger  wood,  irom 
three-eighths  to  five-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter  generally. 

Keep  them  dormant  until  the  time  comes  to  set  them  in  the  vine- 
yard, else  the  tender  shoots  may  get  broken.  To  keep  them  back,  place 
them,  at  the  pruning  in  trenches,  about  as  deep  as  the  length  of  the 
cuttings,  on  the  north  side  of  a  close  board  fence  or  a  building,  cover 
with  loose  earth,  and  over  that  throw  some  straw  and  boards.  Take 
care  that  the  trenches  are  in  moist  but  not  wet  ground  as  too  much 
moisture  rots  the  cuttings.  If  the  ground  has  not  been  moist  enough, 
and  the  cuttings  seem  dry  or  withered,  plunge  them  in  water  to  within 
three  or  four  inches  of  their  top,  for  a  few  days  before  setting,  and 
do  not  let  them  dry  again  before  planting. 


292  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Rooting  Cuttings  in  Nursery. — What  has  been  written  is  in 
reference  to  cuttings  designed  for  placing  in  permanent  position  in  the 
vineyards,  but,  for  the  most  part,  applies  as  well  to  the  preparation  of 
cuttings  for  the  nursery.  For  nursery  treatment,  however,  shorter 
cuttings  can  be  used  than  for  field  planting,  because  of  the  better  cul- 
tivation and  more  generous  moisture  conditions  which  are  usually 
provided. 

In  preparation  of  ground  for  the  rooting  of  vines  and  the  planting 
of  cuttings  therein,  the  suggestions  in  Chapter  VIII  are  directly  appli- 
cable, as,  to  secure  rooting  of  the  cuttings,  there  is  just  as  great  need  for 
deep  and  fine  working  of  the  soil,  pressing  of  it  around  the  cutting, 
and  for  careful  culture  during  the  growing  season,  as  there  is  for  such 
treatment  of  fruit-tree  seedling  or  root  graft.  It  is  just  as  necessary, 
too,  that  the  rooted  cuttings  should  be  carefully  lifted  and  guarded 
from  drying  out  while  on  the  way  from  the  nursery  to  permanent 
place.  The  reader  is,  therefore,  referred  to  Chapter  VIII  for  sugges- 
tions on  preparation,  laying  out,  and  care  of  nursery  ground  intended 
for  the  rooting  of  grape  cuttings. 

To  secure  vines  upon  resistant  roots  recourse  has  recently  been 
made  by  some  growers  to  the  cutting-graft  which  will  be  mentioned 
presently. 

There  is  a  growing  tendency  to  use  rooted  vines  instead  of  cutting 
in  planting  out  vineyards,  for,  although  the  former  costs  several 
times  as  much  as  the  latter,  either  in  the  time  of  the  grower  or  in  cash 
outlay,  the  balance  is  believed  to  be  usually  on  the  other  side,  when  the 
uniform  stand  and  more  satisfactory  growth  secured  by  rooted  vines 
are  considered. 

BUDDING   AND    GRAFTING   THE    GRAPE   VINE 

Working  over  the  grape  vine  is  largely  practised  in  this  State  and 
is  easily  accomplished.  The  occasion  is  twofold ;  Replacing  undesir- 
able varieties  with  those  of  better  quality,  or  in  better  market  demand, 
and  in  bringing  the  vinifera  varieties  upon  roots  which  resist  the  attacks 
of  the  phylloxera.  The  employment  of  resistant  stocks  has  proved 
eminently  satisfactory  in  this  State,  the  resistant  stock  having  been 
successfully  installed  even  in  the  hole  from  which  the  dead  vinifera 
root  had  been  taken.  For  this  reason  resistant  roots  are  largely  relied 
upon  in  the  planting  of  new  vineyards  in  infested  districts,  and  also 
used  to  some  extent  in  regions  where  the  insect  is  not  now  found, 
by  those  who  fear  and  desire  to  provide  against  its  coming.  And  yet 
in  the  large  planting  of  vineyard  in  the  interior  valley  which  has 
recently  been  undertaken  very  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  resistant 
roots.  It  is  so  cheap  to  proceed  with  simple  cuttings  of  the  variety 
desired,  and  the  vine  comes  into  bearing  so  soon,  that  most  planters  are 
willing  to  take  the  risk  of  infection  with  phylloxera  for  it  may  be  long' 
delayed  and  several  profitable  crops  may  be  realized  before  its  arrival. 
This  is  a  question  which  each  planter  must  answer  for  himself. 

Budding  the  Grape. — Buds  can  be  readily  made  to  grow  in 
grape  canes,  though  budding  is  not  largely  used.  Success  can  be  had 


BUDDING  THE   GRAPE  VINE 


293 


with  the  same  method  of  budding  that  is  common  with  fruit  trees  as 
described  in  Chapter  IX.  Insert  the  bud  (which  is  taken  from  a  cane 
of  the  previous  season's  growth)  in  the  spring  as  soon  as  the  bark  will 
slip  well  on  the  stock,  and  before  the  run  of  the  sap  is  too  strong. 
Keep  the  cuttings  in  a  cool  place  so  their  growth  will  be  retarded,  and 
then  seize  upon  just  the  right  condition  of  the  stock,  insert  the  bud 
under  the  bark  of  a  cane  of  the  previous  season's  growth,  tie  it  around 
with  a  string,  and  the  bud  starts  readily  without  further  treatment, 
when  its  growth  shows  its  ability  to  take  the  sap,  the  top  of  the  stock 
is  removed. 

Herbaceous  budding  is  also  practicable.  It  consists  of  taking  buds 
from  the  current  season's  growth  and  working  them  upon  canes  also 
of  current  growth  by  the  usual  shield  budding  process.  Mr.  Thomas 


Budding  from  previous  season's  growth. 


Casalegna  of  San  Martin  succeeds  well  with  this  under  these  condi- 
tions: All  buds  put  in  from  July  15  to  August  15  start  the  same  year, 
but  may  be  injured  by  fall  frosts.  Those  put  in  from  August  15  to 
September  15  remain  dormant  until  the  following  year,  unless  the 
stock  is  exceptionally  vigorous.  Budding  is  most  successful  in  the 
month  of  August.  The  buds  should  be  taken  from  canes  which  have 
reached  the  stage  of  maturity  indicated  by  the  pith  turning  white  and 
just  before  the  bark  turns  yellow. 

Grafting  the  Vine. — Grafting  in  old  vine  roots  is  a  simple  opera- 
tion, and  is  performed  in  various  ways.  The  principles  involved  in 
vine  grafting  are  similar  to  those  affecting  tree  grafting,  as  described 
in  Chapter  IX.  The  processes  employed  are  also  similar,  but  the  graft 
requires  less  binding  and  waxing  is  dispensed  with,  because  the  graft 
is  made  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  is,  therefore,  less  subject 
to  accident,  exposure,  and  drying  out. 


294  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

Grafting  in  the  Old  Stump. — This  is  resorted  to  when  the  char- 
acter of  the  vineyard  is  to  be.  changed.  Out  of  the  many  ways  for 
working  into  old'  stumps,  one  introduces  the  scion  by  a  side  cut  into 
the  stock  without  splitting  across  as  shown  at  C  C  in  the  adjacent 
engraving.  The  earth  is  removed  from  the  old  vine  down  to  its  first 
lateral  roots,  and  the  top  is  sawed  off  cleanly  a  few  inches  above  the 
first  laterals.  A  cut  is  then  made  into  the  side  of  the  stump  with  a 
knife  and  mallet,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  The  scion  is  then  cut  long 
enough  so  that  one  bud  will  remain  above  ground  when  the  surface  is 
leveled  again,  the  bottom  of  the  scion  being  given  an  oblique  wedge- 
shape,  so  as  to  fit  the  crevice  in  the  stock.  Some  care  is  needed  in 
shaping  the  wedge  of  the  scion,  so  that  the  surfaces  are  in  contact  will 
give  good  results.  If  the  stock  is  well  made  and  the  end  of  the  scion 
so  adjusted  that  the  stock  will  pinch  it  when  it  is  pushed  into  place, 
nothing  more  will  be  needed  except  to  smear  over  the  cut  surface  of 
the  stump  and  the  joint  of  the  scion  and  stock  with  clay  or  with  a 
mixture  of  two  parts  clay  and  one  part  fresh  cow  manure.  If  the  scion 
is  held  firmly  and  sealed  in  with  this  mixture,  it  usually  needs  no  tying, 
and  the  hole  can  be  carefully  filled  with  loose  earth,  with  a  strong  stake 
to  mark  the  place  of  the  graft,  and  to  which  the  new  growth  can  be 
securely  tied  afterwards. 

Another  common  method  of  grafting  beneath  the  ground  is  to 
split  the  stump  across  its  center,  as  is  done  in  top-grafting  fruit  trees 
as  shown  in  Chapter  IX,  and  one  or  two  scions  inserted.  If  two  are 
used  and  both  grow,  the  weaker  one  is  afterward  suppressed.  In  this 
cross  cleft  graft  some  grafters  rely  upon  the  stock  to  hold  the  scion 
without  tying,  and  daub  it  over  with  the  clay  mixture,  care  being  taken 
to  fill  and  cover  the  split  in  the  stock  to  exclude  water.  Others  put  a 
ligature  around  the  split  stump.  Strips  of  cotton  cloth  answer  well 
for  this  purpose.  Tying  offers  better  security  from  knocking  out  the 
graft  with  the  cultivator. 

In  grafting  into  very  tough  old  stumps,  some  growers  leave  a  slim 
wedge  of  wood  in  the  cleft  with  the  scion  to  prevent  the  stock  from 
closing  too  forcibly  upon  the  scion. 

Side  Grafting. — Side  grafting  the  vine  is  commended  by  some 
growers.  It  consists  in  inserting  a  graft  by  a  cut  into  the  side  of  the 
stock,  the  method  being  essentially  the  same  as  that  employed  with 
fruit  trees,  as  described  in  Chapter  IX,  excepting  that  in  side  grafting 
the  vine  the  top  is  not  amputated,  but  is  allowed  to  bear  its  crop  and  is 
then  removed  the  following  winter.  The  next  summer  the  scion  will 
bear  a  crop,  and  the  vine  is  worked  over  without  cessation  in  its 
bearing. 

Herbaceous  Grafting. — This  term  is  applied  to  a  graft  in  which 
the  scion  of  the  current  season's  growth  is  set  by  a  cleft  graft  into 
canes  also  of  the  current  season's  growth,  while  both  scion  and  cane  are 
elastic,  but  not  too  soft.  The  method  has  not  been  usually  successful  in 
this  State,  apparently  because  of  the  dryness  of  the  summer  air.  Still 
some  satisfactory  results  are  reported.  Mr.  Casalegna  of  Santa  Clara 
county  whose  success  with  herbaceous  buds  has  been  noted,  does 
well  also  with  soft-wood  grafting  by  the  whip-graft  method.  He  says 


METHODS   OF    GRAFTING   GRAPE   VINES 


295 


it  is  most  successful  in  June,  provided  the  scions  are  hard  enough. 
The  pith  must  be  white.  In  a  strong-growing  vineyard  grafting  may 
be  done  in  July.  The  leaves  are  taken  off  the  scions  when  they  are  cut. 
If  they  are  to  be  used  immediately  they  are  placed  in  water;  if  to  be 
carried  some  distance  they  are  placed  in  a  wet  sack.  Tie  the  grafts 


cc 


Methods  of  field  grafting  grape  vines. 

A.     Whip  graft  for  stocks  1-2  to  2-3  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
B,  BB.     Whip  graft  for  stocks  2-3  to  3-4  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

Cleft  graft  for  stocks  3-4  of  a  ninch  in  diameter  and  for  old 


c,  cc. 

stumps. 


296  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

with  German  knitting  yarn,  not  with  raffia.  The  season  for  herbace- 
ous grafting  will,  of  course,  vary  according  to  the  locality.  Hot 
weather  immediately  following  the  work  is  fatal  to  most  of  the  grafts 
If  two  or  three  cool  days  follows  the  insertion  of  the  scions  he  obtains 
an  almost  perfect  stand. 

Care  of  Scions. — Scions  should  be  kept  cool  and  moist  enough 
to  prevent  drying  but  not  wet  enough  to  cause  decay,  as  has  already 
been  described  in  the  keeping  of  cuttings. 

Time  of  Grafting. — Grafting  into  old  vine  stumps  is  done  in 
February,  March  and  April  in  different  parts  of  the  State,  March  being 
the  month  usually  chosen  for  the  work.  If  a  spring  graft  fails,  the 
stump  may  be  regrafted  in  August  or  in  the  following  spring.  In 
regrafting,  the  stump  is  cut  oft"  again  below  the  previous  cleft.  The 
time  for  the  work  is  when  the  sap  has  ceased  flowing,  usually  from  the 
first  to  the  tenth  of  August. 

Resistance  to  Phylloxera. — The  recourse  to  resistant  roots  to 
escape  the  phylloxera  has  been  attended  with  some  disappointment 
because  the  wild  roots  at  first  widely  used  proved  only  partially  resist- 
ant. Recently,  in  the  main  through  employment  of  French  selected 
varieties  of  the  American  wild  species,  stocks  with  satisfactory  resist- 
ance, larger  growth  and  vigor  and  adaptation  to  different  California 
soils  have  been  secured.  Notable  success  has  been  attained  in  the 
habilitation  of  vineyards  on  the  basis  of  resistant  roots.  As  this  under- 
taking involves  considerable  outlay  and  as  success  depends  taking 
advantage  of  the  latest  demonstrations  of  the  affinities  of  varieties,  the 
adaptations  of  roots  to  soils  and  the  suitability  of  varieties  for  special 
purposes,  the  latest  information  should  be  had  from  the  University 
Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley,  before  making  investments. 

The  Cutting  Graft — Grafting  the  desired  variety  upon  a  resist- 
ant cutting,  putting  these  cutting-grafts  through  a  callusing  bed  and 
then  planting  the  grafted  cutting  in  nursery  for  rooting  is  an  accepted 
French  method  which  is  being  successfully  employed  in  California. 
This  has  advantage  in  time  gained  and  in  securing  a  full  stand  of  vines 
as  compared  with  grafting  upon  cuttings  already  rooted  in  place  in  the 
vineyard  though  the  latter  has  been  successfully  practiced. 

If  cutting-grafts  are  placed  directly  in  the  nursery  many  will  fail. 
For  this  reason  it  is  always  best,  except  at  the  extreme  end  of  the 
grafting  season,  to  "stratify"  the  grafts  in  a  "callusing"  bed,  where 
conditions  of  moisture,  temperature,  and  aeration  can  be  controlled. 
This  callusing  bed  is  usually  a  pile  of  clean  sand  placed  in  the  south 
end  of  wall  or  building  surrounded  by  a  board  partition  where  there  is 
no  possibility  of  its  becoming  too  wet  by  the  flow  of  water  from  a 
higher  level  or  from  an  over-hanging  roof.  It  should  be  protected,  if 
necessary,  by  a  surrounding  ditch.  It  should  be  furnished ,  with  a 
removable  cover  of  canvas  or  boards  to  protect  it  from  rain  and  to 
enable  the  temperature  to  be  controlled  by  admission  or  exclusion  of 
the  sun's  rays.  A  waterproof  wagon-cover,  black  on  one  side  and  white 
on  the  other,  is  excellent  for  this  purpose. 


LAYING  OUT  THE  VINEYARD  297 

The  bottom  of  the  callusing  bed  is  first  covered  with  2  or  3  inches 
of  sand.  The  bundles  of  grafts  are  then  placed  in  a  row  along  one  end 
of  the  bed,  and  sand  well  filled  in  around  them.  The  bundles  should  be 
placed  in  a  slightly  inclined  position  with  the  scions  uppermost,  and 
the  sand  should  be  dry  enough  so  that  it  sifts  in  between  the  grafts  in 
the  bundle.  The  bundles  of  grafts  are  then  covered  up  completely  with 
sand,  leaving  it  at  least  2  inches  deep  above  the  top  of  the  scion.  There 
should  be  but  little  more  moisture  present  for  callusing  than  in  the  sand 
used  for  keeping  the  cuttings  over  winter.  Too  much  moisture  will 
stimulate  the  emission  of  roots  and  starting  of  buds  without  aiding 
the  callus  formation,  which  is  a  perfectly  distinct  process  from  the 
formation  of  roots. 

Grafting  of  Resistant  Stocks  after  Rooting. — Grafting  on  resist- 
ant roots  differs  from  working  in  old  stumps  in  the  size  of  the  wood  to 
be  operated  on,  and  in  the  fact  that  the  graft  must  be  set  higher  up 
because  it  is  not  desirable  to  have  the  scion  strike  roots  of  its  own,  for 
the  obvious  reason  that  depending  on  such  roots  would  make  the  vine 
no  longer  resistant.  The  advantage  of  covering  the  graft  with  earth 
is,  however,  still  to  be  enjoyed,  for  the  earth  can  be  raised  in  a  little 
mound  around  the  graft,  to  be  removed  when  the  graft  has  taken  well. 
For  this  reason  grafting  on  resistant  roots  is  usually  done  at  or  near 
the  surface  of  the  ground. 

The  common  cleft  graft  is  used  when  the  stock  is  large  enough  to 
give  a  split  strong  enough  to  hold  in  the  scion.  In  grafting  smaller 
stocks  the  whip  graft  is  used  both  in  making  cutting-grafts  and  in 
grafting  cuttings  already  rooted.  This  graft  is  variously  treated.  It 
is  covered  with  clay  by  some,  by  others  with  grafting  wax;  but  the 
common  experience  is  that  grafting  wax  makes  too  tight  a  joint,  and 
holds  in  surplus  sap,  which  begets  disease.  The  use  of  a  wax  band 
specially  adapted  to  ruling  conditions  has  proved  very  successful,  but 
the  easiest  and  usually  most  satisfactory  way  is  to  wind  with  soft  twine 
or  raffia  which  will  decay  and  loosen  as  the  graft  enlarges,  but  care 
must  be  taken  to  cut  the  band  if  it  has  not  decayed  at  the  time  of 
transplanting. 

LAYING    OUT    THE   VINEYARD 

Vines  are  planted  in  rectangles,  generally  in  squares,  but  some- 
times at  a  less  distance  in  the  rows  than  the  rows  are  from  each,  other. 
The  stakes  which  are  to  represent  the  future  vines  are  in  either  case 
placed  by  the  same  methods  of  measupring  or  marking  off.  All  the 
methods  described  for  clearing  and  preparing  lands,  in  Chapter  VII, 
and  for  laying  off  ground  in  squares,  described  in  Chapter  X,  are 
applicable  to  vineyard  ground.  The  measuring  wire  therein  described 
is  the  means  usually  employed  for  laying  off.  A  special  contrivance 
which  has  been  used  to  some  extent  on  level  ground  is  thus  described : 

The  marker  most  in  use  is  made  in  the  form  of  a  sled,  sixteen,  fourteen,  or 
twelve  feet  long,  with  three  runners  so  placed  as  to  mark  rows  eight,  seven,  or 
six  feet  wide.  These  runners  should  be  made  about  three  feet  long,  of  some 
hard  wood  (Oregon  pine  will  do),  two  inches  thick  and  firmly  nailed  to  two 
planks  placed  upon  them  of  the  lengths  first  above  named.  Upon  these  should 


298  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

be  bolted  two  strong  pieces  of  joist  in  the  form  of  wagon  hounds  projecting  in 
front  far  enough  to  receive  a  stout  pole  like  a  wagon  tongue,  well  braced  and 
fastened  with  an  iron  rod.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  motion  of  the  machine 
is  steady  and  true  in  all  its  parts.  With  a  well-made  marker,  a  gentle  team,  and 
a  careful  driver,  excellent  work  may  be  done. 

Distance  of  Planting. — There  is  as  much  difference  of  opinion 
and  practice  in  fixing  the  distance  between  vines  as  between  orchard 
trees,  but  usually  more  room  is  given  than  formerly.  Planted  in 
squares,  the  distance  varies  from  seven  to  ten  feet,  with  eight  feet  as 
most  prevalent,  taking  the  State  as  a  whole.  Planting  in  rows  is  also 
adopted  to  some  extent.  Such  plantations  are  made  with  the  vines 
seven  by  ten  or  eight  by  ten  feet,  four  and  one-half  by  eleven  feet, 
etc.  There  is  a  great  variation  in  the  distances.  Some  advantages  of 
the  row  system  are  as  follows :  Greater  space  to  spread  trays  for 
raisin  curing ;  plowing  can  be  done  with  double  team  and  larger  plows ; 
the  brush  can  be  gathered  and  burned  between  the  rows  instead  of 
carrying  it  to  the  avenues ;  sulphur  and  materials  for  spraying  can  be 
brought  in  by  team  to  any  part  of  the  vineyard ;  empty  boxes  can  be 
distributed  and  filled  ones  gathered  up  without  carrying,  etc.  Planting 
in  rows  recommends  itself  not  only  for  planting  new  vineyards,  but 
also  for  changing  old  vineyards  from  seven  by  seven  feet  to  three  and 
one-half  by  fourteen  feet,  or  from  eight  by  eight  feet  to  four  by  sixteen 
feet,  giving  opportunity  to  change  from  a  WHifero-root  vineyard  to 
a  resistant-root  vineyard.  This  can  be  accomplished  by  planting  resist- 
ant roots  in  the  alternate  rows  to  be  preserved,  right  between  the  two 
old  vines. 

Number  of  Vines  to  the  Acre. — However  the  vines  be  set,  it 
is  very  easy  to  calculate  the  number  of  vines  which  an  acre  will  accom- 
modate. Multiply  the  distance  in  feet  between  the  rows  by  the  distance 
the  plants  are  apart  in  the  rows,  and  the  product  will  be  the  number  of 
square  feet  for  each  plant,  which,  divided  into  the  number  of  feet  in  an 
acre  (forty-tree  thousand  five  hundred  and  sixty),  will  give  the  num- 
ber of  plants  to  the  acre. 

Avenges  in  the  Vineyard. — For  convenience  of  access  with  team 
and  wagon  there  should  always  be  avenues  through  the  vineyard.  They 
are  usually  arranged  so  as  to  cut  up  the  vineyard  into  blocks  about 
twice  as  long  as  broad,  if  the  vineyard  be  on  the  level  land.  Of  course, 
on  hilly  lands  the  avenues  should  be  located  for  ease  of  hauling. 
The  avenue  is  made  by  leaving  out  a  row  of  vines,  and,  therefore,  the 
exact  size  of  the  block  will  depend  upon  the  distance  between  the  rows. 
Some  advise  having  not  more  than  forty  vines  between  the  avenues. 
Planting  in  rows,  with  wide  spaces  between  the  rows,  renders  few 
avenues  necessary. 

PLANTING    CUTTINGS    AND    ROOTED   VINES 

Various  means  are  used  for  planting  cuttings.  An  essential  condi- 
tion to  successful  growth  is  to  have  the  lower  part  of  the  cutting  well 
embedded  in  the  soil,  as  it  will  not  root  unless  in  close  contact  with  the 
earth.  To  lack  of  care  in  this  regard  most  failures  are  due,  and  for 
lack  of  surety  that  such  contact  is  made  the  various  contrivances  for 


PLANTING  GRAPE  VINES 


299 


speedy  planting,  such  as  the  planting  bar,  are  widely  condemned;  an 
excavation  of  the  hole  and  refilling  with  fine  surface  earth,  just  as 
advised  in  Chapter  XI,  for  planting  orchard  trees,  is  commended  as  the 
safest  practice.  Much,  however,  depends  upon  the  soil.  In  loose,  free 
soil  such  a  use  of  a  bar  or  "sheep's-foot"  as  will  be  presently  described 
may  be  satisfactory,  while  it  would  be  impracticable  on  firmer  soils, 
both  because  of  the  difficulty  of  insertion  and  because  the  packed  condi- 


a 


V 


Dibbles  for  planting  vine  cuttings. 

tion  caused  by  the  forcing  in  would  not  favor  root  extension,  and 
not  desirable  on  shallow  soils  because  the  contact  of  the  better  surface 
soil  with  the  bottom  of  the  cutting  will  stimulate  the  growth  of  the 
cutting,  and  is,  therefore,  very  desirable. 

The  post-hole  auger  and  a  device  for  taking  out  soil  as  a  "trier" 
takes  out  a  sample  of  cheese  or  butter,  have  also  been  used  to  some 
extent,  but  not  widely,  in  making  holes  for  cuttings. ' 


300  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Other  forms  of  dibbles  for  planting  vine  cuttings  relate  particularly 
to  the  setting  of  cutting-grafts  in  a  light  deeply-worked  nursery  soil, 
but  may  be  also  used  to  advantage  in  placing  cuttings  in  the  vineyard 
if  the  soil  favors  such  a  method.  They  are  described  by  Mr.  Bioletti 
as  follows : 

Two  of  the  best  forms  of  nursery  dibbles  are  shown  in  the  engrav- 
ing. The  first,  "a"  consists  of  a  piece  of  round  one-half-inch 
iron,  18  inches  long,  furnished  with  a  wooden  handle  at  one  end  and 
a  curved  double  point  with  a  V-shaped  cleft  in  the  other.  The  bottom 
node  of  the  stock  is  caught  in  the  cleft  and  the  graft  forced  down  to 
the  desired  depth.  Unless  the  ground  is  very  light  the  other  dibble,  "b," 
is  preferable.  It  consists  of  a  sword-shaped  piece  of  iron  18  to  20 
inches  long  and  2  inches  wide,  furnished  also  with  a  handle.  The  usual 
way  of  using  it  is  to  press  it  into  the  ground  to  the  desired  depth,  open 
the  hole  a  little  with  a  lateral  thrust,  withdraw  it  and  insert  the  graft. 
The  dibble  is  then  pushed  into  the  ground  again  at  about  an  inch  to  one 
side  of  the  graft  and  by  another  lateral  thrust  the  earth  is  pressed 
tightly  around  the  graft.  This  takes  more  time  than  is  necessary  with 
the  other  form  of  dibble,  and  usually  done  carefully  there  is  danger  of 
failing  to  make  the  soil  close  around  the  base  of  the  stock,  which  is  thus 
left  surrounded  by  an  air  space.  Grafts  left  in  this  way  are  apt  to 
become  moldy  and  fail  to  make  good  roots.  The  figure  "c"  is  a  planting 
dibble  to  be  used  with  hand  and  foot  like  a  spade.  All  such  contriv- 
ances are  only  suited  to  light  soils  which  crumble  and  settle  easily.  On 
heavier  soils,  digging  holes  and  placing  the  soil  around  the  roots  or  the 
base  of  the  cutting  by  hand  is  indispensable. 

Planting  Bar  and  Sheep's-foot. — The  following  methods,  de- 
scribed by  Dr.  Gustav  Eisen  as  prevailing  in  the  raisin  districts  of  the 
San  Joaquin  Valley,  on  sandy,  loamy  soils,  will  well  illustrate  similar 
methods  wherever  followed : 

The  planting  bar  consists  of  a  bar  of  hard  iron,  sharpened  at  the  lower  end 
and  furnished  with  a  cross  handle  at  the  other.  The  length  of  the  bar  is  about 
three  and  a  half  feet,  width  about  two  and  a  half  inches,  and  thickness  a  third  to 
half  an  inch.  If  less  than  this  the  bar  will  bend.  The  planting  is  done  by  push- 
ing the  bar  perpendicularly  in  the  ground.  After  withdrawing  it,  insert  the  cut- 
ting and  push  it  down  to  the  bottom.  Fill  up  the  hole  by  again  inserting  the  bar 
in  the  ground  clos*  by  and  pressing  the  flat  side  against  the  hole. 

The  sheep's-foot  consists  of  a  round  rod  with  cross-handle  at  the  upper  end. 
The  lower  end  of  the  rod  is  slightly  flattened,  bent  and  forked.  The  planting 
is  done  by  fitting  the  forked  end  over  the  butt-end  of  the  cutting,  and  immedi- 
ately pushing  cutting  and  rod  together  to  the  desired  depth  in  the  soil.  A  slight 
twist  is  now  given  to  the  sheep's-foot.  This  loosens  it  from  the  cutting  and 
allows  it  to  be  withdrawn.  A  tamp  with  the  foot  fills  the  hole.  Great  care  must 
be  taken  in  withdrawing  the  sheep's-foot,  lest  in  doing  so  the  cutting  should  be 
lifted  also,  and  this  will  leave  a  fatal  air  chamber  at  the  lower  end.  The  slight 
twist  given  the  rod  before  withdrawing  loosens  it  and  leaves  the  cutting 
undisturbed. 

For  planting  in  dry  situations  some  careful  planters  run  water 
and  fine  earth  into  the  hole  made  by  the  bar  after  inserting  the  cutting ; 
others  run  in  fine  sand  dry  and  then  pour  on  water.  In  using  water 
in  this  way  one  must  take  care  that  he  uses  sand  or  sandy  earth,  and 
not  clay,  for  a  succeeding  dry  spell  may  bake  it,  and  the  cutting  will  be 
worse  off  than  if  not  puddled. 


PLANTING  GRAPE  VINES  301 

Planting  Rooted  Vines. — Planting  rooted  vines  is  governed  by 
the  same  rules  commended  for  planting  trees  in  Chapter  XI,  so  far  as 
preparation  of  holes,  care  in  placing  and  firming  the  soil  around  the 
roots,  etc.,  is  concerned.  In  handling  rooted  vines  there  must  be 
greater  care  in  packing  and  transportation  to  prevent  the  roots  from 
drying,  and  in  carrying  to  the  field  it  is  generally  advised  that  the 
plants  be  kept  in  a  pail  or  other  receptacle  with  water.  The  vine  roots 
are  very  small  and  tender,  and  success  will  largely  depend  upon  good 
care  of  them.  At  planting  all  dead  or  injured  roots  should  be  trimmed 
away,  healthy  roots  shortened  so  that  they  can  be  placed  well  in  the 
hole,  and  the  top  reduced  to  a  single  cane  cut  back  to  two  eyes. 

When  to  Plant. — The  exact  time  to  plant  can  not  be  stated,  for 
the  condition  of  the  soil  and  the  local  season-points  are  the  best  guides. 
Planting  can  be  done  much  later  as  a  rule  in  the  coast  regions  than  in 
the  interior,  because  the  soil  is  usually  later  in  getting  into  good  condi- 
tion of  mellowness  and  warmth,  and  the  late  rains  are  usually  heavier. 
It  is  certainly  not  advisable  to  place  cuttings  in  cold,  wet  soil,  and 
dry  soil  will  quickly  destroy  their  vitality.  The  suggestions  given  in 
Chapter  XI  should  be  carefully  considered.  The  planter  must  use 
good  judgment  in  choosing  his  time  for  planting,  aided  in  forming  it 
by  the  best  local  experience  he  can  get. 

Cultivation  of  Vineyard. — General  suggestions  concerning  the 
cultivation  of  the  vineyard  have  already  been  given  in  Chapter  XIII. 
in  which  methods  employed  in  California,  and  which  are  practically 
the  same  for  all  fruits,  are  described. 


CHAPTER   XXVII 

PRUNING  AND  CARE  OF  THE  VINE* 

Most  of  the  varieties  of  vinifera  grown  in  California  at  present 
thrive  under  the  short  pruning  system.  There  are  exceptions,  however, 
which  will  be  noted  later.  The  prevalence  of  the  short  pruning 
system  frees  our  growers  from  the  expense  and  inconvenience  of 
trellises.  Though  in  the  early  years  of  the  vine  stakes  are  used,  our 
older  vines  stand  by  themselves  and  are  as  independent  of  support  as 
our  fruit  trees.  The  vines  are,  in  fact,  shaped  upon  something  the 
same  model  as  our  fruit  trees,  the  so-called  "goblet  form"  of  the  French 
being  our  prototype. 

THE    FIRST    YEAR 

During  the  summer  of  the  year  the  vines  are  planted,  no  pruning 
or  training  of  any  kind  is  needed  in  most  cases.  For  this  reason  it  is 
nearly  always  unnecessary  to  stake  the  vines  when  they  are  planted. 
The  only  exception  to  this  is  when  strong-rooted  vines  are  planted  in 
a  rich,  moist  soil  in  which  they  will  make  a  very  large  growth  the  first 
year.  In  this  case  it  is  desirable,  though  not  quite  necessary,  to 
stake  the  vines  immediately  after  planting  to  adopt  the  method  of 
summer  treatment  described  below  for  the  second  year. 

In  most  cases  it  is  best  to  allow  all  shoots  to  remain  to  feed  the 
vine  and  to  insure  a  good  root  growth  the  first  year. 

Staking. — In  the  autumn  or  winter  following  planting,  the  vines 
should  be  staked,  either  before  or  after  pruning,  but  in  any  case  some 
time  before  the  buds  start  in  the  spring. 

The  kind  of  stake  used  will  depend  on  the  variety  of  vine  and  on 
the  method  of  pruning  to  be  ultimately  adopted.  For  ordinary  short- 
pruning,  the  stake  should  be  of  such  length  that,  after  being  driven 
into  the  ground,  sufficient  will  be  below  the  surface  to  keep  it  firm 
and  prevent  its  being  loosened  by  the  force  of  the  wind  acting  on  the 
vine  which  is  tied  to  it,  and  sufficient  above  the  surface  to  extend  one 
or  two  inches  above  the  height  at  which  it  is  intended  to  head  the  vines. 
It  should  be  from  one  and  one-quarter  to  one  and  one-half  inches 
square,  according  to  the  length. 

In  firm  ground,  for  small-growing  vines  such  as  Zinfandel,  a 
stake  1*4  by  1^4  inches  and  27  inches  long  will  be  sufficient.  This 
will  allow  15  inches  to  be  driven  into  the  ground  and  leave  12  inches 
above,  which  is  enough  for  vines  to  be  headed  at  10  inches.  If  the 
ground  is  loose  or  sandy  a  30-inch  stake  driven  18  inches  into  the 
ground  will  be  needed.  For  strong-growing  varieties,  such  as 
Carignane  or  Tokay,  especially  when  planted  in  rich  soil,  a  stake 
1^2  by  l*/2  inches  and  36  inches  long  will  be  necessary,  and  15  or 

*The  detailed  instructions  and  accompanying  illustrations  in  this  chapter  are  taken  from 
the  excellent  writings  of  Mr.  F.  T.  Bioletti  for  the  California  Experiment  Station,  and 
embody  the  teachings  of  long  experience  and  wide  observation. 

302 


PRUNING  THE   GRAPE  VINE 


303 


18  inches  of  this  should  be  left  above  the  ground.  This  will  permit 
the  heading  of  the  vines  at  15  inches. 

If  the  vines  are  to  be  trellised  with  one  wire,  a  36-inch  stake 
driven  18  inches  into  the  ground  is  the  proper  length.  If  two  wires 
are  to  be  used,  a  48-inch  stake  will  be  needed,  leaving  30  inches  above 
the  surface. 

If  the  vines  are  to  be  pruned  long  and  the  canes  tied  to  the  stake, 
a  5-foot  stake  will  usually  be  needed,  and  this  must  be  stronger,  2  by  2 
inches  square.  This  stake  should  be  driven  2  feet  into  the  ground. 

These  dimensions  are  all  smaller  than  are  usual  in  California, 
but  are  quite  sufficient  for  all  practical  purposes.  The  stake  should 
be  placed  1  to  2  inches  from  the  vine  on  the  side  opposite  to  the 


a  b  c 

Fig.  1.    Treatment  of  an  average  vine  during  second  season. 

a.  Winter    pruning. 

b.  Spring   pruning — removal   of  suckers    (S)    and  thinning  of   shoots    (W). 

c.  Summer  treatment — tying  to   stake   and  topping. 

prevailing  heavy  winds.  The  force  of  the  wind  will  thus  keep  the 
vine  pressed  against  the  stake  and  the  tying  material  less  liable  to 
break. 

First  Winter  Pruning. — In  California,  the  young  vines  may  be 
pruned  at  any  time  after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  except  in  sections 
very  subject  to  spring  frosts,  where  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  defer 
the  pruning  until  after  the  top  buds  of  the  canes  start. 

The  way  the  vines  are  to  be  pruned  will  depend  altogether  on  the 
growth  they  have  made.  If  the  growth  has  been  small  the  tops  are 
pruned  exactly  like  rooted  vines  before  planting.  All  the  canes  are 
removed  entirely,  except  the  strongest,  and  this  is  cut  back  to  two 
buds,  (see  Fig.  1,  a). 


304 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 


Any  vines  which  have  made  a  strong  growth  and  possess  at  least 
one  cane  of  which  sufficient  length  is  well  ripened  may  be  pruned 
for  tying  up.  All  the  canes  are  removed  entirely,  except  the  strongest, 
and  this  is  cut  back  to  10,  15,  or  18  inches,  according  to  the  height  at 
which  it  is  intended  to  head  the  vine  (see  Fig.  2,  a).  The  top  cut  is 
made  through  a  bud,  just  as  in  making  cuttings.  This  will  facilitate 
tying  up  and  insure  the  healthy  growth  of  the  top  bud. 

Sometimes,  even  when  the  vine  has  made  sufficient  growth,  the 
canes  are  prostrate  or  crooked  and  none  can  be  tied  up  straight  to  the 
stake.  In  this  case  the  vine  must  be  pruned  like  a  weak  vine — that  is, 
thinned  to  one  cane  and  this  cane  cut  back  to  two  buds. 


Fig.  2.    Treatment  of  an  average  vine  during  the  third  season  or  of^a 
vigorous  vine  during  the  second. 

a.  Vine  pruned  to  one  cane  and  tied  to  stake. 

b.  Removal  of  sucker   (S)   and  lower  shoots   (W)   in  spring. 

c.  Vine   in   summer  at  time   of  pinching. 

In  no  case  should  two  canes  of  any  length  be  left,  and  in  all  cases 
where  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  the  full  length  of  well-ripened  wood  for 
tying  up,  the  cane  should  be  cut  back  to  two  buds.  It  is  very  bad  prac- 
tice to  leave  some  of  the  canes  of  intermediate  length,  as  this  causes 
the  vines  to  head  out  at  various  heights  and  produces  an  irregularity  of 
shape  which  can  never  be  remedied  and  which  interferes  with  regular 
pruning,  cultivation  and  other  vineyard  work. 

The  idea  to  be  kept  in  mind  is  to  cut  back  each  winter  nearly  to  the 
ground — that  is,  to  two  buds — until  a  cane  is  produced  with  a  length 
of  well-ripened  wood  and  good  buds  equal  to  the  height  at  which  the 
vine  is  to  be  headed.  It  is  very  important  that  this  cane  should  be 


SECOND  YEAR  VINE  PRUNING  305 

straight,  healthy  and  well-ripened,  as  it  is  from  it  that  the  trunks  of  the 
mature  vine  develops.  All  the  vines  on  which  a  cane  has  been  left 
should  be  carefully  tied  up.  Two  ties  will  be  needed  in  most  cases.  A 
half  hitch  should  be  made  around  the  cane  below  the  swelling  left  by 
the  bud  which  has  been  removed,  and  the  cane  tied  firmly  to  the  top  of 
the  stake.  Another  tie  is  made  about  half-way  down  the  stake.  The 
lower  tie  need  not  be  very  tight,  and  in  any  case  the  tying  material 
should  not  be  passed  completely  around  the  cane,  except  above  the  top 
bud,  or  the  vine  will  be  strangled  when  it  commences  to  grow  (see 
Fig.  2  a) .  Any  kind  of  string  or  twine,  sufficiently  strong  to  withstand 
the  pressure  of  the  growing  vine  in  a  heavy  wind,  may  be  used.  Bind- 
ing twine,  or  a  single  strand  of  good  bailing  rope,  is  suitable.  No.  16 
or  17  galvanized  wire  is  preferred  by  some  and  is  better  than  string,  if 
care  is  taken  to  remove  the  bottom  ties  the  following  year  before  they 
strangle  the  vine.  Wire  is  a  little  more  expensive  and  takes  a  little 
longer  to  put  on  than  string,  but  holds  the  vines  better  and  can  be  used 
for  several  years. 

SECOND    YEAR 

Summer  Pruning. — The  treatment  during  the  second  and  third 
spring  and  summer  is  of  great  importance  to  the  future  welfare  of 
the  vine.  A  little  judicious  care  at  this  period  will  avert  many  troubles 
in  later  years.  It  will  be  necessary  to  go  over  the  vineyard  four  or  five 
times  to  do  the  suckering,  topping,  and  tying  which  are  necessary. 

The  shoots  starting  from  the  vines  which  have  been  cut  back  to 
two  buds  should  be  thinned  to  a  single  one.  This  thinning  should  be 
done  as  soon  as  possible  in  such  a  way  that  it  is  never  necessary  to 
remove  a  shoot  more  than  3  or  4  inches  long  (see  Fig.  1,  b).  If  the 
thinning  is  deferred  until  the  shoots  are  a  foot  or  more  long  the  vine 
will  be  weakened  by  the  removal  of  so  much  foliage.  If  the  thinning 
can  not  be  done  early,  it  is  better  not  to  do  it  at  all.  The  object  of  this 
thinning  is  to  throw  all  the  force  and  growth  of  the  vine  into  the  cane 
which  is  to  form  finally  the  trunk  of  the  vine.  If  it  is  done  too  late 
not  only  does  the  growth  not  go  into  this  cane,  but  the  vine  is  weakened 
so  much  that  this  cane  does  not  grow  so  well  as  it  would  have  done 
without  thinning. 

The  first  thinning  can  be  done  with  the  first  hoeing,  and  the  second 
with  the  suckering.  The  suckering  consists  of  the  removal  of  all 
shoots  which  come  from  below  the  ground.  These  also  should  be 
removed  as  early  as  practicable,  both  to  avoid  weakening  the  vine  by  the 
removal  of  mature  leaves  and  also  because  a  young  sucker  is  much 
more  easily  separated  from  the  vine  at  this  time.  Every  sucker  must 
be  cut  or  broken  off  at  the  point  where  it  originates.  If  a  little  piece 
of  the  sucker  is  left,  several  new  suckers  will  start  at  the  same  place. 
The  more  completely  the  suckering  is  done  during  the  first  two  years, 
the  less  trouble  in  this  respect  there  will  be  in  later  years.  This  is 
particularly  true  of  grafted  vines. 

A  few  weeks  after  the  first  thinning,  the  single  shoot  which  has 
been  left  will  have  grown  10  or  15  inches.  At  this  length  it  should  be 


306  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  :  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

tied  up  to  the  stake  (see  Fig.  1  c).  If  this  tying  is  neglected  or 
deferred  too  long,  a  heavy  wind  is  very  liable  to  break  off  the  whole 
shoot.  A  piece  of  string  tied  rather  loosely  about  the  middle  of  the 
shoot  is  all  that  is  needed.  If  the  vines  are  to  be  headed  high  (18 
inches)  another  tie  near  the  top  of  the  stake  may  be  necessary. 

For  vines  which  are  making  only  moderate  growth  this  is  all  the 
treatment  needed  during  the  summer.  Strong-growing  vines  in  rich 
soil,  however,  should  be  topped. 

Topping. — The  object  of  this  is  to  force  the  shoot  to  send  out 
laterals  at  the  right  height  above  the  surface  of  the  soil,  to  be  used  as 
spurs  during  the  following  year.  This  topping  is  an  operation  which 
requires  a  good  deal  of  judgment.  If  the  topping  is  done  too  soon, 
laterals  will  not  start,  but  a  new  terminal  shoot  will  be  formed.  This  is 
not  a  serious  defect,  however,  but  simply  necessitates  a  second  topping 
two  or  three  weeks  later.  Neither  will  the  laterals  start  if  the  topping 
is  done  too  late,  or  if  they  start  they  will  not  mature,  and  the  vine  is 
weakened  by  the  removal  of  foliage  without  any  compensating 
advantage. 

Until  experience  has  shown  the  proper  time  for  the  variety  and 
locality,  it  is  best  to  top  when  the  shoot  has  grown  to  from  8  to  12 
inches  above  the  top  of  the  stake,  and  if  necessary  top  again 
later. 

The  shoot  should  be  topped  within  1  or  2  inches  of  the  top  of  the 
stake,  if  the  stakes  have  been  chosen  and  driven  as  advised  above  (see 
Fig.  1  ,  c).  This  will  insure  the  growth  of  laterals  just  where  they  are 
needed  for  the  next  winter  pruning. 

The  vines  on  which  a  cane  has  been  left  and  tied  up  during  the 
preceding  winter  must  be  treated  a  little  differently.  The  removal  of 
underground  shoots  or  suckers  is  the  same.  Instead  of  thinning  out 
the  shoots  to  a  sirfgle  one,  as  for  the  vines  just  described,  all  the  shoots 
should  be  left  to  grow,  except  those  too  near  the  ground  (see  Fig.  2, 

b). 

As  a  rule,  all  shoots  between  the  ground  and  the  middle  of  the 
stakes  should  be  taken  off.  It  is  even  more  important  that  this  should 
be  done  early  than  in  the  case  described  above.  If  the  lower  shoots  are 
allowed  to  become  large  and  then  removed,  not  only  is  the  vine  weak- 
ened by  the  removal  of  mature  leaves,  but  the  stem  of  the  vine  is 
suddenly  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  hot  sun  and  is  very  liable  to 
injury.  This  injury  does  not  show  by  the  peeling  off  of  the  bark  as 
with  fruit  trees,  but  by  a  general  weakening  and  dwarfing  of  the  vine. 

The  shoots  coming  from  the  upper  half  of  the  cane  are  to  form  the 
spurs  for  the  following  winter  pruning,  and  can  often  be  left  to  grow 
without  further  treatment. 

If  the  growth  is  very  rapid  and  succulent,  however,  it  is  necessary  to 
pinch  them,  or  the  first  heavy  wind  may  break  them  off  (see  Fig.  2,  C.) 

Pinching  consists  in  the  removal  of  1  or  2  inches  of  growth  at  the 
extreme  tip  of  the  shoot.  This  delays  the  growth  in  length  temporarily 
and  gives  the  shoot  time  to  strengthen  its  tissues  before  its  length  gives 
too  much  leverage  to  the  wind.  This  pinching  usually  has  to  be 
repeated  at  least  once. 


THIRD  YEAR  VINE  PRUNING  307 

Pinching  may  be  replaced  by  topping  a  few  weeks  later,  but  the 
latter  is  somewhat  weakening  to  the  vine. 

In  all  summer  pruning — that  is,  the  removal  of  green  shoots  and 
leaves — of  young  vines,  two  things  should  be  kept  in  mind :  First  that 
all  summer  pruning  is  weakening;  second  that  the  object  of  summer 
pruning  of  young  vines  is  to  direct  the  growth  as  much  as  possible  into 
those  parts  which  are  to  become  permanent  portions  of  the  mature 
vine.  The  weakening  effect  is  almost  nil  if  the  shoots  or  tips  are 
removed  when  they  are  very  small,  but  may  be  very  serious  if  large 
shoots  are  removed  or  heavily  topped.  When  a  large  shoot  covered 
with  leaves  is  removed  it  is  a  total  loss  to  the  vine.  When  a  small  shoot 
is  removed  the  food  materials  which  would  have  gone  into  that  shoot 
are  diverted  to  the  shoots  that  remain,  and  the  vigor  and  size  of  the 
latter  are  increased. 

THIRD  YEAR 

Winter  Pruning. — After  the  leaves  have  fallen  at  the  end  of  the 
third  summer  every  vine  should  have  a  well-formed,  straight  stem  with 
two,  three,  or  more  canes  growing  from  the  upper  part,  and  the  forma- 
tion of  the  "head"  or  crown  should  commence.  Any  vines  which  have 
not  been  brought  to  this  condition  must  be  pruned  like  two  or  one-year- 
old  vines,  as  the  case  may  be. 

If  the  work  up  to  this  point  has  been  well  done,  the  formation  of 
the  head  is  a  simple  matter.  It  consists  in  leaving  two,  three,  or  four 
spurs,  arranged  as  symmetrically  as  possible  near  the  top  of  the  vine. 
The  stronger  the  vine,  as  evidenced  by  the  number,  length,  and  thick- 
ness of  the  canes,  the  larger  the  number  of  spurs  and  buds  that  should 
be  left. 

A  spur  consists  of  the  basal  portion  of  a  cane,  ^nd  normally  of  two 
full  internodes.  This  leaves  two  buds  besides  the  base  bud.  The  num- 
ber of  buds  to  leave  on  a  spur  depends  on  the  strength  or  thickness  of 
the  cane  from  which  the  spur  is  made.  A  thin,  or  weak,  cane  should 
be  cut  back  to  one  bud  or  even  to  the  base  bud.  A  strong  cane,  on  the 
other  hand,  should  be  left  with  three  buds  besides  the  base  bud. 

The  pruning  of  each  vine  requires  judgment,  and  it  is  impossible 
to  give  an  inflexible  rule  to  follow.  The  ideal  of  a  perfect  vine  should 
be  kept  in  mind  and  each  vine  pruned  as  nearly  in  accordance  with  this 
ideal  as  circumstances  permit.  Fig.  3  represents  nearly  perfect  three- 
year-old  vines  consisting  of  two  or  three  symmetrically  placed  spurs  of 
two  buds  each  near  the  top  of  the  stem. 

Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  leave  a  spur  lower  down  (see  Fig.  3, 
b).  This  spur  will  be  removed  the  following  year  after  it  has  produced 
two  or  three  bunches  of  grapes.  Sometimes  a  vine  may  be  very  vig- 
orous but  have  only  two  canes  properly  placed  for  making  spurs.  In 
this  case  the  spurs  should  be  left  longer — three  buds  and  even  in  ex- 
treme cases  four  buds  long. 

In  stump  pruning  there  is  a  difference  of  practice  as  to  low  head- 
ing according  to  locality.  In  the  interior  regions  the  vine  is  now  headed 
almost  at  the  surface  of  the  ground ;  in  the  coast  regions  there  is  usu- 


308 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 


ally  a  stump  of  one  to  two  feet  or  more.  As  with  trees  so  with  vines, 
the  practice  is  to  prune  to  make  lower  heads  than  during  the  early 
years  of  California  fruit  growing. 

Long  Pruning. — Some  varieties  grown  for  market  and  for  raisin 
making  do  not  thrive  if  pruned  by  the  short-spur  system.  Notable 
among  these  are  the  Sultana,  Sultanina,  (Thompson's  Seedless),  Em- 
peror and  Sabalskanski.  There  are  also  a  number  of  wine  varieties 
which  must  be  pruned  long.  Whatever  the  variety  of  vine  and  what- 
ever the  system  of  pruning  to  be  ultimately  adopted,  the  treatment  for 
the  first  two  and  even  three  years  is  practically  identical  and  is  that 
which  has  already  been  described  in  detail. 


year. 


Fig.  3.    Three-year-old  vines  after  pruning. 

a.  Average  vine  with  two  spurs. 

b.  Vigorous  vines  with  three  spurs,  the  lowest  of  which  is  to  be  removed  the  following 

c.  Vigorous  vine  with  three  spurs. 


Long  pruning  admits  of  degrees,  but  it  usually  signifies  using  a  five 
or  six  instead  of  a  four-foot  stake  and  leaving  the  selected  canes  from 
eighteen  inches  to  three  feet  longer  instead  of  cutting  back  to  two  or 
three  buds,  as  in  short  pruning.  These  long  canes  are  securely  tied  to 
the  long  stakes. 

With  varieties  needing  long  pruning  the  first  two  or  three  buds  next 
the  old  wood  do  not  bear  fruit,  hence  the  need  of  leaving  buds  farther 
removed  from  the  old  wood  to  secure  it.  This  habit  of  the  vine  invites 
the  practice  of  growing  a  long  cane  for  fruit  and  at  the  same  time  pro- 
viding for  wood  growth  for  the  following  year's  fruiting  by  cutting 


LONG    PRUNING    OF   VINES  309 

another  cane  from  the  same  spur  down  to  two  or  three  buds.  By  this 
practice  the  wood  which  has  borne  the  fruit  is  cut  back  to  a  bud  each 
winter  and  the  cane  which  has  grown  only  wood  is  pruned  long  for 
the  fruit  of  the  following  summer.  A  modification  of  the  practice  is  to 
prune  the  canes  from  some  of  the  spurs  long,  and  from  other  spurs 
short,  thus  making  the  spurs  alternate  from  wood  bearing  to  fruit  bear- 
ing from  year  to  year.  Unless  some  method  is  adopted  to  promote  the 
growth  of  strong  canes  from  near  the  head  of  the  vine,  long  pruning 
becomes  unsatisfactory.  According  to  the  common  way  with  those 
vines  which  are  known  to  require  longer  canes  for  satisfactory  bearing, 
such  canes  are  selected  when  the  vine  is  well  established  and  two,  three, 
four,  or  more  canes  four  or  five  feet  long  are  tied  up  vertically  to  a  high 
stake.  This  process  is  repeated  the  next  year  and  the  next,  and  the 
result  is,  with  the  Sultanina  at  least,  that  after  the  second  or  third  year 
all  the  bearing  wood  is  at  the  top  of  the  stake,  and  the  vine  must  be 
pruned  short  again  or  suckers  and  watersprouts  left  as  long  canes. 
Neither  way  is  satisfactory. 

Two  methods  have  been  successfully  used  to  insure  the  growth  of 
new  fruit  wood  every  year  in  a  position  where  it  can  be  utilized.  The 
first  consists  in  bending  the  fruit  canes  into  a  circle.  This  diminishes 
the  tendency  of  the  sap  of  the  vine  to  go  to  the  end  of  the  fruit  canes. 
The  consequence  is  that  more  shoots  start  in  the  lower  parts  of  the  fruit 
canes.  All  the  shoots  on  these  canes  are  made  weaker  and  more  fruit- 
ful by  the  bending,  and  at  the  same  time  the  sap  pressure  is  increased 
and  causes  strong  shoots  to  start  from  the  wood-spurs  left  near  the 
bases  of  the  fruit  canes.  These  shoots  are  used  for  fruit  canes  at  the 
following  winter  pruning,  and  new  wood  spurs  are  then  left  for  the 
next  year. 

The  tying  and  bending  of  the  fruit  canes  require  great  care,  and 
repeated  suckering  and  removal  of  watersprouts  are  necessary  to  insure 
a  strong  growth  of  replacing  canes  on  the  wood  spurs.  This  method 
can  be  used  successfully  only  by  skillful  hands. 

The  other  method  requires  some  form  of  trellis.  The  most  prac- 
ticable trellis  is  a  wire  stretched  along  the  rows  about  1^2  or  2  feet 
above  the  surface  of  the  soil.  For  very  vigorous  vines  in  rich  soil  a 
second  wire  12  inches  above  the  first  is  advisable. 

The  pruning  is  the  same  as  for  the  method  just  described.  The 
fruit  canes,  however,  instead  of  being  bent  in  a  circle  and  tied  to  the 
stake,  are  placed  in  a  horizontal  position  and  tied  to  the  wire.  The 
horizontal  position  has  the  same  effect  as  curving  in  promoting  the 
starting  of  more  shoots  on  the  fruit  canes  and  the  consequent  production 
of  more  bunches  of  grapes.  At  the  same  time  the  buds  on  the  wood 
spurs  are  forced  to  start,  and  not  being  shaded  they  tend  to  grow  vig- 
orously. It  is  best  to  tie  the  shoots  from  the  wood  spurs  in  a  vertical 
position  to  the  stake,  and  they  should  not  be  topped.  This  system  of 
pruning  is  not  only  theoretically  correct,  but  is  easy  to  explain  to  prun- 
ers,  and  can  be  carried  out  much  more  perfectly  than  the  first  method 
with  ordinary  labor. 

Whatever  system  of  winter  pruning  is  adopted  with  Sultanina, 
careful  summer  pruning,  suckering,  sprouting,  and  topping  are  neces- 
sary for  the  best  results.  This  variety  has  a  tendency  to  send  out  large 


310  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

numbers  of  suckers  from  below  ground  and  watersprouts  from  the  old 
wood.  These  shoots  are  usually  sterile,  grow  vigorously,  and  unless 
removed  in  time  divert  the  energies  of  the  vine  from  the  fruit  and 
fruit  shoots.  Two  or  three  times  during  the  spring  the  vineyard  should 
be  gone  over  carefully  and  all  sterile  shoots  which  are  not  needed  to 
balance  the  vine  or  to  replace  weak  or  missing  arms  should  be  removed. 
This  removal  of  shoots  should  be  done  in  such  a  way  that  no  shoot 
longer  than  12  inches  is  ever  removed.  If  the  watersprouts  are  allowed 
to  grow  large  their  removal  weakens  the  vine.  The  shoots  which  are 
to  give  fruit  canes  for  the  following  year  should  not  be  topped.  The 
shoots  from  the  horizontal  fruit  canes  on  the  trellises,  however,  will  set 
their  fruit  better  and  are  less  likely  to  be  broken  by  the  wind  if  they 
are  pinched  or  topped  early. 


SUMMER  PRUNING  AND  SUCKERING 

Summer  pruning  or  topping  of  bearing  vines  is  usually  practiced. 
Some  follow  the  pinching  process,  by  which  the  terminal  of  the  grow- 
ing cane  is  nipped  off  with  the  thumb  and  ringer  when  it  has  grown 
out  about  two  feet.  Others  wait  longer  and  then  slash  off  the  ends  of 
the  canes  with  a  sickle.  The  tendency  is  to  leave  summer  pruning  until 
too  late  and  to  slash  off  wood  indiscriminately,  to  the  injury  of  the  vine. 
Summer  pruning,  if  done  early  enough,  and  this  would  be  while  the 
growth  is  still  soft  at  the  point  of  removal,  will  induce  the  growth  of 
laterals  and  will  shade  and  improve  the  fruit,  and  at  the  same  time 
thicken  the  growth  of  the  main  cane  and  strengthen  its  connection 
with  the  spur.  Slashing  of  canes  too  late  in  the  season  deprives  the 
fruit  of  the  service  of  enough  leaf  surface  for  the  elaboration  of  the 
sap,  often  seriously  checks  the  growth  of  the  vine,  and  in  hot  regions, 
induces  sunburn.  The  first  summer  pruning  should  be  done  soon  after 
the  bloom,  but  not  during  blooming.  The  second  could  take  place 
whenever  the  canes  or  laterals  extend  beyond  the  length  necessary  to 
shade  the  grapes. 

Suckering  is  an  important  process  and  usually  has  to  be  attended  to 
at  least  twice  in  the  season.  It  consists  in  removing  all  shoots  from 
old  wood  which  are  not  provided  for  at  the  previous  winter  pruning. 
The  growth  of  these  suckers  takes  sap  which  should  go  to  the  other 
canes.  All  such  shoots  should  be  rubbed  or  pulled  off  while  they  are 
still  soft ;  if  a  sucker  puts  out  at  a  point  where  it  would  be  desirable  to 
have  a  spur  to  balance  the  head  of  the  vine,  it  should  of  course  be 
allowed  to  grow,  to  be  cut  back  to  two  buds  the  following  winter.  By 
such  selection  of  suckers  new  spurs  are  secured  to  replace  old  and 
failing  ones. 

GENERAL  NOTES  ON  PRUNING 

Longer  or  shorter  pruning  produces  effects  not  only  upon  the 
amount  of  early  ripening  of  the  fruit  of  certain  varieties,  but  upon 
quality,  as  shown  in  the  wines.  Such  effects  have  to  be  discerned  by 
local  observation. 


GENERAL  NOTES  ON  VINE  PRUNING  311 

It  is  a  very  difficult  matter  to  lay  down  any  rule  for  pruning  a  vine- 
yard, so  much  depends  on  the  age  of  the  vines,  the  different  varieties, 
and  the  quality  of  the  soil.  A  basis  on  which  to  build  a  theory  on  the 
subject  might  be  found  in  and  through  an  understanding  of  the  quan- 
tity of  grapes  that  may  be  expected  from  a  vine,  as  the  secret  of  prun- 
ing is  to  keep  a  just  medium  between  the  production  of  grapes  to  the 
injury  of  the  vine  and  its  wood  and  an  overproduction  of  wood  to  the 
detriment  of  the  crop.  In  older  vines  a  proportion  should  be  maintained 
between  the  vigor  of  the  vines  and  the  crop  desired ;  each  bud  may  be 
considered  good  for  two  bunches  of  grapes  the  ordinary  size,  and 
upon  this  estimate  may  be  obtained.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
result  of  overloading  the  vine  is  detrimental  to  its  vigor  and  health, 
while  the  reverse  will  not  injure  it,  but  will  lessen  the  profits  for  that 
season,  often  giving  greatly  increased  returns  in  after  years. 

Close  attention  should  be  given  to  the  growth  of  the  wood  and  fruit 
of  the  preceding  year.  If  the  canes  are  very  large  and  the  bunches  of 
grapes  poor  and  there  are  many  suckers,  it  indicates  that  more  eyes  are 
necessary.  On  the  contrary,  if  the  canes  are  small,  and  the  bunches  of 
grapes  numerous  and  straggling,  and  the  ripening  not  even,  it  indicates 
that  the  number  of  eyes  left  should  be  less. 

Pruning  may  be  regulated  to  produce  a  good  second  crop  of  grapes 
or  to  prevent  the  formation  of  a  second  crop.  The  second  crop  is 
often  desirable  in  raisin  and  table  varieties,  but  undesirable  in  wine 
varieties. 

Attention  should  be  paid  to  the  tools  used  in  pruning.  Let  the 
blades  be  kept  sharp  and  thin ;  large  shears  are  very  apt  to  bruise  the 
wood  more  than  small  ones. 

Pruning  is  done  after  the  fall  of  the  leaves  and  before  the  swelling 
of  the  buds,  usually  in  January  and  February.  Early  pruning  has  a 
tendency  to  make  the  vines  start  growth  early,  consequently  in  frosty 
situations  pruning  is  often  deferred  till  late  in  the  winter — as  late  as 
the  middle  of  March  in  some  cases.  But  it  is  inconvenient  to  do  a  large 
amount  of  pruning  so  late.  At  any  time  in  the  winter  the  canes  can  be 
cut  back  to  15  or  18  inches  and  the  vineyard  cleaned  up.  When  the 
outer  buds  on  these  long  spurs  start,  cut  back  to  the  two  buds  next  the 
old  wood  and  they  will  start  15  or  20  days  later  than  if  the  vines  had 
been  pruned  short  earlier  in  the  season.  This  practice  has  been  followed 
with  marked  advantage  in  some  regions  liable  to  late  spring  frosts. 
The  bleeding  which  follows  late  pruning  is  no  loss  to  the  vine,  accord- 
ing to  observation  of  late-pruned  vines. 

The  proper  treatment  of  vines  injured  by  spring  frosts  is  clearly 
the  immediate  removal,  by  a  sharp  downward  jerk,  of  the  frosted  shoots. 
Careful  experiment  has  proved  that  the  vines  that  were  not  stripped 
did  not  do  as  well  as  the  others,  as  the  dormant  buds  in  many  cases  did 
not  come  out,  and  those  that  came  out  were  not  healthy  and  strong,  and 
hardly  had  any  grapes.  The  damaged  shoots  that  were  not  removed 
died  gradually,  and  at  the  junction  with  the  cane  new  shoots  came  out 
without  any  grapes  at  all,  while  two-thirds  of  a  crop  came  on  the  frost- 
bitten vines,  which  were  stripped  of  the  damaged  canes ;  hardly  and  first 
crop  and  only  a  second  crop  on  the  vines  which  were  not  attended  to. 


312  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

DISEASES  OF  THE  VINE 

One  of  the  most  prevalent  diseases  of  the  vine  in  California  is  caused 
by  a  fungus  which  affects  leaves,  canes,  and  berries,  and  is  locally 
known  as  "mildew."  This  disease  is  recognized  by  grayish  white  color- 
ing of  the  affected  leaves,  which,  as  the  disease  progresses,  shrivel  and 
dry  up ;  the  young  cane  also  blackens  and  dries,  and  the  berries  show 
whitish  patches,  which  become  darker  colored  and  the  berries  crack 
open.  The  usual  remedy  for  the  trouble  is  finely-ground  or  sublimed 
sulphur  applied  several  times  during  the  season.  Definite  reference 
may  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  diseases  of  trees  and  vines. 

The  Bordeaux  Mixture  and  other  copper  preparations  are  some- 
times useful  upon  grape-vines,  as  will  be  cited  in  the  chapter  on  plant 
diseases. 

Coulure. — A  frequent  misfortune  of  the  vine,  and  for  which  no 
remedy  is  yet  known,  is  coulure,  a  term  signifying  the  failure  of  the 
fruit  to  set  or  to  remain  on  the  cluster.  This  occurs  in  varying  degrees 
from  the  loss  of  a  few  berries  to  the  almost  complete  clearing  of  fruit 
from  the  stem.  It  is  worse  with  some  varieties  than  others  and  in  some 
localities  than  others.  The  trouble  is  believed  to  arise  from  various 
causes. 

There  is,  also,  occurring  with  more  or  less  frequency,  a  reddening 
and  death  of  the  vine  leaves,  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  trouble 
known  to  the  French  as  "rougeole."  The  leaves  show  light-colored 
spots  at  first,  which  afterward  turn  red  and  finally  involve  the  whole 
leaf  or  cane,  and  sometimes  the  whole  vine.  It  usually  occurs  in  mid- 
summer, and  is  not  necessarily  fatal  in  its  effects. 

Root  Knot. — An  evil  occurring  on  the  main  stem  of  the  vine, 
generally  near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  is  an  excrescence  of  woody 
character  commonly  called  "black  knot."  There  has  been  much  dis- 
cussion as  to  the  cause  of  this  abnormal  growth,  without  full  agree- 
ment among  observers.  Some  attribute  the  knots  to  injuries  to  the 
stump  in  cultivation,  others  to  outbursts  of  sap  which  the  short  pruning 
system  does  not  give  top  growth  enough  to  dispose  of,  and  to  various 
other  causes,  but  the  agency  is  now  definitely  known  to  be  invasion  by 
bacteria.  This  is  analogous  to  the  "crown  knot"  of  fruit  trees  which 
will  be  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  plant  diseases. 

Anaheim  Disease. — There  has  prevailed  for  several  years  in 
California  a  mysterious  disease  of  the  vine  known  as  the  "Anaheim 
disease,"  because  its  evil  work  first  appeared  in  that  vicinity.  It  de- 
stroyed many  thousand  acres  of  vines  and  led  to  the  abandonment  of 
grape  growing  in  some  regions  in  southern  California.  The  fullest 
statements  concerning  its  performance  can  be  found  in  Bulletin  No.  2, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of  Vegetable  Pathology,  by 
Newton  B.  Pierce,  1892,  and  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  30,  1895.  Fortun- 
ately during  recent  years  the  trouble  has  been  less  aggressive  but  neither 
its  nature  nor  satisfactory  treatment  has  been  fully  demonstrated.  The 
latest  available  information  concerning  it  and  other  troubles  of  the  vine 
can  be  had  by  application  to  the  University  Experiment  Station  at 
Berkeley. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
GRAPE  VARIETIES  IN  CALIFORNIA 

Large  collections  of  grape  varieties  have  been  brought  into  Cali- 
fornia during  the  last  forty-five  years.  They  were  sought  in  all  grape 
countries,  and  from  such  wide  experimental  planting  a  few  have  sur- 
vived in  popular  esteem  and  are  now  chiefly  grown.  Being  derived 
from  different  countries,  they  came  bearing  many  names.  Some  of 
these  have  been  preserved,  some  wholly  lost,  and  replaced  with  local 
appellations.  The  result  is  that  our  grape  nomenclature  is  full  of  con- 
fusion. Some  varieties  have  been  identified  by  the  means  of  the  stand- 
ard French  grape  literature;  others  are  apparently  unknown  to  the 
compilers  of  that  literature.  It  is,  therefore,  impossible  to-day  to  de- 
termine a  number  of  our  most  popular  table  and  shipping  grapes,  as 
well  as  some  of  the  wine  varieties.  The  relative  importance  of  the 
most  popular  table  and  raisin  grapes  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  tabu- 
lation of  reports  from  growers  who  were  asked  to  name  the  grapes 
which  they  considered  best  worth  planting  in  1914: 


TABLE  AND  RAISIN  GRAPE  VARIETIES  APPROVED  BY 
CALIFORNIA  GROWERS 


Central         Sacramento    San  Joaquin 

GRAPES.                                          Coast  valley  and         valley  and        Southern 

valleys.  foothills.          foothills       California. 

Muscat  *  **                 **                   * 

Tokay *  ** 

Cornichon    *  **                    *                  ** 

Sultanina    (Thompson)    .* *  ** 

Emperor    **                  ** 

Malaga    *  **                  **                  ** 

Feher  Zagos   ...                    * 

Rose  of  Peru **                    *                    * 

Black  Morocco   *  *                   *                   * 

Verdal    *                ...                    * 

Sultana    

Mission    *  *                    *                    * 

Black  Hamburg    *  *                    *                    * 

Black  Ferrara   * 

Gros    Colman    ...                    * 

Zabalkanski    ...                    * 

Palomino    *  *                ... 

S  weetwater *  **                   * 

Pierce    ?...         * 

Concord    * 

Delaware    * 

Niagara    *  .... 

Campbell's   Early    

Agawam    


* 

** 

* 


Indicates  that  the  variety  is  approved  in  the  region  designated. 


'Most  highly  commended. 

313 


314  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

The  last  six  named  are  grapes  of  popular  eastern  types.  They  are 
of  exceedingly  small  commercial  importance  and  are  chiefly  grown  in 
southern  California;  not  because  eastern  varieties  are  better  suited  to 
local  conditions  there  than  in  other  parts  of  the  State  but  because  there 
are  more  people  who  enjoy  them. 

In  order  to  characterize  our  leading  table  grapes,  descriptions  will 
be  quoted  from  the  best  available  local  authorities,  as  follows : 

Early  Black  July;  syns.  Madeleine,  Madeline  Noir,  etc. — "Leaves  rather  small, 
light  green  above  and  beneath;  bunches  small  and  compact;  berries  small,  quite 
round ;  skin  thick,  black,  covered  with  a  blue  bloom ;  flavor  moderately  sweet, 
but  not  rich  nor  perfumed.  The  earliest  grape,  and  chiefly  valued  for  dessert  on 
that  account." — Hyatt. 

White  July;  syn.  Luglienga. — "Vine  strong-growing  and  sensitive  to  frost; 
leaves  of  medium  size,  deeply  five-lobed,  dark  green,  glabrous  on  both  sides, 
sharply  toothed,  the  terminal  tooth  of  each  lobe  very  long  and  acuminate ;  bunches 
of  medium  size,  well  filled ;  berries  of  medium  size,  oval,  at  first  green,  becoming 
yellow  with  overripeness,  with  thin  skin,  crisp,  firm  flesh,  and  agreeable  flavor." — 
Bioletti.  The  Luglienga,  which  means  July  grape,  is  one  of  the  earliest  grapes 
known. 

Early  Madeleine;  syn.  Madeleine  Angevine. — "Moderate  grower,  with  long- 
jointed,  brown  wood;  leaf  medium,  deeply  lobed,  dark  green  above,  tomentose 
below ;  young  points  reddish,  woolly,  slender ;  bunch  medium,  compact,  should- 
dered ;  berry  medium,  oblong,  yellowish  green,  transparent,  rather  thick  skin, 
sweet  and  juicy.  Vine  a  shy  bearer  when  frost  is  prevalent." — Husmann. 

Chasselas  Dore  ;  syn.  Fontainebleau,  Sweetwater. — "A  rather  vigorous  grower, 
with  medium  or  somewhat  slender  canes  of  a  reddish-brown  color ;  young  shoots 
of  garnet  color,  nearly  or  quite  glabrous;  leaves  rather  below  average  size,  a 
little  longer  than  wide,  glabrous  above  and  nearly  so  below,  except  for  a  few 
hairs  on  the  main  nerves,  with  well-marked  sinuses,  the  petiolar  one  often  closed, 
the  petiole  long,  rather  slender,  and  rose-colored;  bunches  of  medium  or  over- 
medium  size,  conico-cylindrical  shouldered,  more  or  less  compact ;  berries  medium 
to  large,  with  firm  but  tender  skin,  small  seeds ;  of  delicate  flavor  and  texture,  at 
first  crisp  but  becoming  soft  with  full  maturity.  The  grapes  are  of  a  clear  green 
color,  tinged  with  a  beautiful  golden  bronze  where  exposed  to  the  sun." — Bioletti. 

Chasselas  Rose. — Fruit  resembling  foregoing,  except  that  both  bunch  and 
berries  are  usually  smaller,  and  flavor  is  more  pronounced. 

Chasselas  Victoria. — "Vine  vigorous,  very  short- jointed  and  brittle,  and  bears 
well  with  short  pruning;  wood  grayish  yellow,  thick  and  strong,  leaf  light  green, 
deeply  lobed  and  shining ;  young  shoots  with  numerous  laterals ;  bunch  very  large 
and  heavy,  often  weighing  five  pounds,  shouldered,  very  compact ;  stem  brown, 
very  thick;  berry  medium,  round,  pale  lilac,  purple,  with  lilac  bloom,  juicy,  vinous, 
refreshing." — Husmann. 

Palomino;  syn.  Golden  Chasselas. — "The  vine  quite  largely  grown  as  'Golden 
Chasselas'  is  undoubtedly  identical  with  the  Listan,  or  Palomino." — Hilgard. 
"Vine  a  fair  grower;  wood  close-jointed;  leaf  medium,  oblong,  deeply  lobed, 
bright  green  above,  grayish  grain  and  tomentose  below,  stem  short,  young  points 
with  reddish  tint  and  woolly;  bunch  large,  conical,  rather  loose  and  shouldered; 
berry  round,  full  medium,  sometimes  flat,  pale  green  with  yellowish  tinge;  thin 
skin,  juicy  and  sweet,  resembling  Chasselas." — Husmann. 

Black  Malvoise. — "Vine  a  strong  grower;  wood  long- jointed,  rather  slender, 
light  brown ;  leaf  medium  size,  oval,  rather  evenly  and  deeply  five-lobed ;  basal 
sinus  moderately  open,  with  parallel  sides,  upper  surface  smooth,  almost  glabrous, 
lower  surface  lightly  tomentose  on  the  veins  and  veinlets ;  bunches  large,  rather 
loose,  branching;  berries  large,  oblong,  reddish  black  with  faint  bloom;  flesh 
juicy,  flavor  neutral." — Hilgard.  Widely  grown  as  an  early  table  grape. 

Mission. — "This  variety,  grown  at  the  old  missions,  has  never  been  determined, 
nor  its  exact  source  ascertained.  It  is  regarded  by  some  as  a  most  delicious  table 
grape.  It  can  be  found  in  small  areas  in  every  county  of  the  State  adapted  to 
the  grape.  Vine  a  strong  grower;  wood  short-jointed,  dull  dark  to  brown  to 


GRAPES   GROWN    IN   CALIFORNIA  315 

grayish ;  leaf  above  medium  size,  slightly  oblong,  with  large,  deeply-cut,  compound 
teeth  basal,  sinus  widely  opened,  primary  sinuses,  ^hallow  and  narrow,  secondary 
sinuses  ill-defined,  smooth  on  both  sides,  light  green  below  with  light,  scattered 
tomentum." — Hilgard.  "Bunches  slightly  shouldered,  loose,  divided  into  many 
small,  distinct  lateral  clusters;  berries  medium  size,  round,  purple  black,  heavy 
bloom;  exceedingly  sweet,  juicy,  and  delicious;  seeds  rather  large;  skin  thin." 
— Hyatt. 

Muscatel;  syn.  White  Frontignan. — "Vine  of  medium  size,  with  strong,  spread- 
ing canes;  canes  reddish-brown,  with  short  internodes;  leaves  of  medium  size, 
thin,  five-lobed ;  glabrous  except  for  a  few  hairs  on  the  lower  side  of  the  well- 
marked  ribs;  bunches  long,  cylindrical,  regular,  compact;  berries  round,  golden- 
yellow,  becoming  amber-colored,  very  sweet  and  of  marked  aroma.  Ripens  a 
little  later  than  the  Chasselas." — Bioletti. 

White  Muscat  of  Alexandria* — "Vine  a  short,  rather  straggling  and  bushy 
grower,  well  adapted  to  short  stool  pruning,  as  it  forms  rather  a  bush  than  a 
vine;  wood  gray,  with  dark  spots,  short-jointed;  leaf  round,  five-lobed,  bright 
green  above,  lighter  green  below ;  young  shoots  a  bright  green.  The  laterals  pro- 
duce a  second  and  even  a  third  crop ;  bunch  long  and  loose,  shouldered ;  berry 
oblong,  a  light  yellow  when  fully  matured,  transparent,  covered  with  white  bloom, 
fleshy,  with  thick  skin,  very  sweet  and  decidedly  musky." — Husmann.  The  lead- 
ing table  grape  of  California.  Rejected  for  irregular  bearing  on  some  mesa  lands 
in  Southern  California. 

Muscatel  Gordo  Blanco. — "Muscatel  Gordo  Blanco  has  a  closer  bunch  and 
rounder  berry  than  the  Muscat.  The  skin  is  softer  and  the  pulp  is  not  quite  so 
hard.  The  berry  inclines  to  be  a  little  darker  in  color  and  not  nearly  so  green 
when  it  is  ripe,  and  I  think  not  quite  as  long  as  the  Muscat  of  Alexandria.  If 
the  Muscat  would  set  as  well  as  the  Muscatel,  the  difficulty  would  be  obviated. 
One  very  important  difference  is  that  when  you  come  to  dry  them,  the  Muscat  of 
Alexandria  loses  the  bloom  very  rapidly.  The  bloom  comes  off  when  you  come 
to  dry  and  pack  them.  But  the  Muscatel  does  not  lose  its  bloom.  The  Muscat 
of  Alexandria*  has  to  be  dried  a  little  more  than  the  Muscatel  to  bring  it  into  a 
keeping  condition  under  the  same  condition  of  ripeness." — R.  B.  Blowers. 

"The  growth  of  the  Muscatel  or  Gordo  Blanco  vine  is  low  and  spreading,  with 
no  upright  branches  in  the  center ;  clusters  heavy,  and,  when  perfect,  close  and 
shouldered;  berries  round  and  large  (the  greatest  circumference  being  at  the 
center),  a  crease  often  being  found  at  the  apex  of  the  berry;  color  green,  or,  when 
fully  ripe,  amber  green  or  yellow.  Distinguished  from  Muscat  of  Alexandria 
by  low  depressed  growth  of  vine,  closer  cluster,  rounder  berries,  and  by  thicker 
and  finer  bloom.  The  Muscatel  is  the  choice  raisin  grape  for  the  San  Joaquin 
Valley,  and  for  the  interior  generally." — Dr.  Eisen. 

Huasco  Muscat. — A  variety  brought  from  Chile,  but  after  wide  trial  in  Cali- 
fornia, seems  not  superior  to  the  other  White  Muscat  varieties  previously  men- 
tioned. Its  dense  cluster  is  not  well  adapted  to  raisin  making.  It  is  said, 
however,  to  be  less  subject  to  coulure. 

Feher  Szagos. — "Vine  a  strong  grower  and  heavy  bearer;  branches  erect  but 
slender ;  leaves  glossy,  entire ;  bunches  medium  to  small,  pointed,  and  solid ; 
berries  greenish  amber,  medium  oval,  pointed,  with  thin  skin  and  few  small 
seeds ;  flesh  not  firm,  but  dries  well  and  makes  a  good  raisin." — Dr.  Eisen. 

Larga  Bloom;  syn.  Uva  Larga. — A  variety  of  Muscat  said  to  be  named  because 
of  the  length  of  its  berries,  but  held  by  some  growers  to  be  indistinguishable  from 
Muscatel  Gordo  Blanco.  An  excellent  raisin  grape,  but  now  chiefly  grown  as  a 
table  fruit  in  the  Santa  Cruz  Mountains. 

White  Malaga. — "Vine  a  strong  grower;  wood  reddish  brown,  short-jointed; 
leaf  medium,  leathery  smooth,  deeply  lobed,  light  shining  green  above ;  bunch  very 
large,  loose  shouldered,  long ;  stem  long  and  flexible ;  berry  very  large,  oval, 
yellowish  green,  covered  with  white  bloom ;  thick  skin,  fleshy." — Husmann.  Grown 

*There  is  much  doubt  about  the  White  Muscats  as  grown  in  California.  Some  claim 
inability  to  distinguish  between  certain  grapes  of  the  Muscat  type  which  are  being  grown  in 
this  State  under  distinctive  names;  others  pronounce  them  clearly  different  varieties.  The 
matter  can  not  be  adjusted  at  present. 


316  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

in  Southern  California  in  situations  where  the  Muscat  does  not  do  well;  also 
elsewhere  as  a  table  grape,  and  to  some  extent  in  San  Joaquin  Valley  for  raisins. 
Sultana;  syn.  Seedless  Sultaona. — "Vine  vigorous,  upright;  leaves  large,  five- 
lobed,  with  rather  large  sinuses,  light  colored,  and  coarsely  toothed ;  bunches 
large,  long-cylindrical,  with  heavy  shoulders  or  wings,  well  filled  when  not  cul- 
tured, but  not  compacted ;  berries  small,  round,  firm  and  crisp,  golden-yellow,  and 
without  seeds." — Bioletti.  In  California  the  variety  is  apt  to  have  some  seeds. 
It  has  more  acid,  and  therefore  greater  piquancy  of  flavor,  that  Thompson's 
Seedless,  but  the  latter  has  recently  far  outstripped  it  in  popularity  among 
growers. 

Thompson's  Seedless;  syn.  Sultanina. — Named  by  Sutter  County  Horticultural 
Society,  after  W.  Thompson,  Sr.,  of  Yuba  City,  who  procured  the  cutting  in  1878, 
from  Ellwanger  &  Barry,  of  Rochester,  New  York.  It  was  by  them  described  as 
"a  grape  from  Constantinople,  named  Lady  Decoverly."  When  it  fruited  in 
Sutter  county,  it  was  seen  to  be  superior  to  the  Sultana,  and  has  been  propagated 
largely.  It  was  first  widely  distributed  by  J.  P.  Onstott,  of  Yuba  City,  and 
others,  and  is  now  to  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the  State.  The  variety  is  described 
by  Dr.  Risen  as  follows.  "Oval ;  greenish-yellow ;  as  large  as  a  Sultana ;  seedless, 
with  a  thin  skin ;  good,  but  not  strong  flavor,  and  without  that  acid  which  charac- 
terizes the  Sultana  grape  and  raisins ;  bunches  large  or  very  large ;  vine  an 
enormous  bearer."  Mr.  Bioletti  considers  the  variety  identical  with  the  Sultanina 
of  Asia  Minor,  and  gives  this  description :  "Vine  very  vigorous  and  with  large 
trunk  and  verv  long  canes ;  leaves  glabrous  on  both  sides,  dark  yellow-green 
above  and  light  below,  generally  three-lobed,  with  shallow  sinuses,  teeth  short  and 
obtuse,  bunch  large  conico-cylindrical,  well  filled,  on  herbaceous  peduncles ; 
berries  under  medium ;  ellipsoidol,  crisp,  of  neutral  flavor,  with  moderately  thick 
skin  of  a  fine  golden-yellow  color." 

Flame  Tokay;  syn.  Flame-colored  Tokay,  Flaming  Tokay. — "Vine  a  strong 
grower,  large  in  all  its  proportions,  wood,  joints,  leaves;  wood  dark  brown, 
straight,  with  long  joints;  leaves  dark  green,  with  a  brownish  tinge;  lightly  lobed; 
bunch  very  large,  sometimes  weighing  eight  to  nine  pounds,  moderately  compact, 
shouldered ;  berry  very  large,  oblong,  red,  covered  with  fine  lilac  bloom ;  fleshy 
and  crackling,  firm ;  ripens  late." — Husmann.  The  leading  shipping  grape  of  the 
State,  quality  low.  Defective  in  color  in  some  localities. 

Black  Hamburg. — "Bunches  very  large,  from  six  to  ten  inches  in  length,  very 
broad  at  the  shoulders,  tapering  to  a  point  gradually ;  berries  very  large,  round, 
slightly  inclining  to  oval;  skin  rather  thick,  deep  purple,  very  black  at  maturity; 
very  sugary,  juicy,  and  rich." — Hyatt.  A  very  popular  market  grape. 

Rose  of  Peru;  syn.  Black  Prince  (?). — "Vine  a  strong  grower,  with  dark 
brown,  short-jointed  wood;  leaf  deep  green  above,  lighter  green  and  tomentose 
below ;  bunch  very  large,  shouldered,  rather  loose ;  berry  round,  large,  black,  with 
firm  and  crackling  flesh,  ripens  rather  late;  a  very  handsome  and  productive 
variety,  of  good  quality,  but  not  adapted  for  long  shipment." — Husmann. 

Moscatello  Fino ;  syn.  Moscatello  Nero,  Black  Muscat. — "Leaves  of  medium 
size,  with  deep  upper  and  shallow  lower  sinuses,  glabrous  above,  slightly  downy 
below,  and  very  hairy  on  the  veins,  teeth  long  and  sharp ;  bunches  large  to  very 
large,  long,  loose,  conico-cylindrical,  and  winged;  berries  very  large,  on  long, 
thin  pedicels ;  skin  well  colored,  thin  but  tough ;  flesh  soft  and  juicy,  with  delicate 
Muscat  aroma.  An  excellent  table  grape.  It  is  a  heavy  bearer,  and  produces 
very  fine-looking  bunches  of  dark  colored  grapes.  Rather  late." — Bioletti. 

Purple  Damascus;  syn.  Black  Damascus. — "Vine  a  medium  grower;  wood 
light  brown  striped  with  darker  brown,  short-jointed;  leaf  round,  five-lobed, 
smooth,  light  green  above,  tomentose  beneath ;  stem  reddish,  large,  long  and 
woody ;  bunch  large,  loose,  shouldered ;  berry  very  large,  oblong,  dark  blue, 
covered  with  lighter  bloom,  meaty,  skin  thick,  ripens  late." — Husmann. 

Purple  Cornichon;  syn.  Black  Cornichon. — "Vine  a  heavy  grower,  with  thick, 
light  brown,  short-jointed  wood;  leaves  large,  longer  than  wide,  deeply  five- 
lobed,  dark  green  above,  and  lighter  and  very  hairy  below,  coarsely  toothed,  and 
with  short,  thick  petiole ;  bunches  very  large,  loose,  on  long  pedunckles ;  berries 
large,  long,  more  or  less  curved,  darkly  colored  and  spotted,  thick-skinned,  and 


GRAPES    GROWN    IN    CALIFORNIA  317 

on  long  pedicles.  Desirable  on  account  of  its  attractive  appearance,  curious  shape, 
excellent  shipping  qualities,  and  late  ripening." — Bioletti. 

White  Cornichon. — Resembles  Purple  Cornichon  in  shape  and  flavor,  but  has 
very  thin  and  tender  skin,  which  makes  it  better  for  the  table,  but  poorer  for 
shipping.  Leaves  not  deeply  cut ;  smooth  on  both  sides. 

Emperor. — "Vine  a  strong,  vigorous  grower;  leaves  very  large,  with  five  shal- 
low lobes,  short,  obtuse  teeth  glabrous  above,  woolly  beneath,  light  green  in 
color;  bunches  very  large,  long  conical,  loose,  with  large,  dull  purple,  oval,  firm 
berries." — Bioletti.  An  excellent  shipping  grape,  largely  grown  by  R.  B.  Blowers, 
of  Woodland,  Yolo  county,  by  whom  its  merits  were  first  announced.  Pro- 
nounced unsatisfactory  because  of  irregular  setting  and  non-ripening _  in  localities 
near  the  coast  in  Northern  California,  and  generally  condemned  in  Southern 
California.  Seems  best  adapted  to  interior  situations  and  is  chiefly  grown  for 
shipping  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley. 

Black  Ferrara. — A  large  black  grape ;  large  bunches ;  berries  cling  well  to  the 
stem,  thick-skinned,  flavor  superior.  An  excellent  local  market  variety  and  long- 
distance shipper. 

Gros  Colman;  syn.  Dodrelabi. — "Vine  strong-growing,  with  dark  brownish 
wood ;  leaves  very  large,  round,  thick,  very  slightly  lobed,  shortly  and  bluntly 
toothed,  glabrous  above,  close-woolly  below ;  bunches  large,  short,  well  filled,  but 
not  compact ;  berries  very  large,  round,  dark  blue,  with  thick  but  tender  skin. 
Remarkable  as  having  the  largest  berries  of  any  round  berry  variety  known, 
and  is  probably  the  handsomest  black  table  grape  grown.  The  grapes  have  good 
keeping  qualities,  except  that  they  are  liable  to  crack." — Bioletti. 

Black  Morocco. — "Vine  a  strong  grower,  with  thin,  spreading  canes,  leaves, 
under  medium  size,  very  deeply  five-lobed,  even  when  very  young,  the  younger 
leaves  truncate  at  base,  giving  them  a  semi-circular  outline,  with  long,  sharp 
teeth  alternating  with  very  small  ones,  glabrous  on  both  sides,  bunches  very 
large,  short,  shouldered,  and  compact;  berries  very  large,  round,  often  angular 
from  compression,  fleshy,  of  neutral  flavor,  dull  purple  color  or  colorless  in  the 
center  of  the  bunch.  Remarkable  for  the  number  of  second-crop  bunches  which 
it  produces  on  the  laterals.  Late  in  ripening  and  of  very  fine  appearance ;  a  fairly 
good  shipping  grape,  but  difficult  to  pack  on  account  of  the  size  and  rigidity  of 
the  bunches.  The  grapes  are  of  an  agreeable  crispness,  but  lacking  in  flavor." 
— Bioletti..  Vine  quite  subject  to  root  knot. 

Verdal;  Aspiran  Blanc. — -"Vine  of  medium  vigor  and  rather  hardy;  canes 
somewhat  slender  and  half  erect;  leaves  of  average  size,  glabrous  on  both  sur- 
faces, except  below  near  the  axis  of  the  main  nerves,  sinuses  well  marked 
and  generally  closed,  giving  the  leaf  the  appearance  of  having  five  holes ;  teeth 
long,  unequal,  and  somewhat  acuminate ;  bunches  large  to  very  large,  irregular 
long-conical,  without  any  or  with  small  shoulders,  well-filled  to  compact;  berries 
yellowish-green,  large  to  very  large,  crisp,  with  thick  but  tender  skin,  agreeable, 
but  without  marked  flavor." — Bioletti.  Largely  grown  as  a  late  table  grape;  in 
good  condition ;  in  some  regions  as  late  as  November. 

Almeria. — "Vine  vigorous;  leaves  of  medium  size,  round  and  slightly  or  not 
at  all  lobed,  quite  glabrous  on  both  sides,  teeth  obtuse  and  alternately  large  and 
small ;  bunches  large,  loose  or  compact,  irregular  conical ;  berries  from  small  to 
large,  cylindrical,  flattened  on  the  ends,  very  hard  and  tasteless." — Bioletti.  The 
grape  cultivated  at  the  University  Experiment  Stations  under  this  name  is  one 
of  the  several  varieties  which  are  shipped  in  such  large  quantities  from  Malaga 
and  Almeria  packed  in  cork-dust.  The  grapes  ripen  late  and  attain  about  20  per 
cent  of  sugar.  They  have  remarkable  keeping  Qualities.  Vine  needs  long  pruning, 
and  is  only  adapted  to  hot,  interior  situations. 

There  are  many  other  mnifera  varieties  which  are  grown  to  a  lim- 
ited extent  either  for  raisins  or  for  table  use.  Among  these  are  the 
Canon  Hall  Muscat,  the  White  Tokay,  White  Champion,  Cinsaut,  Za- 
balskanski,  etc.,  for  table  use;  the  White  and  Black  Corinth,  for  dry- 
ing, of  which  the  white  is  much  more  productive  than  the  black,  but  the 
product  sells  for  less  than  our  other  seedless  raisins  and  therefore  is 


318  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

not  largely  undertaken.  With  grapes,  as  with  other  market  fruits,  the 
planter  usually  confines  his  attention  to  a  very  few  popular  kinds.  The 
relative  standing  of  grape  varieties  in  the  raisin  industry  is  shown  by 
the  California  Board  of  Viticultural  Commissioners'  statement  of  the 
raisin  product  of  1913  : 

Pounds  of  raisins. 

Muscats  96,588,798 

Thompson    (Sultanina)    18,290,922 

Sultanas    12,159,861 

Malagas  1,266,983 

Faber  Szagos  529,707 

Black  dried  grapes  238,143 


Total 129,074,414 


EASTERN  GRAPES 

Though  many  of  the  improved  varieties  of  the  grape  species  indi- 
genous east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  of  the  hybrids  between  these 
species  and  the  vinifera,  have  been  introduced  in  California,  their 
growth  for  table  fruit  is  almost  of  insignificant  proportions,  and  does 
not  constitute  even  a  respectable  fraction  of  one  per  cent  of  our  grape 
area.  The  popular  taste  decidedly  prefers  the  vinifera  varieties.  There 
is,  however,  a  variety  believed  to  be  of  local  origin,  which  is  worthy 
of  mention  as  follows : 

Isabella  Regia — "A  remarkable,  giant-leaved,  and  very  prolific  sport  of  the 
Isabella,  originating  by  bud-variation  with  Mr.  J.  P.  Pierce,  of  Santa  Clara. 
The  berries,  like  the  leaves,  are  of  extraordinary  size,  and  when  ripe  the  fruit 
is  exceedingly  sweet  and  strongly  aromatic.  It  is,  therefore,  acceptable  as  a 
showy,  perfumed  table  grape,  much  liked  by  some,  but  readily  surfeiting  those 
who  are  accustomed  to  the  vinifera  grapes..  The  berries  are  too  soft  for  ship- 
ment to  any  distance,  but  all  things  considered,  keep  fairly." — Hilgard.  Grown 
as  the  "California  Concord"  in  the  Los  Angeles  region. 


WINE  GRAPES  GROWN  IN  CALIFORNIA 

Progress  is  being  continually  made  in  the  propagation  of  varieties 
yielding  wine,  and  in  the  manufacture  thereof.  The  hosts  of  consid- 
erations involved  in  this  effort  are  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work  and 
largely  beyond  the  writer's  knowledge.  The  grapes  which  are  chiefly 
commended  by  growers  for  the  kinds  of  wine  to  which  they  are  adapted 
are  as  follows :  Zinfandel,  Alicante,  Bouschet,  Petite  Sirah,  Colombar, 
Grenache,  Valdepenas,  Palomino,  West's  Prolific,  Semillon,  Carignane, 
Green  Hungarian,  Burger,  Mondeuse,  Riesling,  Cabernet,  Chardonay, 
Cabernet,  Mataro,  Sultanina,  Blaue  Elbe,  etc. 


PART  FIVE:  SEMI-TROPICAL  FRUITS 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
DATE  CULTURE  IN  OUR  DESERT  AREAS 

Ever  since  the  arid,  semi-tropical  regions  of  the  United  States  be- 
came known  through  the  narratives  of  explorers,  the  date  palm  (Phoe- 
nix dactylifera)  has  been  projected  as  a  plant  likely  to  demonstrate 
commercial  value  in  American  like  that  which  it  has  held  for  centuries 
in  the  arid  regions  of  Asia  and  Africa.  This  idea  was  also  cherished 
even  at  an  earlier  date  by  the  Spanish  missionaries  who  brought  the 
palm  to  California,  as  will  be  described  presently.  During  the  last 
decade  the  problem  of  introducing  and  establishing  a  date-growing 
industry  has  been  taken  up  more  seriously  and  systematically  than  ever 
before  and  must  now  be  looked  upon  as  approaching  successful  solution. 
As,  however,  the  undertaking  is  still  in  an  experimental  stage  and 
appeals  to  relatively  few  people  as  a  line  of  investment,  no  attempt  will 
be  made  to  discuss  the  date  in  detail.  Instead,  citation  will  be  made  of 
sources  whence  the  reader  who  desires  them  can  easily  secure  informa- 
tion of  date-growing  methods  in  the  old  countries,  discussion  of  their 
suitability  to  our  conditions  and  suggestions  of  ways  to  enter  upon  date- 
growing  in  California.* 

The  date  palm  was  brought  to  California  by  the  padres,  and  the 
oldest  date  trees  in  the  State  are  the  survivors  of  their  early  plantings. 
Such  trees  are  found  at  the  San  Diego  Mission.  They  are  conjectured 
to  be  more  than  a  century  old,  and  they,  have  survived  drought  and 
neglect,  making  unsuccessful  effort  at  fruiting,  for,  according  to  com- 
mon report,  the  fruit  does  not  ripen,  but  whether  owing  to  the  unfavor- 
able conditions  indicated,  or  to  lack  of  fertilization  of  the  bloom,  is  not 
known.  There  are  trees  at  Ventura,  on  the  site  of  the  garden  of  the 
old  mission  at  San  Buena  Ventura,  about  forty  feet  in  height  and  ten 
feet  in  circumference  at  the  base,  with  long,  graceful  fern-like  leaves, 
which  put  forth  about  thirty  feet  from  the  ground. 

The  ill  success  of  these  old  trees  in  the  direction  of  fruit  bearing 
probably  long  prevented  further  attention  to  the  date  as  a  profitable 
growth.  Still  there  were  date  palms  grown  from  seed  of  the  com- 
mercial date  planted  here  and  there  for  ornament  or  out  of  curiosity, 
and  in  due  course  of  time  the  fruit  appeared.  The  first  public  exhibi- 
tion of  California  dates  known  to  the  writer  was  made  at  the  Mechanic's 

*The  Date  Palm  and  its  Utilization  in  the  Southwestern  States,  by  Walter  T.  Swingle, 
Bulletin  53,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Dpt.  of  Agr.,  Washington,  1904. 

Date  Varieties  and  Date  Culture  in  Tunis,  by  T.  H.  Kearney,  Bulletin  92,  Ibid,  1906. 

Date  Growing  in  Southern  California,  by  S.  C.  Masin.  Report  of  Riverside  Fruit  Grow- 
ers' Convention,  State  Horticultural  Commissioner,  Sacramento,  1908. 

Date  Growing  in  the  Old  and  New  Worlds,  by  Paul  B.  Popenoe,  Altadena,  California 
1913.  A  fine,  illustrated  treatise. 

Also  publications  of  Arizona  Experiment  Station,  Tucson,  and  California  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, Berkeley. 

319 


320  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

Institute  Fair,  in  San  Francisco,  in  September,  1877.  The  fruit  was 
grown  on  the  south  bank  of  Putah  Creek,  the  northern  boundary  of 
Solano  County,  the  situation  being  slightly  above  the  level  of  the  plain 
of  the  Sacramento  Valley,  which  lies  east  of  it.  The  plants  were  grown 
by  the  late  J.  R.  Wolfskill,  from  seed  of  commercial  dates  purchased  in 
San  Francisco,  and  planted  in  1858  or  1859.  The  seed  germinated 
readily,  and  the  young  plants  were  set  out  in  a  row  about  one  hundred 
feet  south  of  Putah  Creek,  on  a  rich,  fine,  sandy  loam  lying  about 
twenty-five  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  creek.  The  plants  received  good 
cultivation  but  no  irrigation.  This  treatment  was  combined  after  the 
property  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  late  S.  C.  Wolfskill,  the  plants 
being  allowed  to  remain  in  the  row  as  originally  planted,  and  they  have 
attained  great  size,  considering  their  crowded  condition. 

Another  bearing  date  palm  stands  about  a  mile  eastward  of  the 
situation  just  described,  near  the  residence  of  the  late  J.  R.  Wolfskill. 
It  was  grown  from  seed  of  the  date  of  commerce,  which  was  planted  in 
1863,  and  the  tree  bore  its  first  fruit  in  1880.  Near  it  stands  a  taller 
date  palm,  which  bears  staminate  bloom.  This  latter  tree  was  originally 
one  of  the  row  previously  described,  and  was  successfully  moved  to  its 
present  situation  after  attaining  considerable  size. 

The  fruit  of  the  two  bearing  palms  differs  notably  in  appearance. 
That  of  the  first  mentioned  tree  is  of  bright  yellow  color  and  angular 
outline ;  that  of  the  second  tree  is  wine  red,  with  smooth  surface. 

During  recent  years  the  date  has  fruited  at  many  places  in  California 
and  Arizona.  There  is  little  doubt  that  it  will  succeed  in  any  of  the  in- 
terior regions  which  have  a  sufficiently  high  summer  temperature,  and 
even  the  so-called  Colorado  Desert  may  be  dotted  with  groves  of  date 
palms  as  portions  of  it  now  are  with  groves  of  the  majestic  fan  palm 
of  California. 

Soils  and  Waters  for  the  Date. — Until  recently  the  date  palm 
has  only  been  planted  on  good  orchard  land,  but,  according  to  experi- 
ence in  date-growing  countries,  the  tree  does  not  require  rich  soil,  but 
on  the  contrary,  will  thrive  in  a  soil  poor  in  humus — too  poor  and  too 
purely  mineral  for  any  other  fruit  tree ;  and  it  produces  the  finest  and 
best  flavored  dates,  nourished  by  water  too  alkaline  for  man  and  beast 
to  drink.  These  observations  warrant  the  trials  of  the  tree  which  are 
now  being  made  in  situations  not  adapted  to  other  fruits. 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE  DATE 

The  date  palm  grows  readily  from  the  seeds  of  the  dried  date  of 
commerce,  and,  as  has  been  intimated,  the  trees  now  fruiting  in  this 
State  have  been  obtained  in  this  way.  By  the  use  of  seed  one  gets, 
however,  only  seedlings,  and  the  chance  of  thus  securing  a  really  fine 
variety  is  probably  not  greater  than  with  other  fruit  tree  seedlings.  In 
date-growing  countries  the  best  varieties  are  propagated  by  rooting  the 
off-sets,  sprouts,  or  suckers  which  appear  at  the  base  of  the  old  palms, 
To  secure  the  best  foreign  varieties  such  plants  must  be  imported.  The 
first  successful  enterprise  of  this  kind  was  accomplished  in  the  summer 


&.    -&L£B 


Plate  XIII. — Profuse  bearing  of  vine  by  long  pruning. 
(See  page  308.) 


IMPORTATION  OF  FOREIGN  DATES  321 

of  1890  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  under  the 
direction  of  H.  E.  Van  Deman,  then  chief  of  the  Division  of  Pomology. 
The  plants  were  divided  between  New  Mexico,  Arizona  and  California. 
The  plants  for  California  were  sent  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
of  the  University  of  California,  and  were  planted  at  the  experiment  sta- 
tions at  Tulare  and  at  Pomona,  some  of  them  being  subsequently  trans- 
planted to  the  United  States  Date  Garden  at  Mecca  in  the  Colorado 
desert  region.  Upon  fruiting  a  number  of  these  plants,  they  seemed  to 
be  only  seedlings  and  not  the  best  foreign  varieties,  as  represented. 

A  full  account  of  this  effort  and  its  outcome  is  given  in  Bulletin  29, 
of  the  Arizona  Experiment  Station. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  undertook  arrange- 
ments in  1899  for  new  importations,  which  were  successfully  made,  but 
all  that  was  anticipated  in  securing  valuable  varieties  was  not  attained. 
Director  R.  H.  Forbes,  of  the  Arizona  Experiment  Station,  writes  in 
Timely  Hints  No.  72  (April,  1908)  : 

"Several  of  the  Old  World  varieties  which  have  thus  far  fruited 
have  failed  to  make  good  for  various  reasons.  Some  have  required  a 
longer  growing  season  to  mature ;  others  have  soured  in  damp  or  cool 
weather,  and  still  others  do  not  appeal  to  the  American  consumer.  A 
few  varieties  have  proved  acceptable  in  all  respects,  and  to  such  as  these 
we  must  look  for  future  commercial  developments." 

Of  the  foreign  varieties  thus  introduced  the  following  have  been 
produced  in  small  commercial  quantities :  Rhars,  Tedalla,  Birket  el 
Haggi  and  Deglet  Noor. 

During  recent  years  large  importations  for  commercial  planting  in 
southeastern  California  have  been  made  by  Mr.  Popenoe,  after  search- 
ing foreign  investigations. 

Growing  Palms  from  Seed. — Seeds  taken  from  the  dried  dates 
of  commerce  germinate  readily ;  in  fact,  seedlings  frequently  appear  in 
the  gutters  of  unpaved  streets  where  the  seeds  have  been  thrown  during 
the  rainy  season.  Director  Forbes,  of  the  Arizona  Station,  says  that 
seeds  will  come  up  more  promptly  if  first  stratified.  This  may  be  done 
by  taking  a  gasoline  can  or  deep  box  and  placing  three  inches  of  sand  in 
the  bottom  after  making  a  number  of  holes  in  it  for  drainage.  The 
seeds  are  placed  upon  this  layer  and  the  can  or  box  filled  with  sand,  the 
whole  then  being  put  in  a  sheltered  place  and  kept  moist  from  three  to 
six  weeks,  when  the  seeds  will  be  soft  and  ready  for  prompt  growth 
when  planted.  The  seedlings  may  be  started  in  nursery  rows  for  trans- 
planting after  one  to  three  years,  or  if  frequent  irrigations  may  be 
relied  on,  in  the  field  where  the  trees  are  to  remain. 

Dr.  W.  T.  Swingle,  whose  work  on  date  growing  has  already  been 
cited,  gives  the  following  suggestions  on  the  growing  of  seedlings  and 
their  subsequent  handling  to  determine  sex  and  to  select  bearing  palms 
of  desirable  type: 

The  seed  should  be  planted  rather  thickly  in  well-drained  beds  of  fertile  soil, 
free  from  alkali.  These  beds  should  be  watered  frequently,  as  the  young  date 
seedlings  need  an  abundance  of  moisture.  If  properly  cared  for,  the  seedlings 
will  reach  a  height  of  from  12  to  18  inches  the  first  year  and  can  be  transplanted 
into  the  permanent  orchard  the  second  year. 


322  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

These  seedlings  should  be  set  out  in  rows  about  30  feet  apart  and  placed  5  or 
6  feet  apart  in  the  row.  Ordinarily  field  crops  can  be  grown  between  the  rows 
until  long  after  the  palms  come  into  bearing.  After  three  or  four  years,  when 
the  young  palms  begin  to  flower,  the  male  trees  can  be  dug  up  and  destroyed,  thus 
thinning  out  about  half  of  the  trees  Then  when  the  female  trees  come  into  fruit, 
those  which  yield  decidedly  inferior  fruit  can  also  be  removed,  so  that  finally 
about  one-fourth  of  the  original  number  of  seedlings  will  be  left  standing.  The 
spaces  between  the  seedlings  will  be  irregular  and  offshoots  can  be  taken  from 
the  best  sorts  and  planted  where  the  largest  gaps  occur.  By  preventing  offshoots 
from  growing  on  the  poorer  sorts  they  will  yield  more  fruit  and  finally  can  be 
destroyed  and  replaced  by  offshoots  from  some  of  the  better  sorts.  In  this  way, 
by  degrees,  the  orchard  can  be  improved  without  expense  for  offshoots  aside 
from  the  labor  of  planting  them. 

Rooting  Suckers. — Suckers  taken  off  in  warm  weather  and 
watered  freely  usually  take  root  readily.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to 
let  the  plants  dry.  Director  Forbes  gives  these  points :  Suckers  should 
not  be  taken  from  the  parent  tree  until  they  have  attained  a  diameter 
of  5  to  6  inches  and  a  weight  of  15  to  20  pounds.  Suckers  should  be 
removed  by  cutting  in  and  down  along  the  line  of  cleavage  between 
them  and  the  main  trunk,  with  a  strong  chisel  or  a  flat-pointed  bar.  If 
possible  the  cut  should  be  carried  down  so  as  to  bring  away  at  least 
one  or  two  sound  roots.  The  leaves  should  be  closely  pruned  and  for 
shipment  the  cut  bases  had  better  be  protected  against  drying  out  by 
layer  of  wet  moss  or  similar  material.  In  planting,  the  sucker  should 
be  set  in  previously  irrigated  and  well  settled  soil  to  the  depth  of  its 
greatest  diameter,  taking  care  that  the  center  of  the  palm  is  not  below 
the  irrigating  water  level. 

For  convenience  in  irrigating,  a  shallow  basin  of  earth  should  be 
made  about  the  sucker,  in  which,  to  lessen  evaporation  and  the  rise  of 
alkali,  a  mulch  of  fine  barnyard  litter  three  or  four  inches  deep  should 
be  spread.  The  soil  about  the  newly  transplanted  suckers  should  be 
kept  constantly  wet  by  frequent  irrigations.  Suckers  should  be  cut  and 
transplanted  April  to  August,  inclusive,  but  not  during  or  approaching 
cool  weather. 

Bearing  Age  of  the  Date. — There  is  much  difference  in  the  ages 
at  which  the  seedlings  have  come  in  fruit  in  the  hands  of  different 
growers.  Fruit  has  been  reported  on  seedlings  six  years  old  and  even 
on  plants  four  years  from  the  seed.  Such  early  maturity  must  not,  how- 
ever, be  generally  expected. 

Blooming  of  the  Date. — The  date  palm  is  dioecious,  and,  its 
staminate  (male)  and  pistillate  (female)  blooms  appearing  on  different 
trees,  it  requires  the  association  of  the  two  for  perfect  fruiting.  Grow- 
ing plants  from  seed,  as  already  stated,  leaves  the  grower  in  doubt  as 
to  the  sex  of  his  plants  until  they  bloom.  Usually  one  obtains  a  large 
preponderance  of  male  plants.  In  propagating  from  suckers  the  new 
tree  is  of  the  same  sex  as  the  parent.  It  is  advised  to  have  about  one 
male  to  twenty  female  trees.  The  pollen  can  be  transported  long  dis- 
tances and  maintains  its  vitality  for  a  long  time. 

Artificial  fertilization  of  the  bloom  of  the  bearing  palm  has  been 
found  of  advantage  in  this  State  and  was  probably  first  practiced  by 
J.  R.  Wolfskill.  Though  the  staminate  tree  was  but  a  few  feet  away 
from  the  pistillate,  the  male  bloom  was  broken  in  pieces  and  hung  to 


POLLINATING    AND    RIPENING    DATES  323 

the  leaves  of  the  female  tree  near  to  the  pistillate  flowers.  It  was  found 
that  the  parts  of  the  date  cluster  which  are  nearest  to  the  suspended 
male  blooms  have  more  perfect  fruit  than  the  more  distant  parts.  Other 
California  date  growers  have  had  similar  experience. 

In  Winters  the  bearing  date  palms  bloom  in  April  and  May,  and  the 
fruit  ripens  in  November. 

Ripening  the  Date. — Dr.  A.  E.  Vinson  reports  that  the  Arizona 
Experiment  Station  has  demonstrated  that  by  pasteurization  of  the  ripe 
fruit,  it  is  freed  of  the  obnoxious  insects  that  naturally  infest  the  date. 
The  heat  drives  the  small  beetles  from  their  shelter  beneath  the  skins 
and  they  drop  to  the  bottom  of  the  heater  where  they  die.  In  pasteuriz- 
ing, the  temperature  is  raised  sufficiently  to  destroy  all  insect  eggs  and 
at  the  same  time  to  improve  the  keeping  quality  of  the  fresh  fruit  by 
checking  fermentation.  The  date,  heated  after  it  has  been  ripened  at 
natural  temperatures,  becomes  more  palatable  than  the  raw  material 
and  does  not  cloy  the  appetite  so  quickly.  These  improvements  alone 
have  greatly  extended  the  possibilities  of  marketing  the  fresh  fruit  and 
of  its  becoming  a  staple  among  the  people  of  this  country. 

Beauty  of  the  Date  Palm. — The  date  palm  in  fruit  is  a  beautiful 
sight.  The  glauceous  green  pinnate  leaves  arch  outward.  Between 
two  of  these  emerge  the  bright  orange-yellow  polished  fruit  stalks, 
which  divide  into  a  spray  of  slender  bright  yellow  stems  a  foot  or  so  in 
length;  and  thickly  set  upon  these  in  clusters  are  the  various  colored 
fruits  covered  with  a  rich  bloom.  It  is  a  sight  not  easily  forgotten  by 
a  lover  of  nature,  and  especially  by  one  reared  in  a  northern  zone,  the 
characteristic  vegetation  of  which  is  so  different. 


CHAPTER  XXX 
THE  FIG 

The  fig  is,  perhaps,  the  grandest  fruit  tree  of  California.  Its  majes- 
tic size  and  its  symmetry  make  it  a  crowning  feature  of  the  landscape, 
and  its  dense  foliage  renders  the  wide  space  embowered  by  it  a  harbor 
of  refuge  from  mid-summer  heat,  both  for  idlers  and  for  the  indus- 
trious. On  adjacent  farms  in  Pleasant's  Valley,  Solano  County,  there 
are  large  fig  groves ;  one  serves  as  a  shelter  for  the  packers  of  fruit 
from  the  contiguous  orchard,  and  the  other  incloses  and  shades  a  cro- 
quet ground.  Measurements  of  large  trees  are  abundant,  for  old  trees 
are  numerous  in  the  interior  of  the  State,  both  in  the  valley  and  on  the 
slopes  of  the  Sierra  foothills.  At  Knight's  Ferry,  in  Stanislaus  County, 
there  is  a  fig  tree  sixty  feet  in  height,  with  branches  of  such  length  as 
to  shade  a  circle  seventy  feet  in  diameter.  The  trunk  at  the  base  is 
eleven  feet  around,  and  nine  feet  at  a  distance  of  three  feet  from  the 
ground.  A  little  higher  the  trunk  divides  into  seven  or  eight  large 
branches,  each  of  which  is  nearly  five  feet  in  circumference.  At  thirty 
feet  from  the  ground  the  limbs  are  seven  and  eight  inches  through. 
The  largest  grove  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  Knight's  Ferry,  and  con- 
sists of  fifteen  massive  black  fig  trees,  which,  though  set  sixty  feet  apart, 
mingle  their  branches  overhead  and  form  a  network  through  which,  in 
the  summer,  hardly  a  beam  of  light  can  pass. 

Such  groves  are  frequently  seen  in  the  older  settled  parts  of  the 
State.  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  single  fig  tree  is  that  on  Rancho 
Chico,  quite  near  the  residence  of  General  Bidwell.  It  was  planted  in 
1856,  and  has  attained  a  marvelous  growth.  One  foot  above  the  ground 
the  trunk  measures  eleven  feet  in  circumference;  the  wide-spreading 
branches  have  been  trained  toward  the  ground  and,  taking  root  there, 
banyan-like,  they  now  form  a  wonderful  enclosure  over  one  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  in  diameter,  the  tree  is  loaded  every  year. 

The  crop  on  these  large  trees  is  proportionate  to  their  size  and, 
entering  their  area  in  the  morning  during  the  ripening  season,  one  can 
scarcely  step  without  crushing  figs,  though  the  fruit  may  be  gathered  up 
each  day  and  placed  in  the  sun  for  drying. 


REGIONS  SUITED  FOR  THE  FIG 

Though  there  are  still  many  fine  points  to  be  determined  as  to  what 
situations  and  conditions  favor  the  production  of  the  very  finest  figs,  and 
there  are  indications  that  there  is  possibly  much  difference,  it  may  be 
truly  said  that  a  very  small  part  of  the  State  is  really  unsuited  to  its 
growth.  If  one  shuns  the  immediate  coast  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
State,  where  the  summer  temperature  is  too  low  for  successful  ripening, 
and  keeps  below  the  altitude  of  the  mountains  where  winter  killing  of 
the  tree  is  possible,  he  can  grow  figs  almost  anywhere. 

324 


SITUATIONS    AND    SOILS    FOR    THE    FIG  325 

Selections  of  varieties  adapted  to  particular  situations  has  much  to 
do  with  the  success  of  the  fig,  as  with  other  fruits,  and,  therefore,  a 
broad  statement  of  adaptability  must  be  received  with  such  an  under- 
standing*. The  intrusion  of  the  coast  influences  borne  eastward  by  the 
winds  of  summer,  as  described  in  Chapter  I,  gives  a  night  temperature 
too  low  for  ripening  of  some  varieties,  which  turn  sour  upon  the  trees. 
Present  indications  are  that  the  finest  dried  figs,  having  the  thinnest 
skin  and  the  nearest  approach  generally  to  the  fig  of  Smyrna,  the  com- 
mercial standard  for  dried  figs,  will  be  produced  in  the  drier  portions 
of  the  valleys  and  foothills.  Even  in  Southern  California  fig-souring  is 
quite  prevalent,  and  selection  of  locations  must  be  circumspectly  made. 
More  time  is  requisite  for  the  final  demonstration  of  these  matters, 
although  years  have  already  been  devoted  to  the  problem. 


SOILS  FOR  THE  FIG 

As  it  must  be  left  with  the  future  to  determine  the  mooted  point  as 
to  the  influence  of  special  situations  upon  the  bearing  of  the  fig,  and 
the  more  minute  characteristics  of  the  fruit,  so  more  experience  is 
needed  to  deconstrate  the  comparative  effects  of  different  soils.  It 
might  seem,  from  the  fact  of  the  age  of  our  trees  in  different  parts  of 
the  State,  that  time  enough  had  elapsed  to  determine  these  points,  but 
it  must  be  remembered  that  all  our  oldest  trees  are  of  the  very  hardy 
variety  found  at  the  missions,  and  conclusions  drawn  from  them  as  to 
all  varieties  are  unsafe. 

The  fig  will  thrive  in  any  soil  that  one  would  think  of  selecting  for 
any  of  our  common  orchard  trees,  and,  in  fact,  the  fig  succeeds  on  a 
wider  range  of  soils  than  any  one  of  them.  One  is  safe  in  planting  figs 
for  family  use,  or  for  marketing,  wherever  the  summer  temperature  is 
high  enough  to  ripen  the  fruit  well,  and  the  winter  temperature  high 
enough  to  preserve  the  life  of  the  tree.  This  applies  merely  to  the 
successful  growth  of  the  fig ;  to  secure  ripening  at  a  time  when  the  fruit 
can  be  profitably  sold  for  table  use,  is  another  question. 

The  selection  of  soils  especially  suitable  to  the  production  of  the 
best  figs  for  drying  involves  more  considerations  than  rule  in  the  growth 
of  table  fruit.  For  drying,  the  fig  should  attain  a  good  size,  but  should 
not  contain  excess  of  moisture.  In  some  parts  of  the  State  the  first 
crop  of  figs  in  the  season  has  been  found  unfit  for  drying.  The  second, 
and,  in  some  localities,  the  third  crop,  appearing  later  in  the  season, 
when  the  moisture  supply  of  the  soil  is  reduced,  dry  well.  This  condi- 
tion of  the  first  crop  is,  however,  affected  by  local  conditions,  for  there 
are  places  in  the  Sierra  foothills  where  the  soil  moisture  has  to  be  re- 
plenished early  in  the  season  by  irrigation  to  prevent  even  the  first  crop 
from  falling  prematurely,  and  subsequent  irrigation  brings  to  perfec- 
tion the  second  and  third  crops.  The  fig  tree  needs  plenty  of  moisture 
in  the  soil,  but  not  too  much.  As  with  other  fruits,  if  the  soil  does  not 
retain  the  needed  amount  naturally,  it  must  be  supplied  by  irrigation 
wisely  administered. 


326  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

PROPAGATION  OF  THE  FIG 

The  fig  grows  very  rapidly  from  cuttings,  and  this  is  the  chief 
method  of  propagation.  Cuttings  should  be  made  while  the  tree  is  fully 
dormant,  in  the  winter,  of  well-matured  wood  of  the  previous  season's 
growth,  giving  preference  to  the  stocky,  short-jointed  shoots,  and  mak- 
ing the  cuttings  about  six  to  eight  inches  in  length.  The  cut  at  the 
lower  end  should  be  made  at  the  joint,  or  where  solid  wood  is  found. 
The  planting  and  care  of  the  cutting  is  essentially  the  same  as  of  vine 
cuttings,  already  described.  If  well  made  and  cared  for,  a  very  satis- 
factory growth  is  made  the  first  season,  and  the  trees  are  ready  for 
planting  out  in  permanent  place  the  following  season. 

Single  Bud  Cuttings. — If  one  desires  to  multiply  a  new  variety 
very  rapidly  single  eye  cuttings  will  make  plants.  This  is,  also,  analo- 
gous to  single-eye  grape  cuttings,  as  already  described. 

Budding  the  Fig. — The  foregoing  means  enable  one  to  propa- 
gate a  fig  so  rapidly  that  recourse  is  not  had  to  budding,  as  in  propa- 
gating other  trees ;  still,  budding  is  feasible,  either  on  small  plants  or 
on  young  shoots  of  old  trees  which  it  is  desired  to  bud  over. 

The  fig  may  be  budded  by  the  common  shield  method,  as  used  for 
ordinary  fruit  trees,  as  described  in  Chapter  IX,  but  owing  to  the 
tendency  of  the  fig  bark  to  shrink  in  drying,  the  bud  should  be  closely 
bound  in  with  a  narrow  waxed  band,  to  exclude  the  air.  As  the  bark 
is  thick,  it  is  often  desirable  to  cut  out  a  little  of  the  edges  closest  to  the 
bud  when  in  place. 

Another  method  of  budding  the  fig  is  by  annular  or  "ring  budding," 
a  method  also  relied  upon  with  the  walnut  and  chestnut.  Annular 
budding  is  done  in  the  fall.  A  circular  ring  of  bark  is  taken  off  from 
the  stock  by  the  aid  of  a  budding  knife,  by  running  two  circular  cuts 
around  the  stock,  and  a  longitudinal  one  between  the  two  circular  cuts ; 
the  ring  of  bark  taken  off  must  be  at  least  one  inch  wide,  and  from  that 
up  to  two  inches.  A  like  ring  of  bark  is  taken  off  in  the  same  manner 
from  the  scion  of  the  variety  to  be  budded  in,  and  from  a  branch  of  the 
year,  or  preceding  one,  well  in  sap,  and  having  about  the  same  diameter 
as  the  stock.  The  ring  should  have  on  its  one  or  two  buds.  It  must  fit 
exactly  the  space  prepared  on  the  stock,  and  more  particularly  at  the 
lower  circular  cut,  so  that  both  barks  will  exactly  unite  at  that  point. 
When  the  ring  is  too  long,  a  little  bit  of  it  might  be  cut  off  with  a  very 
sharp  knife  till  it  fits  well ;  if  the  ring  is  too  large  for  the  stock,  a  longi- 
tudinal strip  would  be  cut  out,  and  if  too  narrow,  such  a  strip,  if  with 
a  bud  on  so  much  the  better,  will  have  to  be  used  to  fill  up  the  empty 
space.  One  must  be  vary  careful  while  drawing  the  knife  around  the 
stock  not  to  go  too  deep  into  the  wood  to  injure  the  cambium  layer,  or 
to  weaken  the  stock.  Tie  a  bandage  pretty  firmly  over  the  whole.  After 
two  or  three  weeks  the  bandage  has  to  be  taken  off,  and,  in  the  ensuing 
spring,  the  top  of  the  stock  or  limb  is  cut  down  three  inches  above  the 
budding. 

Another  way  of  working  such  trees  is  by  "whistle  budding,"  which 
is  done  in  the  spring,  when  the  sap  is  well  up.  The  stock  and  the  scion 
must  be  both  of  the  same  size  and  well  in  sap.  The  top  of  the  stock 


BUDDING  AND  GRAFTING  THE  FIG  327 

is  cut  down  to  several  inches  from  the  ground ;  a  circular  ring  of  bark 
is  then  taken  off,  and  a  corresponding  ring  from  the  scion,  but  without 
a  longitudinal  cut,  is  put  in  its  place.  In  inserting  it  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  top  of  the  stock,  which  is  to  receive  the  ring  from  the 
scion,  be  very  smooth,  and  the  latter  is  then  easily  pushed  down  around 
it  and  bandaged.  In  the  case  of  the  fig,  it  is  especially  desirable  to  use 
the  latter  method  when  the  sap  is  up,  because  if  the  top  of  the  stock  is 
not  removed,  the  exudation  from  above  sours  around  the  bud  and  pre- 
vents the  union  of  stock  and  bud. 

To  prepare  an  old  tree  for  budding  over,  the  limbs  may  be  cut  back 
in  February  to  within  two  to  six  feet  of  the  trunk,  covering  the  ends 
with  paint  or  grafting  wax.  Allow  two  shoots  to  start  near  the  end  of 
each  of  these  amputated  limbs,  and  rub  off  all  other  shoots.  But  the 
shoots  when  they  attain  the  thickness  of  one's  finger,  taking  green  buds 
from  the  growth  it  is  desired  to  introduce,  or  let  them  grow  and  bud  in 
the  fall,  whichever  is  most  convenient ;  or  bud  in  the  growing  shoot,  and 
rebud  in  the  fall  where  buds  have  failed. 

Grafting  the  Fig. — The  fig  can  be  grafted  by  the  cleft-graft 
method,  as  described  in  Chapter  IX,  but  the  cleft  should  be  made  to  one 
side  of  the  stub  and  not  through  the  central  pith.  Especial  care  must 
be  taken  in  excluding  the  air.  Fill  the  cleft  between  the  scions  with 
warm  wax,  which  will  run  in  and  fill  the  cavity.  Then  bind  the  stock 
with  wax  bands,  taking  the  greatest  care  to  cover  the  exposed  wood 
surface,  the  cut  end  of  the  bark  (which  in  the  fig  is  very  prone  to  shrink 
and  draw  back),  and  as  far  down  the  stock  as  the  bark  has  been  split. 

Cut  the  shield  from  a  limb  of  about  Y*  inch  in  diameter,  length  of  shield  about 
\l/2  inches,  its  thickness  from  l/£  to  *4  inch,  and  its  bud  near  the  middle  of  the 
shield.  Do  not  remove  the  wood  from  behind  the  bud.  Make  a  cut  in  the  stock, 
through  the  bark  and  into  the  wood,  its  length  and  width  a  little  greater  than 
those  of  the  shield.  Insert  the  shield  into  the  cut,  so  that  the  inner  bark  of  the 
top  of  the  shield  and  cut  will  coincide,  so  that  one  side  of  the  shield  and  cut—-and 
both  sides,  if  practicable — will  coincide.  Place  the  flap  of  the  cut  over  the  shield 
(removing  a  part  of  the  flap  so  the  bud  will  not  be  covered),  and  fasten  flap, 
shield  and  stock  together  very  firmly  with  twine,  and  protect  them  with  paper 
tied  around  them.  They  may  be  grafted  in  that  mode,  whenever  dormant  buds 
are  found,  for  the  shields.  Twenty-four  shields  were  inserted  at  several  times, 
during  one  spring,  and  there  was  only  one  failure. 

A  method  of  bark  grafting  applied  to  the  fig  by  George  C.  Roeding 
of  Fresno  and  approved  by  him  after  several  years  of  successful  ex- 
perience, affords  an  excellent  way  of  grafting  over  large  trees.  It  does 
away  with  splitting  the  stock  and  therefore  hastens  the  barking-over 
of  an  amputation.  The  branches  to  be  grafted  are  cut  off  within  18  to 
24  inches  from  the  point  of  divergence  from  the  main  body  of  the 
tree,  allowing  at  least  two  branches  to  remain,  one  of  which  should  be 
on  the  southwest,  if  possible,  so  that  the  grafts  will  be  protected  from 
the  afternoon  sun. 

After  having  sawed  off  the  branches,  the  stumps  neatly  smoothed 
over  with  a  sharp  knife,  so  as  to  leave  a  clean,  smooth  surface,  par- 
ticularly along  the  edge,  two,  four  or  six  scions  should  be  placed  on 
tach  stock,  the  number,  of  course,  being  regulated  by  the  size  of  the 
stump.  Cut  out  a  V-shaped  piece  of  bark.  The  distance  from  the  top 
of  the  stock  to  the  point  of  the  V  should  be  about  1%  inches. 


328  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Another  method  is  to  make  slightly  outward  and  downward  cuts 
into  the  stub  with  a  sharp  knife,  so  as  not  to  cause  a  split,  but  rather 
deep,  clean  cuts,  into  which  the  wedge-shaped  scions  are  firmly  pushed 
and  a  cord  wound  around  the  stub  to  hold  all  strongly  in  place  before 
waxing  thoroughly.  This  form  of  grafting  will  be  shown  in  the  chap- 
ter on  the  walnut,  for  it  is  very  successfully  used  on  that  tree  also. 

The  form  of  side-graft  with  a  saw  cut  as  described  in  the  chapter 
on  the  peach  is  also  available.  A  form  of  bud-graft,  that  is,  budding 
with  a  large  shield  into  old  bark,  is  also  successful.  Judge  Rhodes  of 
San  Jose  describes  his  method,  both  with  the  olive  and  the  fig,  in  this 
way: 

Select  a  scion  of  the  proper  size,  never  be  smaller  than  an  ordinary 
lead  pencil.  As  a  rule  scions  from  two-year-old  wood,  with  very  little 
pith  and  with  a  diameter  of  about  J^  inch,  will  give  the  best  results. 
The  scions  should  have  a  sloping  cut  at  the  lower  end,  with  the  bevel 
all  on  one  side  and  not  like  a  wedge.  The  bevel  should  be  as  long  or 
a  little  longer  than  the  V-shaped  opening  in  the  stock  and  should  fit 
snugly  into  this  opening,  so  that  the  bark  on  both  edges  of  the  scion 
touches  the  bark  of  the  stock.  After  the  scions  are  placed,  wrap  tightly 
with  five  or  six-ply  cotton  twine,  and  cover  the  wounds  as  well  as  the 
stub  with  liquid  grafting  wax.  Wax  the  top  of  the  scion  to  prevent 
drying  out.  If  waxed  cloth  is  used  it  must  be  removed  before  the 
warm  weather  sets  in  or  the  bark  will  be  smothered  and  will  die.  After 
the  scions  have  become  well  united,  which  takes  from  two  to  three 
months,  the  strings  should  be  cut.  This  method  of  grafting  can  not  be 
made  successfully  until  the  sap  begins  to  flow,  say  from  the  latter  part 
of  February  to  the  first  of  April.  The  scions  should  never  be  more 
than  four  inches  long. 

Seedling  Figs. — Figs  are  readily  grown  from  the  imported  fig 
of  commerce.  Dr.  Gustav  Eisen  of  San  Francisco,  our  leading  writer 
on  the  fig,  gfives  the  following  explicit  directions  for  growing  the  fig 
from  seed : 

Cut  open  imported  Smyrna  figs;  wash  out  the  seeds  in  warm  water,  those 
that  float  are  empty  and  worthless ;  those  that  sink  are  generally  fertile.  Sow 
these  in  shallow  boxes  of  sand  and  loam  mixed,  and  place  in  a  frame  under 
glass.  In  three  weeks  they  will  be  up  and  must  be  very  sparingly  watered.  Set 
out  next  season  in  nursery  row.  In  three  years  from  the  seed  such  plants  wrll 
be  found  to  bear. 

The  tendency  of  the  plants  grown  from  Smyrna  figs  is  to  revert  to 
the  wild  type,  and  there  is  a  small  chance  of  securing  good  varieties. 


PLANTING  AND  PRUNING  THE  FIG 

The  chief  point  to  observe  in  planting  the  fig  trees  is  to  get  them 
far  enough  apart,  because  of  the  great  spread  of  branches  which  they 
attain.  Of  course  they  may  be  planted  twenty  feet  apart  if  the  owner 
intends  to  remove  alternate  rows,  but  to  plant  at  forty  feet,  or  even 
farther  apart,  with  other  fruit  trees  or  vines  between,  on  the  plan  of 
alternate  or  double  squares,  described  in  Chapter  X,  would  be  the  best 


Plate  XIV. — Bearing  of  the  young  date  palm  in  California. 
(See  page  319.) 


PLANTING    AND    PRUNING    THE    FIG  329 

way  to  lay  out  a  fig-  orchard — the  intermediate  growths  to  be  removed 
as  the  figs  require  more  room. 

Very  handsome  effects  are  produced  by  planting  the  figs  along 
avenues  to  inclose  orchards  of  other  fruits.  Fig  trees  are  grand  for 
shade  around  buildings,  and  wild  or  Capri  figs  are  desirable  to  plant  in 
this  way  for  a  purpose  which  will  be  mentioned  later. 

In  transplanting  fig  trees  extra  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  roots 
from  drying.  After  planting,  the  stem  must  be  diligently  guarded  from 
sunburn,  to  which  it  is  liable  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  State. 

Pruning  the  Fig. — The  fig  requires  very  little  pruning  after  its 
shape  is  outlined.  There  is  difference  of  opinion  and  practice  as  to  the 
height  at  which  the  head  should  be  formed ;  some  head  nearly  as  low  as 
already  advised  for  common  orchard  trees ;  others,  having  in  mind  the 
immense  thickness  attained  by  the  limbs,  and  their  disposition  to  droop, 
head  as  high  as  four  to  six  feet,  which  is  the  better  way  to  proceed 
when  the  trees  are  wide-spaced  and  expected  to  attain  large  size. 

In  shaping  the  tree,  branches  should  be  brought  out  at  a  distance 
apart  on  the  stem,  so  that  there  may  be  room  for  their  expansion  with- 
out crowding  each  other,  and  care  should  be  taken  not  to  leave  too  many 
main  limbs.  Three  limbs,  well  placed  around  the  stem,  are  enough.  The 
branches  putting  out  on  the  under  side  of  these  limbs  should  be  sup- 
pressed, and  those  growing  upright,  or  obliquely  upright,  retained.  As 
the  fig  has  pithy  shoots  it  is  very  desirable  to  cover  all  cuts  with  paint 
or  wax.  After  getting  the  general  shape  of  the  tree  fixed,  there  is  little 
need  of  pruning  except  to  remove  defective  branches  or  those  which 
cross  and  interfere  with  each  other  and  to  prevent  the  interior  of  the 
tree  from  becoming  too  dense.  It  is  better  to  remove  branches  entirely 
than  to  shorten  them ;  or,  in  shortening,  always  cut  to  a  strong  lateral. 
Stubs  left  at  pruning  are  very  undesirable  in  the  fig. 

Cultivation. — Young  fig  orchards  are  cultivated  as  are  other 
fruit  areas.  Old  trees  which  completely  shade  the  ground  are  usually 
left  to  themselves,  without  cultivation,  except  cutting  out  weeds.  Irri- 
gation is  governed  by  local  conditions,  as  already  stated.  In  starting 
the  orchard  it  is  exceedingly  important  that  the  young  trees  should 
not  be  allowed  to  suffer  from  drying  out  of  the  soil. 

Bearing  Age  of  the  Fig. — The  fig  often,  and,  perhaps,  usually, 
begins  its  bearing  very  early,  in  the  most  favorable  situations  in  this 
State.  Some  fruit  is  often  had  the  second  year,  and  a  crop  worth 
handling  the  third  year.  Still,  it  is  wiser  not  to  calculate  definitely 
upon  such  returns,  for  four  or  five  years  sometimes  pass  without  a 
satisfactory  crop.  We  have,  also,  instances  of  "barren  fig  trees,"  which 
persist  in  "dropping  their  untimely  figs,"  year  after  year,  during  their 
youth.  How  much  of  this  is  due  to  variety,  and  how  much  to  locality, 
is  not  definitely  known,  but  successful  fruiting  has  been  secured  by 
grafting  over  barren  trees,  using  scions  from  bearing  trees  growing 
adjacent  to  them.  This  has  no  relation  to  the  subject  which  will  be 
next  discussed. 


330  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

CAPRIFICATION* 

Caprification  consists  in  suspending  the  fruit  of  the  wild  or  Capri 
fig  in  the  branches  of  the  tree  of  improved  variety,  that  the  pollen  may 
be  carried  by  an  insect  from  the  former  to  the  later.  Until  the  present 
decade  in  California  has  never  been  able  to  produce  dried  figs  equal  to 
the  fig  of  commerce  or  the  Smyrna  fig.  This  was,  at  first,  thought 
to  be  due  to  lack  of  the  Smyrna  variety.  After  painstaking  effort  this 
variety  was  introduced.  Trees  grew  readily  from  the  cuttings ;  fruit 
appeared  upon  them  and  dropped  before  maturity.  Doubt  then  arose 
as  to  whether  importers  had  not  been  deceived,  and  other  efforts  were 
made  which  resulted  in  other  importations.  These  also  cast  to  the 
ground  immature  figs.  Discussion  turned  then  upon  the  fact  of  caprifi- 
cation — the  necessity  of  having  the  fruit  of  the  Capri  or  wild  fig 
adjacent  to  the  fruit  of  the  Smyrna  fig  so  that  insects  from  the  Capri 
might  visit  the  fruit  of  the  improved  variety  and  pollinate  its  inclosed 
flowers,  which,  appearing  upon  the  inner  wall  of  an  almost  closed 
cavity,  could  not  be  reached  by  ordinary  visiting  insects.  The  wild 
tree  had  already  been  introduced  and  were  freely  growing  near  the 
others,  but  this  fact  availed  nothing — the  figs  fell  just  the  same  from 
the  Smyrna  trees.  In  1890  Mr.  George  C.  Roeding,  of  Fresno,  essayed 
to  demonstrate  the  fact  that  the  lack  of  the  pollination  was  the  secret 
of  failure,  and  he  succeeded  in  introducing  the  Capri  pollen  into  the 
eye  of  the  Smyrna  fig,  and  secured  thereby  the  retention  of  such 
pollinated  figs  upon  the  trees,  and  when  ripened  and  dried  these  had 
the  Smyrna  character.  The  demonstration  was  complete  that  Cali- 
fornia could  not  grow  Smyrna  figs  without  the  pollinating  agency 
found  to  be  essential  to  success  in  Smyrna.  This  agent  is  a  minute 
wasp  called  the  blastophaga — an  insect  so  minute  that  it  can  make  its 
way  through  the  mesh  Of  ordinary  cheese-cloth  and  can  enter  the  almost 
closed  eye  of  the  young  Fig — so  minute  that  a  magnifying  glass  is 
necessary  to  give  one  any  clear  idea  of  its  outline.  For  years  constant 
effort  has  been  made  by  various  parties  to  secure  the  introduction  of 
this  insect.  Urgent  appeals  were  made  to  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  after  private  undertakings  failed,  to  secure  the  insect 
alive  or  otherwise  in  form  for  permanent  residence.  In  April,  1899, 
the  feat  was  accomplished,  the  blastophagas  b.eing  received  from  Algiers 
as  collected  and  forwarded  by  W.  T.  Swingle  to  Mr.  Roeding.  Their 
offspring  appeared  in  large  numbers  during  the  summer  and  fall  of 
the  same  year.  On  the  basis  of  this  achievement  the  commercial 
production  of  a  true  Smyrna  fig  in  California  began  and  has  rapidly 
developed.  Mr.  Roeding  gave  his  product  the  musical  patronymic 
"Calimyrna,"  which  now  adheres  also  the  the  variety  from  which  it 
is  produced. 

_  *In  a  general  treatise  like  this  only  a  passing  reference  can  be  made  of  this  subject, 
which  is  perhaps  the  most  interesting  in  the  whole  realm  of  entomo-horticulture.  The  fie; 
grower  should  secure  the  following  monographs:  "Smyrna  Fig  Culture  in  the  United  States," 
by  L.  O.  Howard.  Year  Book  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  for  1900;  "The  Fig— its  History, 
Culture  and  Curing,"  by  Gustav  Eisen,  Bulletin  No.  9,  Div.  of  Pomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agr.,  1901;  "The  Smyrna  Fig  at  Home  and  Abroad,"  by  George  C.  Roeding,  Fresno,  Cal., 
1903;  "Some  Points  in  the  History  of  Caprification  in  the  Life  History  of  the  Fig,"  by 
W.  T.  Swingle;  Report  of  Riverside  Fruit  Growers'  Convention,  1908;  "The  Latest  develop- 
ment in  Fig  Culture,"  by  G.  P.  Rixford,  Pacific  Rural  Press,  December  18  and  25,  1909; 
also  December  17,  1910,  and  July  13,  1912.  The  same  journal  has  an  excellent  discussion  of 
Caprification  methods  in  its  issue  of  January  10,  1913. 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  FIG  331 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  after  this  strenuous  work  was  success- 
fully accomplished  it  was  ascertained  that  the  fig  wasp  had  really 
reached  California  without  assistance  before  1880  and  has  been  estab- 
lished in  San  Joaquin  county  since  that  remote  date. 

To  avail  himself  of  the  benefits  of  caprification,  every  grower 
of  varieties  which  require  it  must  also  grow  suitable  Capri  figs  and 
establish  the  insect  in  them.  California  nurserymen  supply  these  and 
the  insects  also  when  the  trees  are  of  suitable  age  to  receive  them. 

FOES    OF   THE   FIG 

The  fig  is  freer  from  insect  pests  than  other  fruit  trees,  and  yet  it 
is  a  mistake  to  consider  it  wholly  free.  The  writer  has  seen  the  leaves 
well  covered  with  a  lecanium  scale  and  has  found  a  moth  larva  boring 
in  the  pith  of  the  young  shoots;  still,  practically,  the  fig  tree  in  Cali- 
fornia has  not  yet  suffered  from  insects. 

The  gophers  have  a  pronounced  appetite  for  fig  roots,  and  their 
presence  should  be  carefully  watched  for.  Swine  have  a  liking  for  fig 
bark.  The  trees  of  the  grand  grove  planted  at  Hock  Farm,  on  the 
Feather  River,  by  General  Sutter,  were  completely  girdled  from  the 
ground  as  high  as  a  pig  could  reach  by  standing  on  its  hind  legs. 
Figs  make  good  food  for  hogs,  and  plantations  have  been  made  with 
this  in  view,  but  if  the  hogs  are  to  be  harvesters,  it  will  be  well  to 
protect  the  stems  of  the  trees  from  them. 


VARIETIES    OF    THE    FIG 

The  fig  presents  what  may  be  termed  an  aggravated  example  of 
the  confused  nomenclature  which  pervades  California  fruits.  Dr.  Eisen 
has  made  a  commendable  effort  to  bring  order  out  of  chaos  by  a  study 
of  foreign  records  and  locally-grown  fruit,  and  has  published  a  cata- 
logue of  varieties  chiefly  grown  in  California,  with  descriptions  of  each 
in  Bulletin  5  of  the  Division  of  Pomology  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture.*  The  following  enumeration  is  largely  restricted  to 
varieties  which  have  been  commercially  propagated: 

Adriatic. — Size,  medium,  roundish;  neck  medium;  stalk  short;  ribs  obscure; 
eye  open,  with  red  iris;  skin  very  thin,  greenish  in  the  shade,  yellowish  in  the 
sun ;  pulp  bright  strawberry  red  or  white,  with  violet  streaks  in  the  meat ;  varies 
in  quality  according  to  location.  Very  productive  and  often  very  profitable  as 
dried  product.  Apt  to  sour  if  weather  is  dark  or  showery  during  ripening.  This 
variety  is  not  identical  with  that  known  in  Italy  as  Adriatic. 

Agen. — Medium  size,  roundish;  skin  bright  green,  cracking  longitudinally 
when  ripe,  showing  white  bands;  flesh  deep  red,  very  rich;  a  good  bearer,  but 
very  late,  requiring  a  long  hot  season. 

Angelique;  syn.  Angelica. — Medium,  pyriform;  ribs,  prominent;  yellowish 
white;  pulp  white,  with  rose-colored  center;  leaves  five-lobed.  A  very  good 
variety  in  some  of  the  coast  valleys. 

*A  much  fuller  discussion  of  fig  varieties  is  to  be  found  in  Dr.  Eisen's  Bulletin  9, 
already  cited.  Many  notes  are  made  of  the  fruiting  in  the  late  John  Rock's  collection  on  the 
grounds  of  the  California  Nursery  Co.,  at  Niles,  Alameda  County,  of  many  introduced  varieties 
which  have  not  been  commercially  propagated  in  California. 


332  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Bardajic. — "Very  large,  obovate,  pyriform,  long  neck  and  stalk,  skin  very 
thin,  grayish  green ;  pulp  rich  crimson,  fine  table  fig  and  largest  of  Smyrna 
class." — Roeding. 

Belloma. — Large,  pyriform,  dark  purple,  red  flesh,  fine  flavor  when  dried. 

Black  Bulletin  Smyrna. — Large,  obtuse,  pyriform,  short  neck,  long  stalk,  light 
purple,  flesh  pink,  luscious. 

Black  Smyrna. — Small,  globular,  short  stem,  pulp  dark  amber,  good  for 
home  use. 

Bourjassotte,  White;  syn.  Barnissotte,  White. — Medium,  round  and  somewhat 
flattened,  eye  large,  sunk;  skin  waxy,  green;  pulp  bright  red.  A  very  fine  fig. 
Tree  very  large. 

Brown  Turkey. — Large,  turbinate,  pyriform,  with  hardly  distinct  neck;  stalk 
short;  apex  flattened;  ribs  few;  slightly  elevated;  eye  medium,  slightly  open, 
scales  large ;  skin  smooth,  greenish  to  violet-brown  in  sun,  with  darker  ribs ; 
pulp  dark  rosy  red,  quality  good,  and  tree  a  good  bearer.  Brunswick  is  fre- 
quently confounded  with  this  fig.  A  distinct  variety  is  grown  in  Vacaville  as 
Brown  Turkey,  which  is  named  by  Dr.  Eisen  "Warren." 

Brunswick. — Very  large,  pyriform,  with  swollen  cheeks,  one  of  which  is 
larger  than  the  other;  apex  very  obtuse;  neck  and  stalk  very  short;  ribs  distinct; 
but  not  much  elevated;  eye  medium,  open;  skin  pale  amber,  with  violet  tint; 
pulp  amber.  An  early,  large  fig,  but  lacking  flavor.  Very  common;  requires 
rich,  moist  soil. 

Celeste,  White. — Very  small,  amber ;  suitable  for  preserves. 

Celeste,  Blue;  syn.  Violette. — Small,  ovate,  turbinate ;  ribs  few,  but  distinct, 
especially  near  apex;  eye  raised,  rough;  color  dark  violet  amber,  without  red- 
dish blush ;  bloom  confined  to  the  neck ;  skin  thin ;  pulo  deep  rose ;  meat  amber, 
sweet,  but  lacking  in  flavor. 

Checker  Injur. — "Roundish,  oblate,  short  neck,  flesh  reddish,  skin  greenish 
yellow,  very  thin,  dries  well." — Roeding. 

Col.  de  Signora  Bianco. — Medium  sized,  pyriform ;  long  ribbed  neck ;  skin 
green,  changing  to  yellow ;  flesh  deep  red,  very  rich  and  luscious  a  strong  grower ; 
late,  suited  for  a  warm  region. 

Dauphine. — Large,  round  turbinate,  purple  with  blue  bloom;  flesh  amber. 
Doree. — Medium,  oblong,  bright  yellow,  flesh  rose-color. 

Dottato. — Medium  ovate,  pyriform ;  neck  well  set ;  stalk  very  short  or  none ; 
ribs  low;  skin  smooth;  eve  medium;  skin  thin,  yellowish  green,  meat  white; 
pulp  yellowish  amber,  sometimes  with  violet  flush.  One  of  the  best  figs  for 
drying;  tree  a  strong  grower,  requiring  moist,  rich  soil.  Lately  introduced  into 
California. 

Drap  d'Or. — Large,  pyriform,  with  very  low  neck  and  stalk;  ribs  elevated; 
apex  obtuse  and  concave;  color  light  violet-reddish  amber,  not  dark;  pulp  rosy 
red.  A  fig  of  very  fine  quality;  especially  useful  for  confections  and  crystalizing ; 
not  identical  with  Brunswick. 

Du  Roi. — Above  medium;  round,  pyriform;  stalk  very  short;  eye  large  or 
variable,  with  scales  standing  out;  skin  smooth,  pale  bluish  green;  pulp  amber, 
with  rosy  streaks  and  exceedingly  minute  seeds.  Related  to  Marseillaise  and 
Athens,  and  one  of  the  very  best  figs  in  California  for  drying. 

Early  Violet. — Small  to  very  small,  round  turbinate;  neck  distinct  but  short; 
stalk  medium  to  long;  ribs  distinct,  elevated;  skin  rough;  violet-brown,  with 
thin  pearl-colored  bloom;  pulp  red.  This  variety  bears  almost  continuously  and 
is  preferable  to  the  Tschias  and  Celeste. 

Genoa,  White. — Above  medium,  pyriform ;  neck  small ;  stalk  short ;  ribs  indis- 
tinct; skin  downy;  eye  very  small;  skin  pale  olive-green;  pulp  pale  rose.  One 
of  the  better  figs,  quite  distinct  from  Marseillaise. 

Gentile. — Very  large;  ovate  pyriform;  neck  short  but  distinct;  stalk  very 
short;  skin  uneven,  with  ridges;  eye  very  large,  open,  with  projecting  scales; 
color  greenish  yellow,  spotted  with  white ;  pulp  amber,  streaked  with  rose ;  seeds 


FIG  VARIETIES  GROWN  IN  CALIFORNIA  333 

few  but  very  large.  Only  the  first  crop  of  this  variety  ripens.  It  is  of  the  San 
Pedro  tribe.  One  of  the  best  early  figs. 

Grosse  Grise  Bifere. — Medium  ovate  pyriform;  neck  very  short;  stalk  short; 
ribs  distinct;  eye  small;  skin  downy,  dark  violet  amber,  pale  olive 'in  shade;  the 
bloom  is  separate  by  a  distinct  line  from  the  apex;  pulp  deep  red.  A  tender, 
good  fig. 

Hirtu  du  Japan. — Medium  size,  roundish  with  long  stalks ;  skin  very  dark ; 
flesh  opaline ;  quality  best ;  very  prolific. 

Ischia,  Black. — Small;  neck  short;  stalk  medium;  skin  smooth;  color  dark 
violet  black,  greenish  around  the  apex;  neck  dark;  eye  medium,  open;  bloom 
thin,  dark  blue;  pulp  red.  Of  fair  quality  but  small  size. 

Ischia,  White. — Size  below  medium,  round,  with  small  neck;  stalk  very  short; 
eye  open;  skin  smooth,  bluish  green,  with  brown  flush,  pulp  rosy  red.  Common 
in  California. 

Kassaba. — "Medium  to  large,  globular,  flattened,  short  neck  and  stalk,  pale 
green,  pulp  reddish,  very  sweet,  dries  well.  Tree  handsomest  of  Smyrna  varieties." 
— Roeding. 

Ladaro. — Very  large,  oblong,  pale  yellow,  brown  cheek,  flesh  deep  red,  rich 
and  sugary. 

Magdalen  (Madeleine}. — Below  medium,  round;  ribs  distinct,  rough,  dis- 
appearing around  the  eye;  stalk  longer  than  the  fig,  eye  open,  large;  skin 
greenish  yellow;  pulp  amber  white.  A  very  delicious  fig,  superior  to  the  Ischias 
and  Celeste.  Not  synonymous  with  Angelique. 

Marseillaise,  Long. — Large,  longer  than  wide;  skin  thick,  with  brownish 
shade;  pulp  dull  red.  Requires  moist  soils.  A  fair  fig,  which  dries  well.  Not 
related  to  either  Black  or  White  Marseillaise. 

Marseillaise,  White. — Medium  ovate,  pyriform;  neck  short;  stalk  medium; 
ribs  numerous  and  distinct ;  apex  flattened ;  eye  large,  open ;  skin  downy,  pale 
yellowish  green,  mottled  with  white;  pulp  amber,  with  a  few  large  seeds.  One 
of  the  best  figs  for  drying.  Requires  sandy,  rich  soil. 

Mission,  Black. — Medium  to  large,  turbinate ;  neck  long ;  stalk  short ;  ribs 
distinct;  eye  prominent,  open;  skin  rough,  deep  mahogany  violet,  with  red 
flush ;  pulp  not  fine,  red  but  not  bright  or  brownish  amber ;  sweet,  but  not  high- 
flavored  ;  common  in  the  Southern  States,  California  and  Mexico.  The  oldest 
fig  in  this  country.  Very  regular  and  prolific  in  bearing,  and  free  from  souring 
while  sun  drying. 

Monaco  Bianco;  syn.  White  Monaco. — Large,  rounded,  turbinate;  flattened, 
neck  small  but  very  distinct ;  ribs  numerous ;  eye  very  open ;  skin  dark  bluish 
green,  with  thin  bloom;  pulp  dark-red  rose.  A  most  excellent  fig  for  table,  one 
of  the  best  in  California. 

Mouissouna.— -Globular,  turbinate,  flattened,  dark  violet,  blue  bloom,  pulp  red, 
soft  and  sweet. 

Pacific  White. — An  unknown  variety  found  growing  on  a  farm  in  Placer 
county.  Medium  size,  fine  grained,  very  sweet,  dries  well,  but  the  skin  is  thicker 
and  more  tough  than  the  imported  fig.  That  and  its  small  size  are  the  only 
objections  to  it.  It  is  quite  widely  distributed  in  Southern  California. 

Pastiliere. — Large,  3  inches  by  1%;  elongated,  pyriform,  with  long  neck;  stalk 
short ;  eye  closed,  surrounded  by  an  elevated  iris ;  skin  rough,  hairy,  with  blue 
bloom ;  pulp  red.  Fine  for  preserves. 

Ronde  Noire. — Large,  round,  but,  irregular;  neck  distinct,  short;  eye  small; 
skin  smooth,  waxy,  dark  violet  brown ;  pulp  amber.  Greatly  to  be  recommended 
as  a  table  fig.  Is  not  related  to  Black  Ischia  or  Osborn  Prolific. 

Ronde  Violette  Native. — Large,  globular,  with  no  neck;  glossy  green,  shaded 
violet  brown ;  eye  large ;  flesh  amber,  surrounding  rose  center. 

Rose  Blanche. — Large,  roundish,  flattened ;  long  stalk ;  brown  or  white  ground ; 
flesh  bright  red.  Suitable  for  table  and  drying. 

Royal  Vineyard. — Medium,  pyriform,  long,  slender  neck;  reddish  brown,  blue 
bloom ;  eye  large,  open ;  flesh  bright  red. 


334  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  :  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

San  Pedro,  White;  syn.  Brebas. — Very  large,  round,  flattened  at  apex;  stalk 
and  neck  short ;  eye  open ;  skin  thick,  tender,  of  a  bright  yellow  color  or  greenish 
in  the  shade,  without  bloom ;  pulp  amber.  A  remarkable  and  handsome  fig. 
Only  the  first  crop  matures  without  caprification.  Suited  only  for  table  use. 
Requires  moist,  rich  soil. 

San  Pedro,  Black. — Very  large,  elongated  ovate,  with  no  stalk,  but  with  well- 
set  neck;  skin  smooth,  violet  black  with  green  neck,  pulp  red,  coppery,  tinted 
violet.  For  table  use.  The  largest  fig  known. 

Smyrna  (Fig  of  Commerce,  Drying  Fig  of  Smyrna,  Calimyrna). — Of  several 
attempts  to  secure  the  true  Smyrna  fig,  or  the  variety  which  produces  the  well- 
known  Smyrna  fig  of  commerce,  that  made  by  the  San  Francisco  Bulletin,  and 
managed  by  G.  P.  Rixford,  has  achieved  most  prominence,  and  is  now  generally 
conceded  to  have  proved  successful.  Fourteen  thousand  cuttings  were  obtained 
through  United  States  Consul  E.  J.  Smithers,  in  1882,  and  a  large  part  of  these 
were  distributed  throughout  the  State.  A  later  direct  importation  of  fig  cuttings 
from  Smyrna  was  made  by  the  Fancher  Creek  Nursery,  of  Fresno.  These  trees 
have  already  borne  fruit,  as  has  been  described  in  a  preceding  paragraph  on 
caprification.  In  the  summer  of  1890  cuttings  imported  from  Smyrna  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  were  sent  to  several  parties  in  this 
State.  As  the  fig  insect  has  fully  established  itself,  as  described  on  a  previous 
page,  this  variety  will  establish  itself  as  the  leading  drying  fig,  here  as  a  Smyrna, 
and  a  very  important  industry  will  be  established  upon  it.  Other  figs  previously 
called  Smyrna  in  this  State  are  misnamed. 

The  Rixford  Fig. — There  are,  however,  new  varieties  of  direct  Smyrna  parent- 
age attracting  attention  in  this  State.  The  planting  of  Smyrna  fig  seed  by  Mr. 
E.  W.  Maslin,  at  Loomis,  in  1886,  has  yielded  several  varieties  which  Mr.  W.  T. 
Swindle  described  in  the  Pacific  Rural  Press  of  February  27,  1909,  as  of  decided 
promise.  These  new  varieties,  which  might  be  called  self-sealed  figs,  show  a 
drop  of  pellucid  gum  completely  filling  the  very  narrow  mouth  of  the  fruit  when 
it  matures.  As  the  figs  dry  and  shrivel  on  the  tree  and  fall  to  the  ground,  the 
drop  of  gum  hardens  and  hermetically  seals  the  mouth.  Such  figs  do  not  sour, 
since  the  germs  causing  fermentation  are  unable  to  effect  an  entrance  to  the 
pulp  within.  The  skin  is  pale  in  color,  very  thin  and  tender,  often  translucent 
and  amber  colored  in  the  figs  that  have  cured  on  the  ground.  The  pulp  is  light 
amber  colored,  full  of  fertile  seeds,  sweet  and  of  excellent  flavor.  The  drop  of 
hardened  gum  that  closes  the  mouth  it  usually  from  one-sixteenth  to  one-eighth 
inch  in  diameter,  sometimes  concealed  just  within  the  mouth,  but  usually  partly 
protruding  outside. 

Verdal,  Round. — Below  medium,  round  pyriform  without  stalk  or  neck;  skin 
smooth,  waxy,  bluish  green;  eye  closed;  pulp  dark,  blood  red.  A  small  fig,  but 
valuable  for  canning  and  preserves ;  better  than  the  Ischias  or  Celeste.  It  does 
well  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley,  but  is  inferior  in  the  interior  of  the  State. 

White  Endich. — A  re-named  variety.  Medium,  golden  yellow,  pulp  white 
tinged  with  pink;  tree  prolific  and  long  ripening  season. 

Verdal  Longue. — Medium,  oblong,  turbinate ;  stalk  and  neck  short ;  eye  closed ; 
yellow,  ribs  brownish ;  flesh  red ;  sweet  aromatic. 

Zimitza. — Large,  pyriform,  greenish,  yellow  amber  flesh ;  good  grower  and 
bearer. 

There  are  many  undetermined  varieties  of  the  fig  grown  here 
and  there  in  the  State.  Some  may  be  finally  identified,  others  may 
be  new.  Some  of  them  yield  an  excellent  dried  fruit  and  should  be 
more  carefully  experimented  with.  The  outlook  for  the  fig  seems  to 
rest  upon  successful  caprification,  although  recently  there  has  been 
increased  success  in  profitable  drying  of  other  varieties. 


CHAPTER   XXXI 
THE   OLIVE  AND   ITS   GROWTH   IN   CALIFORNIA 

The  olive  is  another  of  the  old  mission  fruits  and  though  the 
tree  and  its  products  have  been  constantly  under  discussion  since  the 
American  occupation,  and  though  experimentation  has  been  constant, 
it  was  not  until  1885  that  the  tide  of  popular  favor  turned  strongly 
toward  the  olive.  For  twelve  years  thereafter  planting  proceeded 
with  enthusiam  amounting  almost  to  infatuation,  until  the  acreage 
in  olives  ten  years  ago  reached  such  a  figure  that  even  the  most 
enthusiastic  ceased  from  further  planting,  because  the  future  of  the 
products  of  the  olive  was  by  no  means  clear.  The  competition  of  olive 
oil  with  cheaper  salad  oils  worked  greatly  to  the  disadvantage  of  the 
higher-priced  article,  but  as  deception  is  now  ruled  out  by  recent  pure- 
food  legislation,  cheaper  oils  can  no  longer  be  sold  under  the  name  of 
the  olive,  and  legitimate  producers  will  henceforth  be  protected. 

The  difficulty  of  producing  pickled  ripe  olives  with  good  keeping 
qualities  is  also  vastly  greater  than  anticipated.  In  addition  to  these 
troubles  the  sterility  of  the  trees  in  some  situations,  through  frost  or 
other  agencies,  discouraged  many  growers.  It  is  probable  that  during 
the  first  decade  of  this  century  the  uprooting  of  trees  far  exceeded  the 
planting  and  the  olive  acreage  decreased  considerably.  At  the  same 
time  there  was  much  progress  attained  in  the  building  and  equipment 
of  oil  mills  and  pickling  establishments,  and  in  mastery  of  processes 
which  yield  acceptable  products — all  of  which  have  favorably  influenced 
the  demand  and  price  of  the  fresh  fruit.  The  fact  is,  the  olive  was 
boomed  in  California  along  spectacular  and  speculative  lines,  and  the 
industrv  had  to  outlive  the  mistakes  which  were  made.  California  will 
produce  profitably,  good  olives  and  olive  products  in  suitable  places  and 
through  the  efforts  of  masterful  men  and  women  who  can  rise  to  the 
requirements  of  production.  This  view  is  justified  by  the  experience 
of  the  last  few  years.  During  the  year  1913,  the  price  for  good  pickling 
olives  ranged  from  $140  to  $160  per  ton,  while  fancy  fruit  reached 
$200  and  upwards.  Such  prices  were  never  previously  attained  and 
it  is  believed  that  even  one-half  of  these  values  would  be  profitable,  if 
the  trees  were  fairly  productive.  This  is  the  ruling  factor  in  the 
business  for  olives  have  proved  very  shy  bearers  in  many  places.  Wise 
investments  seems  to  be  to  enlarge  profitable  areas  by  planting  under 
conditions  demonstrated  to  be  favorable. 

The  olive  tree  has  survived  a  temperature  of  14  degrees  Fahrenheit 
in  California,  but  the  fruit  is  injured  by  a  slight  fall  below  the 
freezing  point.  This  may  render  unprofitable  the  late  varieties  which 
carry  their  fruit-ripening  into  the  winter  months. 

The  olive  tree  will  thrive  throughout  the  larger  part  of  California, 
and  it  has  been  shown  that  it  will  grow  in  a  soil  too  dry  even  for  the 
grape-vine,  and  too  rocky  for  any  other  fruit  tree,  but  the  growth  of 
the  tree  and  the  bearing  of  fruit  will  be  proportional  to  the  amounts 

335 


336  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  :  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

of  plant  food  and  moisture,  and  it  is  idle  to  expect  fruit  without  irri- 
gation if  the  soil  can  not  hold  water  enough  for  the  tree.  There 
must  be  moisure  enough  in  the  soil  to  hold  the  fruit  plump 
and  smooth.  Olives  shriveled  by  drouth  will  usually  become  smooth 
again  after  fall  rains,  but  shriveling,  either  by  drouth  or  frost,  leaves 
the  fruit  not  in  the  best  condition  for  pickling. 

On  foot-hill  slopes  the  trees  bear  fruit  earlier  than  in  the  rich  valleys, 
although  in  the  latter  the  trees  attain  larger  growth.  Trees  in  the 
interior  bear  sooner  than  on  the  coast,  and  ripen  their  fruit  earlier  in 
the  season. 

The  olive  tree  is  now  thriving  in  California  in  a  great  variety  of 
soils.  It  is  productive,  if  frosts  are  not  too  severe  on  moist  valley 
lands,  while  on  hillsides,  even  where  excavations  had  to  be  made 
between  boulders,  or  into  disintegrating  rock,  the  tree  has  exhibited 
thrift  and  content  with  the  situation.  But  the  conclusion  should  not  be 
drawn  that  the  olive  relishes  poor  soil.  It  may  thrive  with  loose  rocks 
or  boulders,  but  it  finds  among  them  the  elements  it  needs  including  an 
adequate  supply  of  moisture.  It  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  the  olive 
will  succeed  on  sterile  soil. 

The  olive  is  chiefly  grown  with  clean  summer  cultivation.  Growing 
the  tree  in  irrigated  alfalfa,  as  discussed  in  Chapter  XIV  is  objection- 
able because  of  the  danger  of  delaying  the  ripening  of  the  fruit  and 
bringing  it  farther  into  the  rainy  season,  which  is  a  very  great  dis- 
advantage. 

Although  the  relations  of  soils  to  the  qualities  of  oil  have  been 
investigated  by  the  University  of  California  Experiment  Station  and 
some  interesting  results  published,  we  have  not  had  experience  enough 
in  this  State  to  demonstrate  the  influence  of  soils  on  the  quality  of 
the  oil,  but  trade  results  have  shown  that  good  oil  has  been  made  from 
fruit  grown  on  some  of  our  best  valley  fruit  soils,  deep  and  naturally 
(veil  drained,  as  well  as  from  fruit  grown  upon  drier  uplands,  and  the 
production  on  deeper,  richer  lands  is  much  larger. 


PROPAGATION  OF  THE  OLIVE 

Olives  are  propagated  from  seed,  and  from  cuttings  of  various 
kinds  and  sizes.  The  growth  from  seed  is  seldom  practised  in  this 
State,  because  growth  from  cuttings  is  easy,  and  furnishes  the  variety 
desired  without  grafting. 

Growing  Olives  from  Seed. — The  olives  should  not  be  planted 
with  the  pulp,  but  cleaned  of  this  either  by  letting  them  rot  in  a  pile 
or  by  putting  them  into  an  alkaline  solution  to  cut  the  oil.  A  simple 
way  to  hasten  germination  is  to  break  the  pits,  taking  care  not  to 
hurt  the  germ.  An  instrument  similar  to  the  nut  cracker  has  been 
invented  in  France  which  is  said  to  work  well.  When  the  kernels 
are  deprived  of  their  shell,  they  may  be  kept  moist  in  a  compost,  or 
mixture  of  cow-dung  and  sandy  soil,  and  sow  thickly  in  the  month 
of  April.  If  it  is  thought  to  be  too  much  work  to  take  the  kernels  out 
of  the  pits,  they  must  be  soaked  for  twenty-four  hours  in  a  solution 


OLIVES  FROM   SEEDS  AND  CUTTINGS  337 

of  one-half  pound  of  concentrated  lye  to  the  gallon  of  water.  Most 
of  the  seeds  sprout  the  first  year.  Planting  the  naked  kernels  gives 
the  quickest  result.  Without  using  this  artificial  means  some  of  the 
seeds  may  remain  dormant  at  least  for  two  years.  Clipping  the  tip 
of  the  shell,  so  as  to  open  a  small  aperture  so  that  moisture  can  enter 
readily,  will  often  cause  nine-tenths  of  the  seed  to  grow  within  three 
months. 

G.  P.  Hall,  of  San  Diego,  gives  the  following  hints  for  those  who 
desire  to  experiment  with  seedling  olives : 

After  the  pulp  has  all  been  taken  off  with  lye  water  (in  order  to  remove  all 
the  oil  and  to  roughen  the  shell),  the  seed  is  washed  in  clean  water  and  then 
kept  in  moist  sand  till  planting  time,  which  is  in  February  and  March.  They 
will  not  all  germinate  the  first  year,  so  it  is  best  to  preserve  the  seed-bed. 
Some  assist  the  germination  by  cracking  the  pits  in  an  iron  vise ;  one  turn  of 
the  screw  generally  splits  the  shell.  Leave  the  pit  in  the  cracked  shell  when 
you  plant  in  the  prepared  seed-bed.  Some  use  boxes  perforated  to  insure  drain- 
age ;  the  boxes  are  filled  to  within  three  inches  of  the  top  with  good  sandy  loam, 
then  the  kernels,  cracked  or  otherwise,  are  spread  over  the  top  and  an  inch  or 
more  of  sand  covers  the  whole,  which  must  be  kept  constantly  moist.  The 
cracking  of  the  kernels  greatly  accelerates  the  germination,  and  a  person  can 
prepare  600  or  more  seed  in  a  day.  Take  seed  from  best  trees  and  avoid 
dwarfs  of  any  kind.  Use  any  good  kinds  of  either  pickling  or  oil  olives  as  you 
may  desire. 

Large  Cuttings. — There  are  two  chief  methods  of  propagating 
the  olive  from  cuttings  now  practised  in  California.  One  uses  well- 
matured  wood,  and  the  other  young  wood  which  has  just  passed  out 
of  the  herbaceous  state.  Practice  with  hard  wood  proceeds  by  taking 
cuttings  of  sound  wood  about  a  foot  long  and  one-half  to  one  inch 
in  diameter,  and  rooting  them  as  already  described  for  vine  cuttings, 
in  Chapter  XXVI.  A  fresh  cut  should  be  made  at  the  bottom  of  the 
cutting  and  if  the  bark  has  shriveled  at  all  the  cuttings  should  be 
put  in  water  for  a  time  before  planting.  These  large  cuttings  sometimes 
remain  dormant  for  a  year  or  more,  and  recent  propagation  has  been 
largely  by  the  small-cutting  method. 

Small  Cuttings. — Propagating  by  small  cuttings  serves  an 
excellent  purpose  in  rapid  multiplication  of  varieties;  it  enables  the 
grower  to  handle  a  large  number  of  plants  in  a  small  space,  and  the 
plants  from  small  cuttings  have  a  symmetrical  root  system  quite 
resembling  that  from  a  seed.  These  cuttings  are  made  from  very 
small  shoots  and  both  the  tips  and  the  lower  cuts  are  used.  In  the 
engraving  the  figure  on  the  left  is  a  tip  cutting;  the  next,  a  cutting 
lower  down  the  shoot.  These  figures  are  about  natural  size,  and  show 
clearly  how  the  cuttings  are  made.  They  are  placed  closely  in  boxes 
of  sand  about  four  inches  deep,  rooted  under  glass  or  in  a  lath  house, 
and  after  a  few  months  are  potted  in  small  pots,  or  may  be  reset  farther 
apart  in  boxes  of  soil  or  in  the  open  ground.  In  January  or  February, 
the  wood  seems  to  be  in  the  best  condition  in  Berkeley,  but  such  condi- ' 
tion,  may  come  at  other  times  in  other  parts  of  the  State.  From  such 
cuttings  the  trees  will  be  of  good  size  for  planting  in  permanent  place 
the  next  year.  It  is  very  important  to  take  the  small  cuttings  just , 
when  the  wood  is  in  the  right  condition,  not  too  soft  nor  too  hard. 


338  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS!   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 


Propagating  the  Olive  by  small  cuttings. 

How  to  determine  this  point  can  not  be  described ;   it  must  be  learned 
by  experience. 

Growing  Trees  from  Truncheons. — New  varieties  secured  from 
the  south  of  Europe  generally  come  in  the  shape  of  truncheons,  which 
are  long  sticks  of  hard  wood.  They  may  be  planted  entire,  or  be 
sawn  and  split  into  large  cuttings  (for  olive  cuttings,  even  in  firewood 
shape,  will  grow  if  properly  treated),  though  better  trees  come  from 
small  cuttings.  If  the  truncheons  are  bedded  a  few  inches  below  the 
surface  in  moist,  warm  soil,  shoots  will  appear  which  can  be  worked 
up  into  small  cuttings  when  they  reach  the  proper  condition. 

BUDDING  THE  OLIVE 

Since  the  planting  of  a  large  area  of  Redding  Picholines  and  the 
fruit  found  to  be  that  of  a  wild  or  poor  seedling  olive  and  not  a  superior 
named  variety,  there  has  been  a  demand  for  working  over  the  trees 
into  better  varieties.  Besides,  many  of  the  imported  varieties  have 
proved  disappointing  and  a  change  to  a  variety  profitable  in  the  region 
is  imperative.  The  method  of  budding  commonly  employed  with  fruit 
trees  does  not  usually  yield  a  high  percentage  of  success  with  the 
olive,  and  other  ways  have  been  adopted  with  much  better  results. 

Budding  may  be  performed  at  any  time  of  the  year  when  the  sap 
flows  freely.  If  done  late  in  the  summer,  the  buds  lie  dormant  through 
*he  winter.  Best  results  are  obtained  when  the  buds  are  inserted 


TWIG-BUDDING  THE  OLIVE  339 

early  in  the  spring,  as  the  operation  can  be  performed  to  a  much 
better  advantage,  and  the  buds  will  grow  to  some  height  before  winter. 
When  inserted  in  large  orchard  trees,  or  in  limbs  of  large  trees,  the 
shoots  from  the  inserted  buds  are  allowed  to  grow  until  they  have 
attained  such  a  size  as  will  justify  in  the  removal  of  the  entire  top. 

Twig  Budding. — Twig  budding  is  very  successful.  The  bud  is 
cut  deep  into  the  wood,  in  order  to  give  the  bud  as  much  bark  as  pos- 
sible. The  leaves  are  partly  cut  off ;  then,  with  the  sharp  point  of  the 
budding  knife,  the  greater  part  of  the  wood  inside  of  the  bud  is 
removed,  as  shown  in  the  picture.  If  part  of  the  wood  is  not  removed, 
then  the  bud  can  not  take,  as  the  wood  in  it  prevents  the  two  barks 
(the  inner  bark  of  the  bud  and  the  inner  bark  of  the  stock)  from 
uniting.  When  the  wood  has  been  partly  removed  from  the  bud,  the 
bud  is  inserted  into  the  stock,  as  budding  is  done  in  the  regular, 


*4 
Olive:  Twig-Bud  as  cut.  Olive:   Twig-Bud   Inserted. 

ordinary  way,  and  tied  tight.  A  small  tip-twig  may  be  used  or  a  longer 
twig,  cut  back  to  the  lowest  bud  and  part  of  the  foliage  cut  away,  as 
shown  in  the  engraving.  At  the  end  of  three  or  four  weeks  the  string 
is  removed,  and  part  of  the  top  of  the  stock  is  cut  back  to  force  the 
bud  to  start.  As  the  bud  grows,  the  foliage  of  the  stock  is  gradually 
removed,  until  the  bud  is  able  to  take  up  the  entire  flow  of  sap;  it  is 
then  left  to  grow,  and  it  may  be  protected  by  tying  to  a  long  stub  of 
the  branch  which  may  be  left  for  that  purpose  above  the  point  of 
insertion.  When  the  bud  has  grown  out  strongly,  what  remains  of 
the  stock  above  the  bud  is  cut  smooth,  close  to  the  bud,  to  allow  it  to 
heal  over. 

Flap-Budding  the  Olive. — Although  the  use  of  a  twig  with  a 
pushing  bud  is  to  be  commended  strongly  a  dormant  bud  can  be  forced 
into  activity  quite  successfully.  Mr.  C.  A.  Wetmore  describes  this 
method : 

Late  in  the  spring,  when  advancing  warmth  has  set  the  sap  to  moving  freely, 
observe  a  tree  of  the  kind  you  desire  to  propagate.     Notice  parts  of  limbs  with 


340  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

vigorous  growth  and  clean  bark  free  from  little  lateral  twigs.  Where  a  leaf 
adheres  to  such  limbs  or  where  one  has  been  and  fallen  off,  there  is  a  small 
bud  or  eye.  Such  dormant  buds  or  eyes  are  lifted  from  the  wood  together  with  a 
small  piece  of  the  bark  about  one-third  or  half  an  inch  square.  On  the  properly 
selected  limbs  of  the  trees  you  wish  to  bud  into,  make  three  cuts  with  a  knife 
so  as  to  include  a  space  a  little  longer  than  the  piece  of  bark  to  be  inserted. 
Two  parallel  cuts  are  in  line  with  the  limb;  one  is  across  the  top.  Lifting  the 
flap  of  bark  thus  made  carefully  with  dull  side  of  a  blade,  the  cambium  layer  of 
the  wood  will  be  exposed.  Slip  in  the  piece  of  bark  with  the  dormant  bud  and 
press  it  close  with  the  flap  made  on  the  limb.  Tie  the  flap  firmly  to  cover  the 
whole  piece  inserted  with  raffia  or  strips  of  cloth  or  soft  twine.  At  the  end  of 
one  week  cut  the  ligatures  and  suffer  the  flap  to  curl  up  and  dry.  If  the  inser- 
tion has  united  to  the  wood,  it  will  remain  green  and  fresh-looking  about  the 
dormant  eye.  If  this  freshness  continues  after  exposure,  the  bud  has  taken. 
Then  cut  with  a  knife  or  saw  into  the  limb  above  the  bud  to  induce  the  sap 
to  force  the  growth.  If  any  one  fails,  the  limb  need  not  be  cut  into,  but  may 
be  budded  in  another  place.  The  following  winter,  cut  off  the  limb  above  the 
bud  if  it  has  sprouted  well,  and,  as  sufficient  new  wood  is  made,  the  old  branches 
of  the  tree  may  be  cut  away. 


GRAFTING   THE    OLIVE 

Grafting  is  also  used  in  working  over  both  large  and  small  olive 
trees.  Good  success  can  sometimes  be  had  with  the  ordinary  method 
of  top  grafting,  as  described  in  Chapter  IX,  using  scions  not  larger 
than  a  lead  pencil  and  inserting  them  in  April.  The  olive  can  also  be 
successfully  grafted  in  the  bark  according  to  the  method  shown  in 
Chapter  IX.  This  graft  is  used  for  working  in  the  top  of  the  tree,  but 
it  may  also  be  used  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  covering  the  cut 
surfaces  with  earth  when  the  scions  are  in  place.  Judge  A.  L.  Rhodes, 
of  San  Jose,  gives  the  following  explicit  account  of  his  success  with  a 
bark  graft,  as  follows: 

The  stock,  where  cut  off,  may  be  from  half  to  two  and  one-half  inches  in 
diameter;  the  scion  about  one-quarter  inch  in  diameter,  the  lower  end  to  be 
formed  by  an  oblique  cut  of  about  one  and  one-half  inches.  Split  the  bark  of 
the  top  of  the  stock  about  one  inch,  raise  the  bark  at  the  sides  of  the  split 
slightly,  insert  the  point  of  the  scion  between  the  bark  and  wood  of  the  stock, 
at  the  split,  and  press  it  down  the  length  of  its  oblique  cut.  Fasten  it  by  binding 
twine  around  both  stock  and  scion,  about  ten  times,  very  firmly.  Apply  grafting 
wax  to  top  of  stock  and  scion. 

If  the  bark  of  the  stock  be  three  or  more  years  old,  make  two  slits  in  it, 
about  one  and  one-half  inches  in  length,  the  width  between  them  equaling  the 
width  of  the  oblique  cut  of  the  scion,  raise  the  bark  between  the  slits,  cut  off 
about  half  of  it,  by  a  sloping  cut,  then  insert  the  scion  and  press  it  down,  and 
bind  with  twine  and  apply  grafting  wax,  as  above  directed.  Cotton  wrapping 
twine  is  of  sufficient  strength. 

Stocks  the  diameter  of  one  inch  or  more  should  receive  two  or  more  scions. 
Scions  gathered  a  short  time  before  their  insertion  are  the  most  successful.  The 
twine  around  the  stock  and  scion  should  not  be  loosened  until  it  indents  the  bark 
of  the  stock.  Protect  the  graft  from  sun  and  wind.  Wrap  paper  around  stock 
and  scion,  the  paper  to  extend  a  few  inches  above  the  scion — or  place  the  paper, 
in  the  form  of  a  bag,  over  scion  and  stock — and  secure  the  paper  with  twine, 
tied  around  the  stock  in  a  slip-knot. 

Bark  grafting  may  be  performed  at  any  time  when  the  bark  of  the  stock 
can  be  readily  raised — whenever  the  bark  will  "slip."  I  grafted  in  that  mode  in 
each  week  of  April  and  May  and  the  first  of  June,  and  in  September.  Failures 
not  5  per  cent.  Twelve  scions  inserted  about  the  middle  of  last  September  are 


TRANSPLANTING  OLIVE  TREES  341 

all  growing.  Shield  budding  is  the  most  successful  in  the  spring.  I  prefer 
the  bark  grafting,  as  the  shield  buds  may  not  start  for  months,  or  even  for 
a  year. 

Side  Graft  on  Small  Wood. — A  satisfactory  graft  can  be  made 
with  an  oblique  cut,  as  shown  in  Chapter  IX,  which  is  superior  to  a 
split  of  the  stock,  because  on  a  small  stock  the  spilt  is  apt  to  continue 
farther  than  desirable  when  the  scion  is  pushed  in.  With  the  slanting 
cut  in  the  stock  the  scion  can  be  firmly  pushed  into  place  without 
splitting.  The  union  of  inner  barks  of  scion  and  stock  must  be  made 
on  one  side  when  the  stock  is  larger  than  the  scion.  This  graft  is  tied 
in  and  waxed,  or  a  waxed  band  may  be  used.  In  working  small  wood 
at  the  ground  surface,  the  earth  should  be  drawn  up  around  the  graft. 

Grafting  on  Rooted  Cuttings. — Good  trees  are  made  by  grafting 
in  the  nursery  or  rooted  Picholine  cuttings.  Such  cuttings  are  made 
from  wood,  say,  one-half  inch  in  diameter.  Using  a  young  scion  with 
a  starting  bud.  Such  a  scion  makes  a  salable  tree  with  one  year's 
growth. 

PLANTING   THE   OLIVE 

There  is  nothing  gained  by  planting  out  the  olive  too  early  in  the 
spring.  Both  cuttings  and  rooted  plants  will  do  better  if  planted  after 
the  soil  becomes  well  warmed,  and  after  the  heavy  rains  of  the  winter 
are  well  over.  Of  course  the  time  when  this  condition  comes  is  different 
from  year  to  year,  and  varies,  also,  according  to  locality  and  situation. 
During  the  first  summer  the  young  plants  will  need  occasional  water- 
ing in  some  situations ;  in  others,  merely  mulching,  or  keeping  the 
surface  finely  stirred,  will  suffice. 

Olive  trees  are  planted  at  differentdistances,  but  the  ruling  intervals 
are  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet.  This  will  allow  the  trees  to  bear  a 
number  of  years  before  they  crowd  each  other;  and  then  removing 
alternative  trees  gives  ample  distance  for  future  growth.  But  it  is 
clearly  the  part  of  wisdom  to  hold  the  olive  to  a  low  growth  in  order 
that  the  fruit  may  be  cheaply  gathered,  and  this  may  be  done  by 
proper  pruning. 

Transplanting  Old  Olive  Trees. — It  is  often  desired  to  move 
olive  trees  of  considerable  size  and  the  method  outlined  below  is, 
applicable  to  olives  and  citrus  fruits  and,  in  a  general  way,  to  all  ever- 
green trees : 

After  the  heavy  rains  are  over  and  the  ground  is  getting  warm — say 
in  February — cut  back  not  less  than  one-half  of  the  top.  Trench  all 
around  the  tree  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  feet,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  tree ;  the  inside  edge  of  the  trench  about  two  feet  from  the  trunk 
of  the  tree.  At  the  same  time  remove  top  earth  down  to  the  roots 
to  reduce  the  weight.  This  trenching  cuts  off  all  side  roots  and  gives 
room  to  get  in  to  handle  the  ball  of  earth,  which  rope  up  with  barley 
sacks  under  the  ropes  so  as  to  hold  the  ball  from  breaking.  When  this 
is  done  well,  dig  in  and  under  the  tree  from  the  bottom  of  the 
trench  so  as  to  cut  off  the  bottom  roots.  Carefully  pull  and 
pry  the  ball  to  see  that  it  will  wobble  a  little  in  the  hole  to 
show  that  all  the  roots  are  cut.  The  get  ropes  and  sacks  under  the 


342  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

ball,  rig  up  a  derrick  and  block  and  tackle  and  lift  the  balled  tree  out 
of  the  hole,  land  it  on  a  low  truck  and  haul  it  to  a  new  hole  previously 
made  ready,  and  lower  it  into  place  by  the  same  tackle  which  lifted  it. 
Fill  in  with  fine  earth  and  water-settle  it  to  fill  all  cavities — covering 
with  loose  earth  several  inches  to  keep  from  drying.  Be  sure  the  tree 
has  plenty,  but  not  too  much,  moisture  during  its  first  summer  in  its 
new  place. 

Large  deciduous  trees  can  be  removed  when  dormant  with  much 
less  labor,  but  it  should  be  done  in  the  fall-as  soon  as  the  soil  is  deeply 
wet  by  rains.  It  should  be  understood,  however,  that  moving  large  fruit 
trees,  either  evergreen  or  deciduous,  is  seldom  commercially  desirable. 


PRUNING  THE  OLIVE 

Pruning  policies  as  insisted  upon  in  Chapter  XII,  have  direct 
bearing  upon  the  commercial  growth  of  the  olive.  The  development 
of  the  tree  according  to  principles  there  laid  down  is  practicable  and 
desirable.  After  proper  low  form  is  secured,  satisfactory  bearing  will 
depend  upon  regular  pruning  to  secure  new  bearing  shoots  and 
thinning  to  prevent  the  tree  from  becoming  too  dense  and  bushy.  The 
olive  bears  upon  wood  which  grew  the  preceding  year,  and  upon  no 
other.  It  is  just  as  important,  then,  to  secure  a  good  supply  of  such 
shoots  as  it  is  to  secure  new  bearing  wood  for  the  peach,  and  the  ways 
to  do  it,  by  cutting  back  and  thinning  out,  are  much  the  same.  Keep 
the  tree  from  running  out  of  reach  of  a  step-ladder;  prevent  it  from 
becoming  a  brush-heap,  for  both  these  acts  are  essential  to  the  growth 
of  good  bearing  wood,  low  down.  At  the  same  time  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  too  severe  cutting-back  forces  the  growth  of  branches  which 
form  only  wood  buds  and  fruiting  is  postponed.  The  secret  is  to 
prune  enough  to  induce  plenty  of  new  growth  but  so  that  not  much 
excessive,  non-bearing,  new  growth  results.  This  is  secured  by  regualar 
and  moderate  pruning;  some  growers  systematically  cutting  back  the 
new  growth  one-half  to  two-thirds. 

Trees  which  have  been  allowed  to  form  umbrella-like  tops  may  be 
brought  down  to  business  again  by  cutting  back  the  main  limbs  and 
making  selection  from  the  many  new  shoots  which  appear,  but  by 
proper,  regular  pruning  a  tree  can  be  so  trained  that  the  removal  of 
large  limbs  is  seldom  necessary.  The  times  to  prune  the  olive  are 
just  after  the  gathering  of  the  fruit  or  just  before  new  growth  starts 
in  the  Spring. 

Developing  the  Vase  Form. — Explicit  suggestions  as  to  the 
development  of  a  low,  vase-form  tree  may  be  helpful  to  inexperienced 
growers.  The  following  is  from  a  foreign  writer,  whose  illustrations 
are  presented  herewith: 

When  the  young  tree  has  attained  some  height,  it  is  the  practice  to  cut  off 
the  top,  so  that  the  main  stem  shall  be  about  four  and  a  half  feet  in  rich  soil, 
or  three  feet  in  poor  soil  or  in  locations  exposed  to  strong  winds.  Six  or  eight 
branches  are  left  to  form  the  head.  The  process  of  shaping  the  tree  then  pro- 
ceeds, as  shown  in  the  engravings.  Fig.  1  shows  the  young  tree  to  be  cut  at  the 


OLIVE    PRUNING    ILLUSTRATED 


343 


B 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


344  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I  HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

point  marked  by  the  dotted  line  C.  Six  branches,  three  on  each  side,  are  left,  and 
the  lower  twigs  shortened.  Each  of  the  branches  left  develops,  during  the  year, 
as  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  2,  which  is  then  cut  at  C  again,  and  the  shoots  B  and  D 
are  shortened.  This  process  starts  out  the  upper  shoots,  and  appears  the  follow- 
ing year  as  A  in  Fig.  3,  and  it  is  again  cut  at  C.  This  causes  the  two  upper 
shoots  to  develop,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  they  appear  as  shown  at  BB  in  Fig.  4, 
Thus  they  stand  at  the  fourth  year's  pruning,  and  each  of  them  is  cut  at  C,  and  A 
is  shortened  and  D  allowed  to  develop.  By  this  time  the  tree  has  a  spherical 
or  vase  form,  and  exposes  much  surface  to  the  sun,  which  is  desirable. 

The  young  branches  that  spring  in  the  form  of  a  cross  on  the  more  vigorous 
branches,  bear  only  wood  buds ;  the  others,  which  are  weaker,  bear  fruit  buds 
on  their  whole  length  and  burst  into  blossom  at  the  spring  of  the  second  year. 
The  latter  never  blossom  again  in  the  same  place,  but  the  shoot  extends  itself 
and  forces  two  lateral  ones.  These  new  shoots  bear  the  following  spring,  and 
so  on.  It  must  therefore  be  always  borne  in  mind  that  the  olive  bears  only  on 
the  two-year-old  wood.  If  the  new  shoots  are  formed  every  year,  the  olive 
will  bear  annually;  but  in  years  of  good  crops,  the  sap  employed  to  nourish 
the  fruit  only  produces  a  number  of  very  diminutive  shoots,  and  the  next  crop 
is  a  short  one.  The  pruning  ought  to  favor  the  growth  of  young  lateral  shoots, 
either  by  shortening  the  terminal  ones,  suppressing  the  "gormand,"  or  fruitless 
shoots,  or  by  reducing  in  a  certain  proportion,  each  year,  the  fruit-bearing 
shoots,  if  we  wish  for  a  crop  every  year.  The  shortening  of  a  branch  is  made 
immediately  above  an  outside  bud  in  an  oblique  direction,  the  interior  one 
being  suppressed.  The  suckers  at  the  root  of  the  tree  should  be  continually 
cut  off. 

Concerning  the  time  for  pruning,  the  best  season  is  said  to  be  when  the 
winter  frosts  are  well  over  and  just  before  the  sap  starts  in  the  spring.  By 
early  pruning  the  sap  is  made  to  act  upon  the  buds  unfavorably  situated  on  the 
tree,  brings  them  out,  and  also  develops  latent  buds  on  the  old  wood.  Thus  one 
is  enabled  to  prevent  the  tree  from  becoming  covered  with  naked  limbs. 


THE  FRUIT  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 

The  agricultural  experiment  station  of  the  University  of  California 
was  occupied  for  many  years  in  the  growth  of  olives  and  close  exam- 
ination of  olive  products  both  by  laboratory  and  practical  test.  The 
publications  of  the  station  discuss  the  operations  of  oil  making  and 
pickling  and  the  suitability  of  varieties  and  for  the  purpose  ot  this 
treatise  outlines  will  be  drawn  from  these  sources. 

Gathering  the  Fruit. — Olives  should  be  picked  carefully  and  at 
the  right  time.  For  green  pickles  they  should  be  picked  very  soon  after 
they  obtain  full  size,  but  before  they  have  begun  to  color  or  soften. 
For  ripe  pickles  and  for  oil  making  the  fruit  should  be  gathered  when 
it  contains  the  maximum  amount  of  oil.  This  is  soon  after  the  olives 
are  well  colored,  but  before  they  have  attained  the  deep  black  which 
signifies  overripeness.  If  the  olives  are  gathered  too  green  the  oil 
will  be  bitter;  if  too  ripe,  it  will  be  rancid.  When  they  can  be  easily 
shaken  from  the  tree  they  are  ripe  enough.  If  they  commence  to  fall 
without  vigorous  shaking  they  are  overripe.  For  whatever  purposes 
the  olives  are  to  be  used  they  should  be  carefully  gathered  by  hand, 
and  imperfect,  immature,  or  bruised  fruit  rejected.  Sound  fruit  is 
required  for  high-grade  oil  or  for  handsome  pickles  with  good  keeping 
quality. 


OLIVE   OIL   IN    CALIFORNIA  345 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  OLIVE  OIL 

Olive  oil  is  made  in  this  State  with  apparatus  of  both  Californian 
and  Europeon  design,  and,  as  a  rule,  there  is  made  only  one,  and  at 
most  but  two,  pressings  of  the  pomace,  which  is  then  used  for  fattening 
swine.  In  the  frequent  working  over  of  the  pomace,  and  the  close 
extraction  of  the  oil,  as  practiced  in  Europe,  we  have  done  little  as  yet. 

Olive  oil  is  made  on  a  small  scale  by  a  number  of  parties  who  use 
home-made  contrivances,  or  small,  portable  cider  machinery  for  the 
crushing  and  pressing.  During  the  last  few  years  quite  a  number  of 
mills  have  been  erected  at  several  points  in  California  and  they  have 
made  a  market  for  the  olives  produced  by  growers  who  do  not  care 
to  undertake  manufacture.  A  detailed  account  of  oil  making,  includ- 
ing descriptions  of  buildings  and  machinery,  published  by  the  University 
Experiment  Station  has  been  out  of  print  for  several  years,  but  can  be 
consulted  in  libraries.*  As  this  is  available  to  those  who  desire  such 
specific  information,  only  an  outline  will  be  undertaken  for  the  informa- 
tion of  the  general  reader. 

Drying. — Extraction  of  oil  from  fresh  olives  gives  the  best  oil, 
but  it  is  somewhat  troublesome,  and  it  is  customary  to  partially  dry 
them.  This  partial  drying  is  also  useful  to  keep  the  fruit  for  some 
time  or  for  shipment  before  crushing.  Place  the  olives  in  layers  not 
more  than  three  inches  deep,  on  trays  that  are  stacked  in  a  dry,  well- 
aired  room,  protected  from  the  wind  and  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 
Turn  daily  until  the  fruit  becomes  well  wrinkled.  This  requires  about 
eight  or  ten  days,  according  to  the  degree  of  temperature.  The  par- 
tially dried  fruit  may  be  stored  in  a  dark  room  where  the  temperature 
does  not  rise  above  sixty  degrees  Fahrenheit,  for  three  or  four  weeks 
without  any  serious  deterioration  of  oil.  To  hasten  the  drying  process, 
artificial  driers,  constructed  on  the  same  principle  as  the  fruit  or  hop 
driers,  are  sometimes  used.  The  olives  are  placed  in  a  single  layer 
upon  trays,  and  the  drier  is  kept  at  a  temperature  of  about  one  hundred 
and  twenty  degrees  Fahrenheit ;  at  over  one  hundred  and  thirty  degrees 
Fahrenheit  the  quality  of  the  oil  may  be  impaired.  The  drying  takes 
about  forty-eight  hours — more  or  less — according  to  the  nature  of 
the  fruit. 

Crushing. — The  olives  are  usually  crushed  by  heavy  stone  roll- 
ers revolving  in  a  circular  depression  in  a  bed  of  masonry  into  which 
the  fruit  is  placed.  Chrushers  with  corrugated  bronze  or  bronzed  metal 
rollers  are  now  made  that  perform  their  work  in  a  very  satisfactory 
manner,  breaking  up  the  flesh  and  pits  very  thoroughly.  As  they  are 
all  of  metal  they  absorb  no  oil  and  are  easily  cleaned.  It  is  very 
essential  that  the  flesh  should  be  crushed  thoroughly  in  order  to  break 
up  the  cells  and  permit  the  oil  to  be  pressed  out. 

Pressing. — When  the  revolving  crusher  has  reduced  the  olives 
to  a  mass,  the  pomace  is  shoveled  up  from  the  bed  of  the  mill  and  pre- 
pared for  pressing.  Instead  of  the  fabric  of  woven  esparto  grass  which 
is  used  abroad,  coarse  linen  cloth  is  used.  A  certain  amount  of  the 

*  "California  Olive  Oil:  its  Manufacture,"  by  G.  W.  Shaw,  Bulletin  155,  University 
Experiment  Station,  Berkeley,  Cal. 


346  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

pulp  is  put  in  each  cloth,  so  that  when  the  cloth  is  folded  back  it  makes 
a  cheese  about  three  feet  square  and  three  inches  thick.  Ten  or  more 
of  these  cheeses  are  placed  one  above  the  other,  with  slats  between,  and 
the  pressure  applied  gently  at  first.  From  the  liquid  which  runs  out 
first  is  made  the  very  finest  oil,  known  as  "virgin  oil."  The  pressure  is 
then  increased  very  gradually  until  the  full  power  of  the  machine  is 
reached.  This  presses  out  the  second  quality  of  oil,  which  is  generally 
mixed  with  the  first.  After  obtaining  all  the  oil  possible  by  the  first 
pressure  the  "cheese"  is  taken  out,  thoroughly  broken  up  in  hot  water, 
and  again  pressed.  This  yields  the  third  quality,  which  is  very  much  in- 
ferior to  the  first  and  second.  Sometimes  the  "cheese"  from  the  first 
pressing  is  thoroughly  broken  up  with  cold  water  and  pressed  again 
before  being  treated  with  hot  water.  In  this  way  a  little  oil  is  obtained 
that  differs  a  little  from  the  second  quality,  and  may  be  mixed  with  it. 
After  this  a  certain  amount  of  oil  still  remains  in  the  "cheese,"  but  it 
can  be  extracted  only  by  very  powerful  hydraulic  presses,  or  by  chemical 
means,  and  then  is  of  very  inferior  quality,  and  suitable  only  for  burning 
or  for  soap  making. 

Settling  and  Clarifying. — The  liquid  from  the  press  is  dark  col- 
ored, and  it  is  conducted  into  a  receptacle  for  settling.  Much  of  the 
foreign  matter  quickly  separates,  the  oil  appearing  on  the  top.  The  oil 
is  removed  to  other  receptacles  in  which  it  can  stand  from  two  to  five 
months  for  perfect  separation  of  undesirable  sediment.  These  settling 
tanks  may  be  of  well-tinned  metal,  or  of  cement  lined  with  glass  or  other 
impervious  substance.  The  first  settling  is  conveniently  made  by  means 
of  a  funnel-shaped  apparatus,  which  by  its  conical  shape  facilitates  the 
rapid  deposition  of  sediment.  After  standing  for  twenty-four  hours 
in  this  apparatus  the  major  part  of  the  sediment  is  deposited  and  can 
be  drawn  off  at  the  bottom.  It  is  well,  before  running  the  oil  into  the 
settling  tanks,  to  pass  it  through  two  or  three  inches  of  cotton  wool. 
This  is  accomplished  by  means  of  a  funnel  with  a  perforated,  horizontal 
cross  partition,  upon  which  the  cotton  is  placed.  It  takes,  generally, 
about  one  month  for  the  oil  to  settle  sufficiently  in  the  first  tank,  after 
which  it  should  be  drawn  off  carefully  into  the  second,  and  so  on  until 
it  is  sufficiently  bright.  Three  rackings  are  usually  sufficient. 

Olives  are  sometimes  ground  and  pressed  in  portable  cider  mills  or 
ground  in  barley  crushers  for  oil  manufacture  on  a  small  scale.  As  the 
above  description  shows,  oil  making  is  a  simple  process,  and  may  be 
carried  on  at  home  with  rude  devices.  It  is,  however,  a  process  requir- 
ing care  and  cleanliness,  and  intelligent  personal  attention. 


PICKLING  THE  OLIVE 

Olives  are  pickled  in  a  green  state,  as  is  the  case  with  the  imported 
olives ;  or  in  a  ripe  state,  as  largely  undertaken  in  California.  No  one 
had  any  conception  at  first  of  the  difficulties  attending  the  production 
of  pickled  ripe  olives  which  would  have  the  keeping  quality  demanded 
in  an  article  of  commerce.  It  is  now  clearly  seen  that  treating  olives  to 
extract  the  bitterness  and  to  secure  firmness,  good  flavor  and  keeping 


OLIVE   PICKLING   METHODS  347 

quality  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  propositions  in  our  horticultural 
manufacturing,  and  we  can  but  admire  the  wisdom  of  the  Spaniard  in 
teaching  Anglo-Saxons  to  enjoy  green  olives.  To  succeed  with  the  ripe 
olive  requires  the  utmost  patience,  experience,  and  intelligence,  and  one 
who  undertakes  it  must  not  get  weary  of  the  most  exhaustive  study  of 
difficulties  that  may  arise  and  how  to  meet  them.  When  the  most  care- 
ful picklers  with  the  best  appliances  sometimes  lose  hundreds  of  dollars 
worth  in  spite  of  all  they  know  about  it,  the  difficulty  of  the  matter 
may  be  appreciated. 

The  following  is  an  outline  of  the  pickling  of  olives  as  drawn  from 
the  University  publications  by  Professor  Bioletti : 

The  pickling  of  olives  involves  three  steps :  I.  Treatment  with  lye  to  neutral- 
ize the  acidity  and  bitterness.  2.  Repeated  soaking  in  water  to  remove  the 
excess  of  lye.  3.  Salting  by  soaking  in  brines  of  gradually  increasing  strengths. 

(1)  Neutralization.     Soak  the  olives  for  twelve  hours  in  a  solution  made  by 
dissolving   1%   pounds   of  caustic  potash   in   12  gallons   of  water.     Very  bitter 
olives   may   require   a   second   treatment   with    fresh    lye    (Mission,    Manzanillo, 
Sevillano)  ;   sweeter  olives  may  require  a  weaker   lye    (Ascolano,   Columbella). 
With  soft  olives,  \l/2  pounds  of  salt  should  be  added  to  the  lye.    The  olives  should 
be  kept  submerged  by  means  of  a  floating  cover  and  the  lye  drawn  from  the 
bottom  and  poured  over  the  top  two  or  three  times  to  insure  equal  treatment. 

(2)  Soaking.     When,  by  examination  of  the  color  of  the  flesh  of  the  olives, 
it  is  found  that  the  lye  has  penetrated  nearly  to  the  pit,  they  should  be  removed 
to  pure  water.    This  water  is  renewed  at  least  once  a  day  until  the  lye  is  removed, 
which  requires  two  or  three  days.     With  soft  olives,  a  brine  containing  about 
two  pounds  of  salt  to  twelve  gallons  of  water  should  be  used  for  removing  the  lye. 

(3)  .Salting.     When  the  lye  and  most  of  the  bitterness  have  been  removed 
the  olives  should  be  placed  in  stronger  brine.     If  the  olives  are  to  be  canned  or 
bottled,  a  brine  containing  about  five  pounds  of  salt  to  twelve  gallons  of  water 
is  sufficiently  strong.     If  they  are  to  be  kept  in  barrels  ten  or  twelve  pounds  of 
salt  will  be  needed.    The  olives  must  be  prepared  for  the  strong  brine  gradually 
by  being  placed  in  new  brines  every  three  to  four  days.     Each  brine  should  be 
about  two  per  cent  stronger  than  the  last. 

Precautions. — Strong  lye  tends  to  soften  the  fruit.  A  second 
treatment  is  weak  lye  is  better  for  bitter  olives  than  a  strong  lye.  Salt 
has  a  tendency  to  harden  the  fruit  and  can  be  used  to  counteract  the 
softening  effect  of  the  lye  with  very  ripe  olives.  Strong  brine  will 
shrink  and  shrivel  the  olives,  unless  they  are  prepared  for  it  by  solu- 
tions of  gradually  increasing  strengths. 

Color. — With  ripe  pickles,  the  object  is  to  have  the  color  as  uni- 
form and  dark  as  possible.  Uniformity  is  obtained  by  pickling  each 
variety  by  itself,  by  having  the  fruit  as  evenly  ripe  as  possible  and  by 
exposing  the  olives  to  each  solution  in  as  uniform  a  manner  as  possible. 
Spotting  comes  usually  from  unevenness  of  the  lye  treatment,  and 
especially  from  allowing  some  olives  to  float  on  the  surface.  Depth 
of  color  is  obtained  by  having  the  olives  thoroughly  ripe.  By  exposing 
the  olives  to  the  air  for  several  hours  between  the  various  solutions, 
both  the  depth  and  uniformity  of  the  color  are  increased. 

With  green  olives,  the  air  should  be  excluded  as  much  as  possible, 
until  the  final  brine  is  reached.  A  little  vinegar  improves  both  the  color 
and  flavor  of  green  olives.  Some  picklers  advise  the  addition  also  of  a 
few  bay  leaves. 


348  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Pure- Water  Process. — The  best  pickled  olives  are  made  without 
the  use  of  lye,  but  this  process  is  only  practicable  with  olives  whose 
bitterness  is  easily  extracted,  and  where  the  water  is  extremely  pure 
and  plentiful,  and  even  then  it  is  very  slow  and  tedious.  It  omits  the 
preliminary  lye  treatment.  The  olives  are  placed  from  the  beginning 
in  pure  water,  which  is  changed  twice  a  day  until  the  bitterness  is 
sufficiently  extracted.  This  requires  from  forty  to  sixty  days  or  more. 
The  extraction  is  sometimes  hastened  by  making  two  or  three  shallow, 
longitudinal  slits  in  each  olive,  but  this  modification,  besides  requiring 
a  large  amount  of  expensive  handling,  renders  the  fruit  peculiarly 
susceptible  to  bacterial  decay  and  softening.  Altogether  the  pure-water 
process  can  not  be  recommended  for  California,  as  it  is  too  expensive 
and  uncertain. 

Green  Pickles. — Green  pickled  olives  are  made  by  essentially 
the  same  processes  as  are  used  for  ripe  olives.  The  extraction  of  the 
bitterness  requires  the  same  care.  The  olives  are  pickled  soon  after 
they  have  attained  full  size,  and  before  they  have  shown  any  signs  of 
coloring  or  softening.  They  contain  at  this  time  comparatively  little 
oil,  and  are  in  every  way  much  inferior  to  the  ripe  pickles  in  nutritive 
value.  They  are  not  a  food  but  a  relish.  They  are  rather  more  easily 
made  than  the  ripe  pickles,  as  there  is  less  danger  of  spoiling. 

CANNING  THE  RIPE  OLIVE 

The  use  of  heat  and  hermetical  sealing  after  the  pickling  process  is 
completed  is  a  recourse  to  avoid  the  difficulties  of  ripe  pickling  and 
canned  olives,  put  upon  the  market  in  the  same  form  as  other  canned 
fruits,  have  recently  become  popular.  There  are  special  canneries  for 
their  preparation  at  several  points  in  the  State  and  the  general  can- 
neries are  also  handling  olives  in  considerable  quantities.  The  process 
is  in  the  main  like  that  of  canning  other  fruits,  but  special  points  have 
to  be  learned  through  experience.  The  University  investigation  of 
the  effect  of  heat  on  the  olive  shows  that  ripe  pickled  olives,  heated  to 
175  degrees  F.,  kept  perfectly  for  thirty-two  months.  By  heating  them 
still  higher  in  sealed  cans  on  bottles  they  can  be  kept  indefinitely  with 
as  great  facility  as  any  other  food  product.  The  heating  does  not  in- 
jure the  flavor  and  the  texture,  but,  on  the  contrary,  improves  them. 
Olives,  preserved  by  heating  do  not  require  such  strong  brine,  and  it  is 
only  necessary  to  add  as  much  salt  as  the  palate  requires.  The  heating 
causes  some  of  the  coloring  matter  to  diffuse  into  the  brine,  so  that  the 
olives  are  made  a  little  lighter  colored.  With  time,  however,  the 
colored  matter  diffuses  out  in  the  same  way  from  unheated  olives,  so 
that  at  the  end  of  a  year  the  heated  olives  are  actually  darker  in  color 
than  the  unheated. 

VARIETIES  OF  THE  OLIVE  GROWN  IN  CALIFORNIA 

tMany  varieties  of  the  olive  have  been  brought  to  California  from 
southern  Europe  during  the  last  thirty  years.  Fifty-seven  varieties 
have  been  analyzed  and  elaborately  reported  upon  by  the  University 


POPULAR    VARIETIES    OF    THE    OLIVE  349 

experts,  and  of  these  about  fifteen  varieties  at  first  promised  to  rise  to 
commercial  account  but  many  of  them  have  been  dropped.  It  is  an 
interesting  fact,  however,  that  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  put  forth  to 
secure  a  better  olive  than  the  old  Mission  variety,  this  old  sort  still 
heads  the  list.  Several  varieties  at  first  popular  have  been  abandoned 
because  of  an  interior  decay  of  the  pulp. 

The  following  are  the  varieties  now  favored  in  California  on  a 
commercial  scale,  arranged  approximately  in  the  order  of  their  present 
popularity :  Mission ;  Manzanillo ;  Ascolano ;  Sevillano ;  Nevadillo. 

Other  varieties  sometimes  used  for  pickling  are :  Oblitza ;  Macro- 
carpa ;  Picholine ;  Columbella ;  Regalia ;  Goodal ;  Atro-rubens ;  Verdale ; 
Santa  Caterina. 

These  may  be  taken,  then,  as  practically  all  the  varieties  to  which 
planters  are  giving  attention.  Of  course  future  experience  may  pro- 
duce changes  in  this  list,  but  there  is  little  present  indication  that  it  will 
be  much  enlarged.  Descriptions  of  many  other  varieties  are  retained, 
largely  for  old  acquaintance  sake : 

The  Mission  Olive. — By  this  name  is  signified  the  variety  found  growing  at 
the  old  missions  in  California.  Samples  of  the  fruit  and  leaves  sent  by  F.  Pohn- 
dorff  to  Don  Jose  de  Hidalgo  Toblada,  a  noted  Spanish  authority  on  the  olive, 
led  to  the  classing  of  our  mission  varieties  with  the  Cornicabra-Cornizuelo 
varieties  of  Spain,  and  its  value  was  confirmed.  It  has  long  been  known  that  the 
s>called  Mission  olive  embraced  several  varieties,  or  sub-varieties  at  least. 

Common  or  Broad-Leaved  Mission  Olive. — The  variety  of  olive  most  generally 
known  as  the  Mission;  ovate,  oblique — sometimes  very  much  so — the  pit  straight 
or  slightly  curved,  fruit  very  variable  in  size,  growing  singly  or  in  clusters  of  two 
or  three,  or  even  five ;  time  of  ripening,  late,  in  the  coast  region  sometimes  not 
before  February,  but  generally  in  December;  in  warm  localities  in  November; 
tree  vigorous  and  a  good  bearer,  preferred  by  picklers. 

Redding  Picholine. — Imported  by  the  late  B.  B.  Redding.  A  perfect  oval  in 
shape,  ripens  early,  several  weeks  earlier  than  the  common  Mission ;  dark  purple 
or  black  when  ripe;  in  pickling  the  pulp  loses  the  bitterness  quickly,  the  fruit 
beinsr  very  pleasant.  This  variety  was  propagated  extensively,  in  the  State  and, 
until  fruiting  was  supposed  to  be  a  large  pickling  variety,  but  it  proved  to  be  a 
small  seedling — a  shoot  coming  from  the  root  below  the  graft,  probably.  It  has 
produced  oil  of  good  quality.  The  smallness  of  the  fruit  is  its  irremediable 
defect.  It  roots  very  readily  from  cuttings  and  is  used  as  a  stock  on  which  to 
graft  improved  varieties. 

Picholine  d'Aix. — Fruit  medium,  enlongated,  tapering  toward  apex  which  is 
pointed;  reddish  black  when  ripe. 

Picholine  de  Stt.  Chamas. — Oblong,  reddish  black ;  highly  esteemed  in  France 
for  quality  when  picked. 

Oblonga. — Imported  by  John  Rock  from  France.  An  olive  of  a  peculiar, 
club-like  shape,  being  narrow  at  the  stem  end,  broad  at  the  point,  rounded  and 
strongly  oblique;  generally  pointed  at  both  ends.  The  pulp  loses  its  bitterness 
comparatively  quickly  in  picking.  This  olive  ripens  quite  early — at  least  two  or 
three  weeks  earlier  than  the  Broad-leaved  Mission;  color,  dark  purple. 

Pendoulier. — Large,  oval,  slightly  curved  at  apex  end;  desirable  for  pickling 
early  ripening  in  October  in  the  interior  valley  and  in  November  in  coast 
valleys. 

Manzanillo  No.  I. — Imported  by  F.  Pohndorff  from  Spain,  large  regular 
rounded  oval ;  pit  straight,  strongly  pointed  at  the  apex,  nine-sixteenths  of  an 
inch  long,  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch  thick.  Ripens  early,  several  weeks'  earlier 
than  the  Broad-leaved  Mission.  The  fruit  grows  on  long  stems.  The  pulo  parts 
readily  with  its  bitterness,  and. is  exceedingly  rich  when  pickled.  Excellent  in 
the  San  Joaquin  Valley  both  for  oil  and  pickles. 


350  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

Manzanillo  No.  2. — Imported  by  F.  Pohndorff  from  Spain.  As  the  name 
("small  apple")  indicates,  this  variety  is  nearly  round,  with  a  pit  of  rounded 
oval  shape,  rather  squarely  cut  off  at  the  base.  This  variety  ripens  early — • 
several  weeks  earlier  than  the  Broad-leaved  Mission  olive;  the  fruit  grows 
generally  singly  on  long  stems;  a  trifle  larger  than  Mission;  quality  of  pickles 
excellent;  not  a  good  bearer  in  all  places  and  ripe  fruit  subject  to  rot  in  hot 
regions. 

Gordal. — A  popular  pickling  olive  in  Spain,  medium  size,  early. 

Rubra. — Imported  by  John  Rock  from  France;  ovate,  slightly  oblique,  looks 
a  good  deal  like  a  small  Mission  olive;  pit  straight,  pointed;  ripens  three  to 
four  weeks  earlier  than  the  common  Mission  variety;  is  of  a  jet  black  when 
ripe.  This  tree  begins  to  fruit  quite  young,  and  is  a  prolific  bearer.  Very  hardy 
and  prolific  even  in  dry  situations. 

Atroviolacea. — Medium  size,  black,  chiefly  valuable  for  oil. 

Uvaria. — Imported  by  John  Rock  from  France.  Oval,  regular,  and  rounded 
on  both  ends;  pit  straight,  heavy,  late;  later  than  the  common  Mission  olive; 
color  dark  purple  or  black  when  ripe.  The  name,  "grape-like,"  is  well  chosen, 
the  fruit  growing  in  clusters,  as  many  as  seven  together,  and  in  shape  them- 
selves resembling  the  grape.  Very  prolific. 

Pendulina. — Imported  by  John  Rock  from  France.  An  even,  oval  shape, 
rounded  at  both  ends,  quite  variable  in  size,  many  fruits  remaining  small  and 
undeveloped ;  pit  has  small,  sharp  points  often  at  both  ends.  Fruit  grows  in 
clusters  of  from  two  to  five;  the  pulp  parts  very  readily  with  its  bitterness. 
Larger  and  more  ovate  than  Pendoulier.  Tree  a  strong  grower;  fruit  desirable 
both  for  oil  and  pickles. 

Columbella. — Imported  by  John  Rock  from  France.  General  form,  broadly 
oval ;  very  even  in  size,  remarkable  for  the  peculiar  pale  yellow  color  which  all 
the  fruit  assumes  before  turning  fully  ripe  and  becoming  dark  purple ;  pit  small, 
straight  and  sharp  pointed ;  the  pulp  contains  little  bitterness ;  flavor  very  rich ; 
ripens  late,  later  than  the  Broad-leaved  Mission.  Tree  hardy  in  dry  places  and 
a  prolific  bearer.  Also  called  "Columella." 

Polymorpha. — Imported  by  John  Rock  from  France.  Very  large,  ovate, 
oblique,  and  pointed ;  light  colored ;  pit  square  at  the  base,  strongly  pointed  at 
the  apex ;  flesh  firm ;  ripens  very  early ;  fruit  grows  on  strong  stems  in  clusters 
of  two  or  three.  Tree  not  a  strong  grower,  but  productive. 

Lucques. — A  variety  specially  adapted  for  pickling,  though  producing  oil  of 
good  quality;  strong-growing  tree  and  hardy;  sometimes  shy  bearer  when  young; 
fruit  shiny  black,  curved;  product  called  "Crescent  Olive." 

Nevadillo  Blanco. — Imported  by  F.  Pohndorff  from  Spain.  Oval,  slightly 
oblique,  pointed,  resembling  somewhat  a  Mission,  but  is  generally  more  elongated 
in  proportion  to  its  diameter  than  the  latter;  pit  small,  curved,  and  generally 
pointed  at  both  ends ;  the  fruit  is  borne  in  clusters  of  three  to  five ;  ripening  not 
much  earlier  than  the  Mission ;  a  fine  oil  olive,  largely  planted,  but  disappointing 
in  some  regions  as  a  shy  bearer  and  subject  to  frost  injury. 

Oblitza. — Imported  by  the  late  G.  N.  Milco  from  Dalmatia ;  resembles  the 
Pendoulier,  and  may  be  identical ;  fine  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley ;  very  large 
oval,  but  broad  and  rounded  at  both  ends;  grows  in  clusters;  tree  a  good 
grower,  hardy  and  productive ;  fruit  excellent  for  pickles ;  ripens  in  November  in 
the  interior — about  the  same  as  the  Mission. 

Sevillano. — Recently  largely  planted  as  the  variety  exported  from  Spain  as 
the  "Queen  olive."  Very  large ;  only  useful  in  pickling ;  when  ripe,  bluish  black ; 
clingstone.  Tree  a  strong  grower,  leaves  deep  green,  greenish  white  underneath. 
Described  by  Mr.  Roeding  as  a  regular  bearer,  but  requires  deep,  rich,  well- 
drained  soil,  and  will  not  stand  much  cold.  Sells  at  high  prices  because  of 
great  size ;  ripens  early. 

Ascolano. — "White  olive  of  Ascoli."     Very  large,  "large  as  a  French  prune 

and  much  like  one  in  shape"  (Bioletti).     Excellent  for  pickles,  but  not  desirable 

f  in  color  of  either  green   or  ripe  pickles,   and  has   to  be   carefully   handled  in 

pickling.     Reported  a  good  bearer  and  has  recently  been  quite  largely  planted. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 
THE    ORANGE 

The  orange  leads  all  fruits  of  California.  Near  the  close  of  Chapter 
VI  will  be  found  the  numbers  of  trees  and  value  of  product,  as  reported 
by  the  United  States  census  of  1910,  and  the  railway  shipments  beyond 
State  lines  for  a  term  of  years,  upon  which  the  supremacy  of  the  orange 
rests.  In  view  of  this  leadership  it  seems  fitting  to  take  a  little  wider 
range  in  the  discussion  of  the  significance  of  the  orange  in  the  develop- 
ment of  California  than  has  been  indulged  in  the  consideration  of  other 
fruits,  and  this  is  justified  by  the  fact  that  the  orange  is  the  chief  ex- 
ponent of  the  horticultural  resources  of  the  State  and  its  attributes  in 
this  direction  are  shared  in  varying  degrees  by  the  other  fruits.  The 
greatness  of  orange  growing  in  California  becomes,  then,  in  various 
ways  the  token  of  our  advancement  in  one  of  the  highest  of  the  agri- 
cultural arts,  and  in  the  mastery  of  long-distance  commercial  distribu- 
tion of  fresh  fruits.  These  achievements  are  also  a  demonstration  of 
the  quality  of  our  agricultural  citizenship.* 

The  estimate  of  total  production  in  boxes,  and  of  market  value  at 
selling  points,  of  California  citrus  fruits  for  a  decade  is  as  follows,  the 
citrus  year  being  from  November  1  to  October  31 : 

Year.  Oranges.  Lemons.  Returns. 

1903  8,094,720       826,500     $  9,995,375.55 

1904  10,246,656       868,000      11,505,895.43 

1905  10,225,809      1,333,500      15,773,190.14 

1906  8,973,342      1,182,200      21,024,814.16 

1907  10,290,729  1,097,300  22,267,344.14 

1908  10,742,944  1,585.000  21,238,213.26 

1909  13,441,011  2,019,898  23,121,231.27 

1910  11,187,792  1,627,480  25,011,027.85 

1911  15,645,168  2,315,376  33,613,927.01 

1912  13,680,612  2,146,550  28,240,135.64 

1913  6,346,692       866,304      20,998,105.04 

The  descending  scale  since  the  maximum  product  of  1911  is  due 
to  frosts  in  1912  and  1913,  in  which  the  decreased  quantity  was  only 
partly  covered  by  higher  prices  prevailing  in  those  years.  The  1914 
product  is  expected  to  occupy  its  proper  place  in  a  regularly  ascending 
series. 

THE  ORANGE  INDUSTRY  OF  THE  WORLD 

From  the  beginning  the  orange  has  reigned  as  king  in  the  inter- 
national fruit  trade  of  the  world.  The  grape  has  always  been  and  is 
still,  greater  in  the  value  of  its  contribution  to  commerce  and  in  the 

*The  Orange  Industry  "Encyclopedia  Americana,"  Scientific  American,  New  York,  1904. 
"The  Orange  in  Northern  and  Central  California,"  California  State  Board  of  Trade,  San 
Francisco,  1903,  etc.,  by  the  author. 

351 


352  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  :   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

f 

distance  is  safely  traverses,  but  the  grape  rules  not  as  fruit,  but  through 
its  manufactured  products,  while  the  orange  carries  its  natural  beauty, 
fragrance  and  flavor  unchanged  around  the  world.  From  the  earliest 
times  the  orange  has  not  only  been  accepted  in  northern  climes  as  a 
symbol  of  tropical  and  sub-tropical  salubrity  and  sumptuousness,  but 
by  its  own  distinctive  characteristics  as  a  fruit  it  has  won  recognition 
as  befitting  the  highest  uses  of  mankind.  By  its  nature  too  the  orange 
ministers  to  its  own  commercial  popularity.  It  endures  long  shipment ; 
it  ripens  slowly  and  through  a  season  of  several  months  which  constitute 
the  winter  in  northern  latitudes  when  local  fruits  are  scant  or  absent 
and  the  refreshment  in  the  citric  juices  most  welcome.  The  production 
of  such  a  commercial  commodity  has  from  the  earliest  times  constituted 
an  important  industry. 

It  is  a  significant  fact  that  though  the  orange  thrives  in  the  tropics 
it  does  not  resent  the  slight  touch  of  frost  which  characterizes  semi- 
tropical  situations.  It  is  also  significant  that  the  fruit  grown  in  semi- 
tropical  countries,  especially  those  which  have  a  more  or  less  distinctly 
marked  two-season  climate,  differs  in  character  from  the  strictly 
tropical  orange  and  is  firmer,  heavier,  more  sprightly  in  flavor  and  with 
much  better  keeping  and  carrying  qualities.  The  tropical  orange  has 
but  small  commercial  importance ;  the  semi-tropical  orange  rules  in  the 
markets  of  the  world.  That  the  semi-tropical  orange  should  have  this 
distinctive  character  is  most  fortunate,  for  it  ministers  directly  to  the 
will  for  industry  which  is  superior  in  semi-tropical  countries.  By  the 
seven  degrees  of  frost  which  the  orange  tree  will  endure  without  injury, 
it  has^gained  the  seventy  degrees  of  north  latitude  through  which  its 
fruit  freely  seeks  a  market.  Because,  though  the  tropical  orange 
would  reach  most  distant  markets  in  small  quantities,  it  could  never 
attain  the  commercial  supremacy  which  the  fruit  now  enjoys. 

The  sweet  orange  is  a  native  of  eastern  Asia  and  was  carried  thence 
to  India  and  to  Asia  Minor.  It  possibly  reached  Portugal  from  India 
through  the  early  Portuguese  navigators.  Thus  the  distribution  of  the 
fruit  was  westward.  The  history  of  modern  commercial  orange  grow- 
ing consists  of  a  series  of  progressive  movements  always  trending 
westward  and  gaining  in  volume — the  .newer  centers  of  production 
outstripping  the  older  and  ultimately  largely  displacing  their  product 
from  the  greatest  markets  of  the  upper  divisions  of  the  temperate  zone. 
When  the  Moors  introduced  orange  growing  into  Algeria  and  Spain 
they  displaced  the  traffic  from  Asia  Minor  and  gave  the  Mediterranean 
region  for  several  hundred  years  undisputed  possession  of  the  markets 
of  the  north  of  Europe  and  possession  also  of  the  American  demand 
when  that  arose.  When  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  carried  the 
orange  to  the  West  Indies  and  to  Florida  they  laid  the  foundation  for 
an  industry  which  American  enterprise  developed  in  Florida  until  that 
district  not  only  contended  with  the  Mediterranean  region  for  American 
markets,  but  was  planning  to  invade  northern  Europe  by  direct  ship- 
loads when  the  demonstration  came  that  the  climate  of  northern  Florida 
and  of  the  Gulf  coast  westward  was  too  treacherous  for  commercial 
ventures  in  orange  growing — at  least  with  the  then  popular  varieties 
and  methods  of  propagation.  But  as  the  Florida  supply  failed  through 


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THE    ORANGES    OF    THE    WORLD  353 

the  severe  freezing  of  1895,  California  came  forward  and,  though 
Florida  has  re-established  her  citrus  industry,  California  is  now  not 
only  supplying  the  larger  part  of  the  oranges  consumed  in  the  United 
States,  but  is  selling  the  highest  priced  oranges  in  the  London  market 
against  a  world  of  competitors. 

In  support  of  this  contention  let  it  be  noted  that  the  most  important 
statistical  statement  of  the  world's  citrus  fruits  in  the  English  language 
was  published  April  15,  1914.*  It  shows  that  the  annual  citrus  fruit 
crop  of  the  world  is  equal  to  from  ninety  to  one  hundred  million  boxes 
of  California  size,  which  would  fill  two  hundred  and  thirty  to  two 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  carloads  of  California  capacity.  Of  these 
the  United  States  and  Spain  produce  thirty  per  cent  each ;  Italy  twenty- 
five  per  cent ;  Japan  and  Palestine  each  less  than  five  per  cent ;  the  bal- 
ance, scattering.  The  acreage  both  in  California  and  Florida  is  in- 
creasing. The  normal  product  of  the  United  States  is  approximately 
78,000  carloads,  and  California,  in  view  of  recent  plantings,  50,000 
carloads.  All  the  countries  thus  mentioned  as  contributing  to  the 
world's  commercial  product  are  endowed  with  semi-tropical  and  not 
with  tropical  climates. 


RELATION    OF    CALIFORNIA    TO    THE    WORLD'S 
ORANGE     PRODUCT 

Competition  with  the  product  of  California  is  working  hardship  in 
the  Mediterranean  region  because  this  region  can  more  than  supply 
Europe,  and  needs  American  markets  as  an  outlet.  Italy  has  exported 
six  million  dollars  worth  of  oranges  and  lemons  in  a  year,  but  recently 
prices  have  declined  and  the  interest  is  depressed.  Every  effort  is  being 
made  to  secure  relief  from  local  taxation  and  from  duties  imposed  by 
north  European  countries.  The  Spanish  product  of  oranges  and  lemons 
which  ranks  with  that  of  the  United  States,  has  to  meet  heavy  tariffs 
in  all  countries  except  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  belief  at  Valencia 
is  (U.  S.  Commercial  Relations,  Vol.  2,  1902,  page  686)  that  the  limit 
of  British  consumption  of  Valencia  oranges  at  paying  rates  has  been 
reached;  in  fact,  the  British  markets  collapsed  under  the  heavy  ship- 
ments of  1901.  When  it  is  stated  that  the  value  of  oranges  imported 
into  the  United  Kingdom  in  1900  was  $10,603,950,  and  such  a  free 
buyer  has  more  than  enough,  it  can  be  realized  how  important  it  is  to 
the  Mediterranean  producers  that  the  populous  countries  of  central 
Europe  should  hold  less  strictly  to  agrarian  interests  which  aim  to 
hamper  the  entrance  of  food  supplies  even  if  they  can  not  themselves 
produce  them.  Manifestly  the  American  product  can  only  enter  such 
markets  with  a  fancy  product  which  will  win  an  extra  price,  except 
as  a  little  difference  in  the  ripening  season  may  afford  an  opportunity. 

The  commercial  position  of  the  orange  in  the  United  States  is  also 
such  as  to  awaken  apprehension,  because  of  the  decreased  import  duties 
under  the  tariff  of  1913.  It  will  require  tkne  to  demonstrate  what  the 

*Bulletin  11,  California  Citrus  Protective  League.  Los  Angeles,  "The  World's  Produc- 
tion and  Commerce  in  Citrus  Fruits  and  Their  By-products,"  by  F.  O.  Wallschlaeger, 
Secretary. 


354  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

full  effect  will  be.  The  product  of  the  West  Indies  is  a  direct  menace 
to  the  Florida  product,  which  meets  it  in  point  of  market  season,  and 
the  American  product,  which  is  undergoing  expansion  at  the  hands  of 
American  capitalists,  is  constantly  feared  by  the  California  growers 
because  the  Mexican  railway  will  give  it  quick  entrance  to  the  great 
central  states  and  constant  advantage  in  distribution  to  the  East  and 
the  Northwest.  The  orange  from  the  West  Indies  and  South  Florida 
is  different  from  the  California  orange  in  main  ripening  season  and 
in  character  of  the  fruit,  but  the  differences  do  not  give  full  relief. 
With  the  late  ripening  varieties,  the  California  grower  extends  his 
shipments  into  the  autumn  and  thus  laps  upon  the  early  fruit  from 
Florida  and  Jamaica,  while  the  parts  of  California  which  bring  earliest 
maturity  to  the  fruit  are  shipping  before  the  southern  fruit  is  cleared 
away.  In  fact,  California  can  keep  the  markets  supplied  with  oranges 
fresh  from  the  trees  and  in  prime  condition  the  year  round. 

As  to  the  difference  in  oranges  grown  under  humid  and  arid  con- 
ditions, the  moisture  being  supplied  by  rainfall  in  one  case  and  by 
irrigation  in  the  other,  there  has  been  shown  in  the  arid  region  orange 
a  superior  density,  thinness  and  texture  of  rind,  higher  sugar  and 
higher  acid  percentages  and  a  more  sprightly  or  vinous  flavor.  The 
popular  conception  of  the  superior  sweetness  of  the  orange  grown  in 
humid  countries  is  due  not  to  a  greater  amount  of  sugar  in  the  juice, 
but  to  less  amount  of  acid.  The  following  are  the  determinations  of 
sugar  and  acid  of  fully  ripe  Southern  California  and  Florida  navel 

oranges :  _    ' 

Total  sugar,        Citric  acid, 

per  cent.  per  cent. 

California   Navel    9.99  1.45 

Florida  Navel  7.46  0.95 

Of  course,  the  quality  of  an  orange  is  largely  inherent  in  the  variety, 
but  all  varieties  are  similarly  changed  by  growth  under  humid  or  arid 
conditions  of  climate  and  soil,  and  this  modification  becomes  a  factor 
of  much  industrial  importance.  This  fact  is  strikingly  illustrated  by 
the  standing  of  the  navel  orange  in  California.  This  variety  has  been 
grown  for  a  century  or  more  as  the  chief  orange  in  Bahia,  Brazil, 
whence  it  was  taken  to  California.  In  Brazil  it  demonstrated  no  ship- 
ping qualities,  and  according  to  Burke  (U.  S.  Special  Consular  Re- 
ports, Vol.  1,  page  411)  would  need  to  be  picked  before  maturity  if  to 
be  shipped,  while  as  grown  in  California  and  Arizona  it  is  picked  at  full 
maturity  and  is  successfully  shipped  all  over  the  United  States  and  to 
Europe.  An  examination  of  the  Bahia  district  in  1913,  by  A.  D. 
Shamel  and  associates,  showed  that  the  orange  which  is  the  foundation 
of  the  export  industry  of  California  is,  in  its  home,  only  an  article  of 
local  trade. 

Orange  growing  in  Florida  is  recovering  from  serious  reverses. 
The  product  of  1894  was  about  4,000,000  boxes.  Then  came  the  dis- 
astrous freezing  in  December  of  1894  and  February,  1895,  with  a  tem- 
perature of  14  degrees  Fahrenheit  at  Jacksonville,  and  in  the  latter 
year  only  75,000  boxes  were  shipped.  In  1912-13  the  product  was 
about  8,000,000  boxes,  produced  in  the  central  and  southern  parts  of 
the  State.  In  Louisiana  the  freezing  of  1895  nearly  annihilated  the 


BREADTH  OF  CITRUS  CONDITIONS  IN  CALIFORNIA  355 

citrus  fruit  interest  and  only  recently  has  there  been  any  disposition  to 
resume  production  on  a  commercial  scale.  In  Texas  there  is  a  rising 
orange  industry  on  the  basis  of  hardy  Japanese  varieties,  largely.  Its 
future  is  a  matter  of  conjecture.  In  the  southwestern  corner  of  Ari- 
zona there  is  a  small  orange  industry  which  is  successfully  shipping 
navel  oranges  to  distant  markets.  Conditions  favor  early  ripening  and 
an  advantage  is  secured  by  sale  in  advance  of  the  main  California 
product.  From  California  the  shipments  of  oranges  beyond  State  lines 
in  1911  were  about  16,000,000  boxes.  The  orange  industry  of  the 
United  States  is  now  largely  supplying  the  home  demand  for  the  fruit. 
Imports  of  oranges  reached  their  highest  value  in  1883  at  $3,010,662, 
and  have  since  then  declined.  The  value  in  1913  was  $227,827.50— 
much  less  than  one-tenth  of  the  imports  of  thirty  years  ago. 

The  orange  industry  of  the  United  States  is  unique  in  the  high 
social  and  financial  standing  of  those  who  have  engaged  in  it,  and  in 
the  striking  features  of  its  development.  Both  in  Florida  and  in  Cali- 
fornia large  scale  production  was  first  undertaken  by  northern  men 
who  had  gained  wealth  and  had  lost  health  in  the  pursuit  of  it.  They 
brought  capital  and  commercial  ability  to  the  ventures  which  they 
exploited.  The  professional  classes  of  the  north  also  participated 
largely  in  the  work,  bringing  scholarship,  insight  and  experience  in 
organization.  There  were  a  few  also  who  possessed  horticultural  ex- 
perience, but  the  other  classes  largey  predominated.  The  result  has 
been  the  development  of  an  industry  characteristically  American  in 
spirit  and  new  in  methods.  It  has  borrowed  very  little  from  the  prac- 
tices of  old  world  orange  growers.  Free  from  tradition  and  prejudice 
it  proceeded  rapidly  upon  the  results  of  original  investigation  and  ex- 
periment, establishing  a  system  of  culture  and  of  commercial  handling 
of  the  product  which  are  without  precedent  in  the  older  orange  regions 
of  the  world. 


THE  ORANGE  A  STATE  AFFAIR  IN  CALIFORNIA 

Thus  far  the  discussion  has  been  based  upon  the  achievements  of 
Southern  California  and  the  efforts  made  to  assign  them  due  credit  for 
greatness  and  uniqueness.  The  relation  of  Southern  California  to  other 
parts  of  the  State  in  orange  growing  is  not  less'  important  and  signifi- 
cant. 

Citrus  fruit  trees  have  been  successfully  grown  in  suitable  situations 
in  northern  California  for  nearly  half  a  century.  There  is  a  famous 
orange  tree  at  Bidwells  Bar,  in  Butte  County,  which  was  started  from 
an  Acapulco  seed  in  Sacramento  in  1855,  and  planted  out  in  Butte 
County  in  1859,  which  has  been  generally  made  to  stand  sponsor  for 
the  demonstration  of  citrus  conditions  north  of  the  Tehachapi  Moun- 
tains, but  it  is  not  entitled  to  all  the  distinction  which  has  been  heaped 
upon  it.  In  the  fifties  there  were  other  orange  and  lemon  trees  growing 
in  widely  separated  northern  localities — in  the  valleys  of  the  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay  region,  also  near  the  rivers  and  among  the  low  foothills  on 
both  sides  of  the  Sacramento  Valley.  It  was,  even  in  early  days,  the 
proper  thing  to  include  citrus  trees  among  ornamental  dooryard  plant- 


356  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  :   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

ings  and  one  reason  why  the  demonstration  at  Bidwells  Bar  was  so 
widely  accepted  as  complete,  when  it  was  brought  forward  as  a  guar- 
anty for  commercial  planting  in  the  later  eighties,  was  because  similar 
instances  of  successful  old  trees  existed  in  many  and  widely  separated 
places. 

This  question  naturally  suggests  itself :  Why,  if  such  early  demon- 
stration was  had,  was  large  commercial  planning  of  the  orange  delayed 
at  the  north  until  after  southern  California  became  famous  for  its 
orange  product?  Several  good  reasons  can  be  adduced.  In  the  first 
place  a  disposition  toward  wider  planting  did  at  one  time  arise  and 
quickly  subsided.  In  the  later  seventies  when  the  general  rush  to  fruit 
growing,  which  has  resulted  in  the  present  vast  extension  of  the  inter- 
est, began,  citrus  fruits  were  not  overlooked.  There  was  a  sharp  de- 
mand for  orange  trees.  Southern  California  nurseries  had  a  large  over- 
stock of  trees  budded  on  China  lemon  roots  which  southern  California 
planters  had  learned  to  despise  as  forcing  excessive  growth  of  tree, 
and  large,  coarse  fruit.  The  natural  tendency  of  such  a  root,  exag- 
gerated by  excessive  irrigation  in  the  nursery,  gave  a  stem  as  thick  as 
a  broom  stick  and  higher  than  a  man  in  a  few  months'  time,  and  these 
soft  monstrosities  were  sent  north  by  carloads,  by  astute  tree  specula- 
tors, and  sold  to  unwary  planters,  who  thought  they  were  getting  a  great 
deal  for  their  money.  Such  trees  were  planted  in  all  sorts  of  situations 
and  their  broad  leaves  made  a  fine  display  as  soon  as  planted.  There 
were  fond  anticipations  of  evergreen  orchards  everywhere  from  the 
swamps  to  the  hillsides.  Then  came  the  cold  winter  of  1878-9.  The 
temperature  in  places  reasonably  situated  was  not  very  low — not  lower 
than  is  frequently  encountered  in  southern  California  and  not  low 
enough  to  injure  well  placed  old  trees,  though  it  did  destroy  some  ill- 
placed  ones  and  helped  to  define  suitable  situations  for  citrus  culture 
in  the  north  as  such  temperatures  have  also  defined  them  at  the  south. 
But  the  degree  reached  was  fatal  to  those  soft  trees  on  a  lemon 
foundation  almost  everywhere,  and  the  disappointment  of  the  new 
planters  who  based  calculations  upon  them,  discouraged  them  from 
further  efforts  toward  citrus  culture  for  some  time.  It  was  not  a 
logical  conclusion  because  a  careful  inquiry  made  after  the  frosts  in  1879 
elicited  careful  written  statements  from  sixty-nine  orange  growers, 
living  in  thirty  counties  and  fully  justified  this  conclusion,  which  was 
at  that  time  published:  "this  mass  of  testimony  shows  that  orange 
growing  is  no  longer  an  experiment  in  the  north,  and  that,  notwith- 
standing the  severe  frosts  of  such  winters  as  this,  orange  and  lemon 
trees  can  be  profitably  cultivated  in  nearly  every  county  in  the  State, 
and  by  selecting  favorable  localities,  no  district,  except  it  be  situated  in 
the  high  Sierra,  need  be  without  these  most  beautiful  and  useful  fruits." 

But  there  was  another  and  more  logical  reason  why  the  well  suited 
lands  in  the  central  part  of  the  State  were  not  at  that  time  given  to 
citrus  fruit  culture.  Citrus  fruits  require  irrigation  everywhere ;  decid- 
uous fruits,  including  the  grape,  do  not  require  irrigation  except  in 
places  of  shallow  soil  or  light  rainfall.  Without  waiting  for  irrigation 
facilities  then,  hundreds  of  thousands  of  acres  of  deep  valley  loams 
were  immediately  available  for  the  planting  of  deciduous  fruits.  The 


RELATIONS  OF  DECIDUOUS  AND  CITRUS  FRUITS  357 

growers  understood  these  fruits,  while  the  orange  to  an  English-speak- 
ing people  was  an  unsolved  problem.  The  long  list  of  deciduous  fruits 
had  varieties  to  suit  the  taste  and  ambitions  of  all  planters  and  the 
opportunity  for  selling  many  different  fruits  and  their  different  products 
seemed  illimitable.  "The  world  for  a  market"  seemed  a  reasonable 
proposition,  for  deciduous  fruits  and  their  products  had  been  shipped 
to  eastern  markets  since  the  first  overland  railway  was  opened  in  1868, 
and  very  large  prices  were  attained,  just  often  enough  to  be  alluring. 
No  citrus  fruits  had  been  shipped  out  of  the  State  on  a  commercial 
scale,  and  no  one  knew  that  they  could  be,  profitably.  The  central  and 
northern  districts  threw  their  full  strength  into  the  deciduous  fruit 
interest  and  the  result  has  justified  the  effort,  for,  at  the  present  time, 
the  annual  shipments  of  deciduous  orchard  fruits  fresh  dried  and 
canned ;  the  grape,  both  fresh,  as  raisins  and  as  wine  and  brandy,  has 
reached  a  total  value  of  about  sixty  millions  of  dollars — almost  all  of 
it  from  the  regions  of  California  north  of  the  Tehachapi  Mountains. 
The  engrossing  requirements  of  this  grandly  successful  undertaking 
gave  northern  growers,  packers  and  capitalists  no  leisure  to  think  seri- 
ously of  citrus  fruit  planting — that  was  left  for  a  decade  and  a  half  to 
the  special  attention  of  the  southern  California  people,  and  they  de- 
veloped it  splendidly  for  the  settlement  and  upbuilding  of  their  portion 
of  the  State — reaching  a  total  value  of  product  sold  beyond  State  lines, 
of  about  eighteen  millions  of  dollars.  The  chief  reason,  then,  why, 
although  citrus  adaptations  were  demonstrated  very  early  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  State,  the  commercial  planting  was  largely  postponed  to 
the  present  decade,  was  that  the  people  were  too  busy  developing  a 
greater  fruit  industry  to  which  their  conditions  were  superlatively 
suited. 

During  the  last  few  years  new  interest  has  arisen  in  citrus  fruit 
growing  in  northern  California  and  all  the  scattered  experiences  of  the 
last  half  century  are  becoming  of  inestimable  value  in  guiding  this 
planting  aright.  There  are  several  important  reasons  why  the  north 
has  now  turned  to  the  orange. 

First :  Deciduous  fruit  production  has  reached  large  volumes,  mar- 
gins have  become  reduced  to  those  which  assert  themselves  in  any 
well  established  and  extensive  industry,  and  some  of  the  early  glamour 
has  gone  out  of  it.  It  will  henceforth  proceed  soberly,  and  consequently 
safely,  to  grand  aggregates  which  no  one  can  foresee,  but  it  is  readily 
demonstrable  that  with  the  present  rush  of  population  to  the  more 
wintry  districts  of  the  Pacific  slope,  the  opening  of  Asiatic  connections 
and  the  victories  being  attained  each  year  in  the  distant  East  and  in 
Europe,  our  production  of  deciduous  fruits  and  their  products  will  go 
steadily  forward.  Increased  interest  in  citrus  fruit  planting  in  northern 
California  is  in  no  sense  a  menace  to  the  deciduous  fruit  industry.  It 
is  merely  a  new  graft  upon  a  very  vigorous  industrial  stock. 

Second :  Owing  to  natural  conditions  which  will  be  briefly  ex- 
plained presently,  orange  growing  can  be  pursued  at  the  north  without 
competition  with  the  main  crop  in  southern  California.  The  northern 
California  crop  will  be  consumed  before  the  bulk  of  the  southern  crop 
moves  from  the  trees. 


358  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  :  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Third:  All  California  oranges  have  characteristics  and  qualities 
which  are  recognized  as  of  distinctive  excellence,  and  therefore  have 
a  commercial  advantage  which  enables  them  to  compensate  the  high 
grade  American  labor  which  is  employed  in  their  growth,  packing  and 
marketing,  and  leave  a  reasonable  return  to  require  the  grower's  effort 
and  investment.  This  being  so,  the  production,  so  long  as  protection  is 
continued  in  adequate  amount,  justifies  extension  of  the  effort  to  pro- 
duce an  American  orange  for  Americans. 

Fourth :  Semi-tropical  fruits  are  nature's  demonstration  of  the  ex- 
istence in  a  place  of  a  climate  which  promotes  health,  comfort  and  a 
maximum  of  physical  and  intellectual  attainment  in  mankind.  Prob- 
ably all  that  is  urged  against  tropical  climates  as  enervating  and  de- 
pressing of  human  standards  is  true,  but  not  a  word  of  it  applies  to  an 
arid  semi-tropical  climate,  in  which  the  blessing  of  dry  air  and  freedom 
from  the  debilitating  effect  of  temperature  extremes  rejuvenate  the  old 
and  weary  and  bring  the  young  to  stature  and  stalwartness  which  all 
newcomers  notice  in  the  rising  generation  of  Californians.  Of  the  exist- 
ence of  such  conditions  a  well-grown  orange  of  the  California  type  is  un- 
impeachable evidence.  It  has  brought  a  hundred  thousand  people  and  a 
hundred  millions  of  capital  to  southern  California  which  would  not 
have  come  otherwise.  In  the  conscious  strength  with  which  northern 
California  has  recently  awakened  to  make  systematic  effort  for  settle- 
ment and  development,  the  orange  is  accepted  as  an  exponent  of  the 
possession  of  those  natural  characters  of  sky  and  air  and  soil,  constitut- 
ing the  most  desirable  environments  of  human  life — the  highest  desira- 
bility in  the  location  of  a  home. 

Fifth :  It  is  but  a  corollary  of  the  foregoing  that  the  successful  and 
profitable  production  of  citrus  fruits  is  par  excellence  the  motive  force 
in  promoting  colony  efforts  and  in  drawing  into  horticulture  the  class 
of  people  which  constitutes  the  most  desirable  element  in  the  upbuild- 
ing of  a  great  State — people  who  know  what  is  noble  and  desirable  in 
human  life  and  desire  it  for  their  children ;  people  who  know  how  to  se- 
cure what  their  aspirations  and  tastes  approve ;  people  who  by  intellect- 
ual force  and  training  and  by  successful  professional  and  industrial 
experience  are  prepared  for  attainment  in  the  higher  horticultural  arts 
and  in  the  new  commercial  efforts  which  make  those  arts  profitable. 
The  splendid  development  of  southern  California  communities  upon  a 
horticultural  bases  points  the  way  to  achievements  in  other  suitable 
parts  of  the  State,  and  the  citrus  fruits  become  then  the  token,  not  alone 
of  superior  natural  endowments,  but  of  the  type  of  manhood  which  can 
use  them  to  the  best  advantage.  None  know  this  better  than  the  south- 
ern California  people  themselves,  and  it  is  a  demonstration  of  the  desir- 
ability both  of  the  natural  resources  of  northern  California  in  citrus  lines 
and  of  citrus  fruit  culture  itself,  that  in  all  the  newer  citrus  regions 
at  the  north,  there  are  to  be  found  among  the  leading  planters  and 
promoters,  southern  Californians  who  have  sold  their  early  plantings  at 
the  south  at  high  prices  to  newer  comers  and  have  started  anew  in  the 
northern  districts,  where  they  find  cheaper  land,  more  abundant  water 
supply  and  fruit  which  is  marketed  at  an  earlier  date. 


CITRUS    CONDITIONS    NORTH    AND    SOUTH  359 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  CITRUS  CONDITIONS  IN 
CALIFORNIA 

The  claim  has  been  made  above  that  citrus  culture  conditions  exist 
in  suitable  situations  in  central  and  northern  California  from  Shasta 
to  San  Diego  county,  and  historical  evidence  has  been  cited  to  prove  it. 
It  is  so  surprising  that  practically  the  same  climate  should  be  found 
through  a  distance  of  between  seven  and  eight  degrees  of  latitude  that 
many,  even  of  those  who  have  lived  in  California,  do  not  appreciate  the 
fact,  nor  know  the  explanation  of  it.  An  effort  is  made  toward  such 
explanation  in  Chapter  I  of  this  work.  Even  at  the  risk  of  repetition 
the  subject  will  be  reviewed  with  special  reference  to  the  occurrence  of 
conditions  affecting  the  growth  of  citrus  fruits. 

First:  California  is  not  only  blessed  with  benign  ocean  influences, 
but  northern  California  is  additionally  protected  from  low  winter  tem- 
peratures by  the  mountain  barrier  or  the  Sierra  Nevada,  extending 
southward  from  the  multiplied  masses  of  protecting  elevations  in  the 
Shasta  region,  while  Southern  California  enjoys  the  protection  of  the 
Sierra  Madre  and  other  uplifts  on  the  north  and  east  of  her  citrus 
region.  Northern  blizzards  are,  therefore,  held  back  from  entrance  to 
California  and  are  forced  to  confine  themselves  to  southerly  and  easterly 
directions  over  the  interior  parts  of  the  Pacific  slope,  while  the  great 
blizzards  of  the  northwest  traverse  the  Mississippi  Valley  and,  if  they 
have  sufficient  impetus,  extend  to  the  gulf  and  carry  destruction  to 
semi-tropical  growths  even  in  northern  Florida.  The  ocean  then  bring- 
ing warmth  and  the  high  mountains  defending  against  cold,  combine 
their  influences  to  give  nearly  the  whole  length  of  California  semi- 
tropical  winter  temperatures. 

Second:  Although  this  striking  similarity  does  exist,  in  citrus  dis- 
tricts north  and  south,  there  is  another  even  more  startling  proposi- 
tion involved  and  that  is  the  influence  exerted  by  the  presence  of  the 
coast  range  as  the  western  boundary  of  the  great  interior  valley  of  the 
State,  and  intervening  between  that  great  valley  and  the  ocean.  The 
several  ridges  of  the  coast  range  with  their  enclosed  small  valleys  serve 
as  a  colossal  wind-break  against  northwest  winds,  which  might  other- 
wise, now  and  again,  bring  a  temperature  too  low  for  citrus  fruits, 
where  now  they  are  safe  from  injury.  The  chief  effect  of  these  moun- 
tains is  to  protect  the  northern  interior  valleys  and  foothills  from  the 
raw  winds  of  early  springtime  and  to  allow  the  sun  as  he  crosses  each 
day  higher  in  his  course,  to  expend  the  increasing  heat  directly  in  pro- 
moting vernal  verdue.  The  result  is  a  protected  interior  region  in 
central  and  northern  California,  of  quick  growth  in  all  lines — early 
pasturage,  early  grain  harvest  and  early  fruit  ripening.  The  valleys 
of  southern  California,  which  have  thus  far  been  largely  developed, 
have  no  high  range  between  them  and  the  ocean.  They  are  open  on  the 
west  because  the  coast  range  of  mountains  takes  a  sharp  turn  eastward 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  State  and  afterward  curves  southward,  pass- 
ing along  the  eastern  side  of  the  chief  productive  region.  The  influence 
of  this  opening  of  the  valleys  of  southern  California  is  not  so  unfavor- 
able as  such  opening  would  be  at  the  north,  because  ocean  winds  are 


360  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

gentler  and  warmer  there,  and  there  is  winter  service  rendered  by  this 
eastward  trend  of  the  southern  California  mountains,  as  has  been  said, 
but  the  fact  remains  that  the  absence  of  high  barriers  against  ocean 
influences  retards  the  springtime  and  causes  a  slow  development  of 
summer  conditions  and  late  ripening  of  fruits,  while  the  presence  of 
high  barriers  at  the  north  so  hastens  springtime  and  summer  heat,  that 
early  summer  fruits  in  California  are  shipped  from  the  north  to  the 
south — a  thing  which  does  not  occur  anywhere  else  in  the  northern 
hemisphere.  It  is  due  to  this  same  early  start  which  the  local  topog- 
raphy gives  to  the  orange,  followed  by  the  high  summer  heat  which 
is  essential  to  the  development  of  a  good  orange,  that  the  orange  reaches 
an  acceptable  commercial  condition  at  an  earlier  date  in  suitable 
interior  places  at  the  north  and  is  at  present  being  almost  wholly  shipped 
to  eastern  markets  before  free  movement  begins  at  the  south.  This 
early  marketing  also  relieves  the  growers  of  much  anxiety  and  costly 
frost  righting,  because  the  fruit,  which  is  always  more  susceptible  to 
injury  that  the  tree,  is  out  of  the  way  before  the  frost  period,  which 
usually  begins  about  Christmas,  is  reached. 

There  is  in  southern  California,  east  of  the  mountains,  a  district 
which  has  thus  far  been  but  scantily  developed  where  protection  from 
ocean  influences  tends  to  early  ripening  of  fruits.  The  same  is  true  of 
some  parts  of  Arizona  adjacent,  and  small  quantities  of  early  fruits 
move  westward  and  northward  from  that  region.  That  region  is  not 
in  view  in  this  discussion,  for  too  little  has  been  accomplished  in  citrus 
lines  to  warrant  conclusions  which  the  present  confident  planting  in 
that  part  of  the  State  will  soon  supply. 

Third :  Still  another  feature  of  local  topography  must  be  mentioned 
as  influencing  citrus  conditions  north  and  south  and  explaining  why 
winter  temperature  has  fallen  no  lower  at  the  north  that  at  the  south. 
At  the  north  the  snow  fields  of  the  high  mountains  are  farther  from  the 
valleys  and  mesas,  where  citrus  fruits  are  grown  than  they  are  at  the 
south.  The  benches  and  low  foothills  of  the  Sacramento  Valley,  for 
instance,  are  forty  to  fifty  miles  from  the  high  range  to  the  east  of  them 
and  there  intervene  countless  ridges  of  high  foothills  and  small  valleys, 
and  before  the  citrus  plantations  can  be  reached  by  the  descending  air 
currents  they  are  considerably  warmed  by  rustling  over  so  much  land 
which  has  been  warmed  by  the  ampler  winter  sunshine.  From  many  of 
the  southern  citrus  regions  one  looks  almost  directly  upward  and  out- 
ward upon  the  grand  snow-clad  mountains,  whose  crests  are  but  fif- 
teen to  twenty-five  miles  away.  It  is  a  splendid  scenic  effect — ripening 
oranges  and  dazzling  snow  fields  in  the  same  glance  of  the  eye,  but  it  is 
sometimes  not  so  grand  as  a  pomological  proposition. 

Fourth:  Another  protective  influence  for  citrus  fruit  trees  during 
the  frosty  period  of  December  and  January,  is  the  low  canopy  of  land 
fog  which  covers  the  interior  valley  of  central  and  northern  California 
much  of  the  time  at  that  season  of  the  year  and  checks  the  radiation 
of  ground  heat  which  is  apt  to  take  place  rapidly  under  a  clear  sky. 
Though  the  nights  are  thus  often  protected  from  frosts,  the  day  tem- 
perature is  held  low,  which  is  also  of  account,  because  the  citrus  trees 
are  held  dormant,  which  is  desirable,  as  there  is  no  fruit  to  ripen.  On 


THE  ORANGE  OUTLOOK  361 

the  other  hand,  the  higher  day  temperature  in  southern  California  is 
valuable  in  that  district  because  the  later  fruit  is  still  maturing.  The 
winter  aspects  of  the  trees  in  northern  and  southern  California  are 
therefore  quite  different ;  in  the  north,  the  dark  green  of  dormancy ;  in 
the  south,  the  gold  of  the  fruit  and  the  oft-protruding  light  green  of  the 
winter  wood  growth.  In  both  regions  all  growth  conditions  seem 
good ;  each  after  its  own  kind,  and  the  two,  in  a  sense,  complimentary. 
During  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  rapid  extension  of  orange 
planting,  particularly  in  the  suitable  lands  on  the  eastern  rim  of  the 
San  Joaquin  and  on  both  sides  of  the  Sacramento  valley.  The  orange 
product  of  the  northern  district  is  normally  about  one-eighth  of  the 
State  product,  though  in  1913  it  rose  to  about  one  fourth  of  it  because 
it  was  marketed  before  the  frost  period.  It  will  increase  rapidly,  for 
of  about  two  million  trees  now  growing,  only  have  half  attained  bear- 
ing age  and  planting  is  still  being  freely  undertaken.  Three-quarters 
of  all  the  trees  north  of  the  Tehachapi  mountains  are  in  the  citrus 
districts  of  eastern  Tulare  County. 

THE  GENERAL  OUTLOOK  FOR  THE  ORANGE 

At  the  present  time  orange  growing  has  a  very  promising  outlook. 
The  prospect  for  much  larger  consumption,  at  the  east  and  abroad,  is 
very  encouraging.  The  orange  is  passing  from  its  old  status  as  a  lux- 
ury to  its  proper  recognition  as  a  staple  winter  fruit  for  dwellers  in 
cold  climates.  For  such  use  the  agreeable  acid  and  sprightly  flavor  of 
the  California  fruit  especially  commends  it.  The  consumption  of  the 
fruit  per  capita,  away  from  California,  is  still  small  and  will  be  greatly 
increased  when  people  know  better  its  desirability  and  the  reasonable 
prices  at  which  it  can  be  secured.  This  wider  distribution  is  to  be  con- 
fidently expected  and  the  rapid  increase  in  population  through  the  great 
west  and  north  is  each  year  giving  California  growers  nearer  markets 
of  growing  consumptive  capacity.  It  will  be  of  great  advantage  to  the 
whole  country,  as  well  as  to  California,  to  have  production  steadily 
increased. 

Some  considerations  in  this  line  are  given  to  the  closing  pages  of 
Chapter  VI.  To  fully  appreciate  the  advantage  of  California  in  supply- 
ing the  whole  northern  half  of  the  North  American  continent,  especially 
with  early  fruits  and  semi-tropical  fruits,  one  should  calculate  the 
exceedingly  small  area  of  suitable  fruit  land  in  California  as  compared 
with  the  area  of  the  half-continent  indicated,  which  is  our  logical  con- 
suming territory  and  in  which  development  and  population  are  now 
increasing  so  rapidly.  Take  a  map  of  the  continent,  place  your  thumb 
over  the  area  of  California  and  gaze  at  the  uncovered  area,  north  of 
the  fortieth  parallel,  if  you  please,  and  estimate  the  duty  of  California 
in  coming  decades.  Millions  will  multiply  on  the  continent,  but  the 
safe  area  for  tender  fruits  will  never  increase  an  acre.  From  this  point 
of  view,  it  really  seems  impossible  for  California  to  create  an  over- 
supply  of  fruits  which  are  distinctively  her  province  to  grow.  There 
are  likely  to  be  temporary  surpluses  and  problems  in  distribution,  but 
a  general  oversupply  seems  unreasonable. 


362  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

The  development  of  the  orange  industry  in  California  to  utilize  the 
splendid  natural  adaptations  which  have  been  discussed,  to  make  good 
the  large  investments  which  have  been  made,  and  to  afford  a  field  for 
the  profitable  employment  of  the  high  quality  of  American  citizenship 
which  has  entered  the  list  of  producers,  several  things  are  essential. 
First,  the  advancement  of  horticulture  art  and  science.  Second,  the 
maintenance  for  a  time  at  least,  of  a  sufficient  protective  tariff,  as  has 
already  been  suggested.  Third,  the  extension  of  co-operative  handling 
and  distribution  of  the  product  as  now  embodied  in  the  successful 
operation  of  the  California  Fruit  Growers'  Exchange  and  its  auxiliaries 
in  all  the  producing  districts.  Fourth,  the  pursuit  of  systematic  and 
intelligent  inquiry  and  experiments  into  the  durability  of  the  fruit  in 
transit  as  affected  by  cultural  and  commercial  practices,  and  the 
reformation  of  ponies  and  methods  in  accordance  with  the  results  of 
such  investigation  as  conducted  by  Mr.  G.  Harold  Powell,  formerly  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  his  associates.  Every 
grower  of  oranges  should  familiarize  himself  with  this  work.* 


SOILS   AND   SITUATIONS   FOR   THE   ORANGE 

While  citrus  conditions  do  exist  through  large  areas  of  California, 
there  is  still  danger  of  loss  and  disappointment  through  unwary  indi- 
vidual investments  and  unwise  locations  of  citrus  colony  enterprises. 
The  tracts  of  land  for  orange  planting  even  in  a  favorable  citrus  climate 
are  limited  in  area  and  every  citrus  climate  has  numerous  places  where 
local  meteorological  conditions  will  prove  destructive  to  the  profit  of 
the  enterprise,  if  not  to  the  life  of  the  trees.  The  orange  is  a  "hardy 
tree,  judged  within  its  temperature  limits,  but  there  is  no  money  in  a 
tree  which  is  subjected  to  any  kind  of  hardship.  For  this  reason  the 
selection  of  a  good  depth  of  strong,  free  loam  should  be  made,  for  such 
is  essential  not  only  to  good  growth  of  the  young  tree,  but  to  its 
support  through  the  long  productive  life  which  the  orange  enjoys. 
Depth  of  good  soil  is  not  only  a  storehouse  of  plant  food,  which  will 
postpone  the  use  of  purchased  fertilizers,  but  it  is  a  reservoir  of  water 
so  that  irrigation  can  be  applied* in  larger  amounts  at  longer  intervals. 
While  it  is  quite  possible  to  grow  an  orange  tree  and  to  secure  good 
fruit  on  shallower  soils,  if  conditions  are  kept  just  right  by  frequent 
use  of  water  and  fertilizers  in  just  the  right  amounts,  such  conditions 
impose  heavy  burdens  in  their  constant  requirements  of  extra  care 
and  expenditure,  and  these  are  handicaps  of  no  small  economic  import- 
ance. The  tree  can  not  live  upon  climate  as  a  man  may,  because  a 
tree  can  not  speculate ;  it  must  have  a  good  foundation  in  the  earth  as 
well  as  a  good  outlook  in  the  sky. 

Growing  orange  trees  on  defective  soils  has  brought  disappointment 
and  loss  in  all  parts  of  California.  Ample  supplies  of  irrigation  water 
available  have  encouraged  over-irrigation  where  trees  have  been  planted 
above  hardpan,  and  drainage  is  absent.  Dying-back  and  yellow  leaf 

*"The  Decay  of  Oranges  While  in  Transit  from  California,"  by  G.  Harold  Powell, 
Pomologist  in  charge  of  Fruit  Transportation  and  Storage.  Bulletin  123,  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry,  U.  S.  Dept  .of  Agr.,  Washington,  D.  C.,  1908. 


REQUIREMENTS    OF    CITRUS    FRUITS  363 

have  appeared  in  some  groves  and  have  been  accounted  for  by  digging 
to  find  the  roots  bedded  in  mud  and  slush.  All  plantings  over  clay  sub- 
soils should  be  guarded  against  this  danger.  Digging  deep  holes  and 
filling  them  with  good  soil  is  setting  a  trap  for  the  future  failure  of  the 
tree  unless  the  deep  hole  is  properly  drained  by  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
soil or  by  artificial  provision.  On  the  other  hand,  planting  over  a 
gravelly  sub-soil  is  often  disappointing,  because  the  water  passes 
through  the  sub-soil  as  through  a  sieve  and  the  tree  shows  distress 
although  generous  amounts  are  applied  to  the  surface.  Wide  observa- 
tion through  the  State  teaches  that  such  warnings  are  needed  by  the 
unwary.  There  has  also  been  injury  to  the  trees  from  planting  over 
sub-soils  carrying  excess  of  lime. 

Local  temperature  conditions  even  in  sections  generally  suited  to 
orange  culture  should  be  carefully  ascertained.  Frosty  places  must  be 
avoided.  A  few  feet  difference  in  elevation  may  change  profit  to  loss, 
but  one  must  not  therefore  draw  the  hasty  conclusion  that  all  small 
elevations  are  favorable.  The  experience  of  the  last  few  years  shows 
that  nothing  is,  on  the  whole,  more  dangerous  than  the  warm  bottom 
land  in  a  small  elevated  valley  which  seems  naturally  protected  on  all 
sides.  There  are  many  such  places  which  are  far  more  treacherous  than 
the  uplands  of  the  broad  valleys,  which  may  be  considerably  lower. 
The  benches  around  the  sides  of  the  small  valley  may  be  safe  and  the 
bottom  of  the  same  valley  dangerous  because  there  is  no  adequate 
outflow  for  cold  air  to  the  large  valley  below.  Look  out  for  small 
valleys  which  have  divides  of  crumpled  hills  where  they  debouch  into 
the  main  valley.  Cold  air  can  be  dammed  and  held  back ;  consequently 
the  low  land  of  a  small  valley  may  be  worse  than  lower  land  in  the  main 
valley,  because  in  the  latter  there  are  air  currents  which  prevent 
accumulation  of  cold  air  in  particular  places.  These  air  movements 
make  some  plantings  on  the  upper  plains  of  the  main  valley  safe,  though 
the  whole  region  may  seem  to  the  eye  rather  flat  and  low,  but,  of  course, 
broad  sinks  of  the  main  valley  may  also  be  dangerous.  Too  great 
elevations  are  to  be  guarded  against.  Where  one  approaches  the 
reach-down  of  mountain  temperatures  and  loses  the  warming  influences 
of  the  valley  mesas,  the  danger  line  is  at  hand. 

An  ample  water  supply  is  essential.  Small  waterings  which  may 
bring  satisfactory  growth  to  a  young  tree  are  no  measure  of  the  needs 
of  a  bearing  tree.  The  orange  is  using  water  all  the  year,  as  discussed 
in  Chapter  XV.  Its  crop  requires  nearly  a  year  to  reach  maturity. 
Both  in  leaf  growth  and  fruit  growth  it  nearly  doubles  the  activity 
of  the  deciduous  tree  and  all  the  time  it  is  pumping  water  with  its 
roots  and  pouring  forth  water  into  the  air  through  its  exposed  surfaces. 
No  investment  in  orange  planting  can  be  profitable  without  assurance 
of  adequate  water  supply. 

PROPAGATION    OF    THE    ORANGE 

The  orange  is  grown  from  cuttings,  layers  and  seeds.  Growth  from 
the  seeds  is  the  method  almost  exclusively  followed,  and  by  far  the  best, 
but  the  others  will  be  mentioned  briefly. 


364  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Growth  from  Cuttings. — The  method  of  propagation  is  described 
in  Chapter  VIII. 

Growth  from  Layers. — The  orange  roots  readily  by  layering,  the 
drooping  branches  being  partly  cut  through,  buried  in  the  soil  with 
the  terminal  shoots  above  the  ground.  Layers  must  be  kept  moist. 
Layering  may  be  employed  to  obtain  a  few  plants  easily,  but,  other- 
wise, it  cuts  no  figure  in  propagation.  Layers  and  cuttings,  of  course, 
reproduce  the  original  variety  without  recourse  to  budding. 

Growth  from  Seed. — The  orange  is  grown  upon  seedlings  of  the 
bitter  orange  or  orange  of  Seville,  generally  called  "Florida  sour  stock"  ; 
of  the  common  or  sweet  orange  and  of  the  pomelo  or  Grape  Fruit. 
Good  plump  seed  should  be  selected  in  growing  orange  seedlings  either 
for  their  own  fruitage  or  to  use  as  stocks  for  budding. 

When  seedlings  for  fruiting  are  grown,  select  seed  from  a  choice 
variety  in  a  situation  where  other  citrus  species  are  not  grown ;  but  the 
orange  can  not  be  trusted  to  come  true  from  seed,  and,  more  than  this, 
the  seedling  class  for  fruiting  purposes  has  been  practically  abandoned 
as  unprofitable  to  plant,  though  fruit  from  old  seedling  trees  is  occa- 
sionally sold  at  a  profit. 

In  securing  seed  the  fruit  is  allowed  to  rot  and  when  thoroughly 
decayed,  it  is  pulped  by  mashing  in  a  barrel,  and  the  mass  is  washed, 
a  little  at  a  time,  on  a  coarse  sieve,  the  pulp  passing  through,  and  the 
seed  being  caught  on  the  wires,  and  pieces  of  skin  thrown  out.  The 
plump  seed  will  sink  if  thrown  into  water,  and  the  imperfect  can  be 
skimmed  from  the  top.  The  seed  should  never  be  allowed  to  dry,  and 
unless  it  is  to  be  sown  at  once,  should  be  stored  by  mixing  with  moist 
sand,  from  which  it  can  be  afterwards  removed  by  sifting;  or  it  can 
be  kept  for  a  time  in  water,  changing  the  water  from  time  to  time  to 
prevent  souring.  The  best  time  for  sowing  orange  seed  is  after  the 
ground  has  become  warm  in  the  spring. 

Orange  seedlings  are  grown  either  in  boxes  or  in  the  open  ground. 
In  either  case  a  rich  sandy  loam  which  will  not  bake  should  be  secured 
or  artificially  made  by  mixing  sand  with  rich  garden  loam.  Boxes  of 
about  two  square  feet  area  and  six  inches  deep  are  convenient  to  handle. 
The  bottom  should  have  holes,  or  sufficient  crevices  for  good  drainage. 
Fill  the  boxes  about  four  inches  with  the  prepared  soil,  place  the  seeds 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  apart  each  way,  sift  over  them  about  an  inch 
of  the  soil,  or  a  little  less  of  the  soil,  and  a  layer  of  clear  sand  if  it  is  at 
hand.  It  is  essential  that  the  soil  should  be  kept  moist,  and  light 
sprinkling  daily,  or  every  other  day,  with  water  that  has  been 
warmed  by  standing  in  the  sun,  is  desirable.  Seed  can  be  sown  in 
boxes  in  the  house  at  any  time  if  plenty  of  light  and  heat  are  given. 
If  the  boxes  are  to  be  out-of-doors,  it  is  best  to  sow  in  the  spring,  and 
to  rig  up  a  cover  of  cheap  cotton  cloth,  suspended  about  a  foot  above 
the  surface,  to  prevent  effect  of  frost  at  night,  and  of  burning  by  sun 
heat  by  day.  The  seedlings  usually  appear  in  about  six  weeks,  and 
with  good  care  in  weeding  and  keeping  sufficiently,  but  not  excessively, 
moist,  they  will  make  a  growth  of  about  a  foot  the  first  season.  Some 
growers  collect  the  boxes  in  a  sheltered  place,  and  build  over  them  a 


THE     CITRUS     NURSERY  365 

lath  house,  tacking  on  old  sacks  or  other  cloth,  to  shield  them  from  the 
sun  and  frost.  The  lath  house  keeps  animals  from  running  over  the 
boxes,  etc. 

Growing  seedlings  in  an  open  bed  involves  about  the  same  opera- 
tions. To  guard  against  intrusion,  it  is  advisable  to  make  board  sides 
to  the  bed  about  a  foot  high,  and  to  make  lath  frames  which  will  reach 
across,  resting  on  the  edge  boards.  A  cloth  sun-and-frost  shade  is 
also  desirable,  to  be  laid  over  the  lath  frames  when  it  seems  needed. 
Beds  should  be  made  narrow  enough  so  that  one  can  easily  reach  half 
way  across  from  each  of  the  long  sides  for  weeding,  etc.  In  open  seed 
beds  it  is  usual  to  broadcast  the  seed  evenly,  using  about  one  gallon 
to  200  square  feet,  which  should  give  about  5000  seedlings. 

The  Orange  Nursery. — Planting  out  in  nursery  is  usually  done 
after  the  ground  is  thoroughly  warmed  in  the  spring,  and  the  seed- 
lings are  then  about  a  year  old.  The  preparation  of  nursery  ground 
and  the  planting  out  of  the  seedlings  can  be  done  as  described  in 
Chapter  VIII.  Orange  seedlings  should,  however,  be  given  greater 
distance  apart  than  is  usual  for  deciduous  trees,  because  the  orange 
remains  longer  in  the  nursery,  and  because  it  is  often  desirable,  when 
taking  up,  to  sack  the  ball  of  earth  embracing  the  roots.  If  the  roots 
are  not  to  be  sacked,  about  nine  inches  will  do  between  the  plants; 
if  to  be  sacked,  the  distance  should  be  twelve  or  fifteen  inches.  The 
rows  should  not  be  too  close  in  the  orange  nursery.  If  horse  cultiva- 
tion is  to  be  used,  at  least  four  feet  between  the  rows  should  be 
allowed,  and  even  greater  distance  is  desirable.  In  taking  the  seedlings 
from  the  seed  beds,  a  few  should  be  lifted  at  a  time,  and  their  roots 
kept  shaded  and  moist  until  the  ground  closes  on  them  in  the  nursery 
row.  To  get  an  even  stand  in  the  nursery,  small  and  weak  plants 
should  be  placed  by  themselves,  or  set  in  boxes  to  take  another  year 
before  going  into  nursery. 

Young  trees  in  nursery  are  very  liable  to  frost  injury,  and  it  is  wise 
to  protect  them  by  some  sort  of  a  cover  during  the  winter.  A  frame- 
work covered  with  cypress  brush  is  often  used,  the  whole  being  cleared 
away  in  the  spring,  to  allow  of  summer  cultivation.  Cultivation  of 
trees  in  nursery  is  about  the  same  as  with  deciduous  fruit  trees.  The 
horse  should  be  used,  and  the  surface  kept  perfectly  pulverized.  The 
cultivator  should  follow  irrigation  as  soon  as  the  soil  will  admit  of  it. 
Frequency  of  irrigation  of  nursery  depends,  of  course,  upon  local  con- 
ditions. Some  give  two  or  three  irrigations,  by  running  the  water  in  a 
little  trench  alongside  the  rows,  at  intervals  of  two  weeks,  "for  a  time 
after  planting,  and  then  irrigate  once  a  month  during  the  summer.  It 
is  important  that  irrigation  should  not  be  continued  too  late  into  the 
fall,  because  the  young  tree  should  harden  its  wood  before  cold  weather. 
Nor  is  it  desirable  that  the  growth  be  too  rapid.  A  good  growth  of 
sound  wood  is  better  than  extra  size. 

Length  of  Time  in  Nursery. — Seedlings  are  usually  budded  after 
being  one  or  two  years  in  the  nursery,  or  at  two  to  three  years  from  the 
planting  of  the  seed.  At  a  convenient  time  in  the  winter  the  lower 
shoots  and  thorns  are  removed  from  the  seedlings,  so  as  to  leave  a 
clear  stem  of  about  six  inches  for  the  convenience  of  the  budder. 


366  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Intensive  Work  in  the  Citrus  Nursery. — In  addition  to  the  fore- 
going general  reflections  the  reader  may  be  interested  in  a  specific 
sketch  of  pushing  a  citrus  nursery  as  described  by  Mr.  R.  E.  Hodges : 

Mr.  Allen  Dodson,  of  Los  Angeles  county,  put  17  hay-rack  loads  of  the  rottenest 
manure  he  could  find  on  a  sandy  space  290x60  feet.  This  had  to  be  worked  and 
reworked  to  leave  no  lumps  of  manure.  The  sand  is  necessary  to  prevent  baking. 
Then  he  planted  8%  bushels  of  seed,  watered  carefully  about  every  other  day 
and  kept  the  weeds  down  for  six  weeks  before  they  came  up.  They  grew  about 
a  foot  before  cold  weather  came.  Around  the  seedling  bed  were  set  upright 
2x4s  twenty  feet  apart  and  6  feet  out  of  the  ground  for  head-room.  From  post 
to  post  were  1x3  boards  on  which  lath  were  nailed  upright  about  1^  inches  apart. 
Above  these  laths  is  a  two-foot  open  space  and  then  a  roof  similar  to  the  sides 
but  made  in  20- foot  squares  so  it  may  be  easily  removed.  This  open  space  (to 
get  head-room)  should  also  be  lathed,  on  the  south  and  west  at  least,  because 
the  low  winter  sun  shines  directly  onto  the  seedlings  and  may  turn  them  yellow. 
The  shadows  under  the  lath  are  perpetually  moving  with  the  sun  so  that  direct 
light  never  stays  long  at  a  time  on  a  given  tree.  The  movable  roof  makes  it 
easy  to  set  up  the  outfit  on  new  ground.  One  year  Mr.  Dodson  sold  185,000 
seedlings  from  a  certain  plat  and  tried  it  again  the  next  year  on  the  same  place, 
getting  only  4000  salable  ones.  He  had  used  only  a  third  as  much  manure  the 
second  year,  thinking  to  have  some  advantage  from  that  applied  before. 


BUDDING    THE    ORANGE 

The  orange  root  is  the  best  foundation  for  an  orange  tree,  and  the 
seedling  sweet  orange  has  been  the  main  reliance.  The  seedling  of  the 
Florida  sour  orange  is  now  being  used  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
stock,  for  its  general  hardiness  and  thrift  and  to  escape  gum  disease. 
It  has  not  been  entirely  free,  though  conceded  to  be  less  subject 
to  the  trouble.  Oranges  have  also  been  worked  upon  pomelo  seedlings, 
which  force  a  strong  growth,  root  deeply  and  are  satisfactory.  Of 
course,  many  lemon,  and  recently  many  pomelo  trees,  have  been  worked 
over  the  orange,  but  in  these  cases  the  orange  root  was  below  the 
other  wood.  All  lemon  roots  are  not  suitable  for  the  orange.  The 
Japanese  practice  of  dwarfing  with  the  citrus  trifoliata  has  never  pre- 
vailed in  this  State.  Recently  the  trifoliata  stock  has  been  used  to  a 
small  extent  to  secure  earlier  ripening  of  fruit,  and  the  tree  claimed  to 
be  sufficiently  free  growing,  but  the  experience  favors  the  other  roots 
for  standard  trees. 

Budding  is  almost  exclusively  adopted  for  working  in  desirable 
varieties.  The  best  time  to  bud  is  about  the  time  the  new  growth 
starts  on  the  seedling  in  the  spring,  though  some  practice  budding  in 
midsummer  and  fall.  Good,  well-matured  buds  only  should  be  used; 
those  from  both  base  and  tip  of  the  shoots  are  frequently  defective. 
Buds  should  be  taken  only  from  fruiting  branches;  not  from  sterile 
sucker  growth,  and  from  trees  which  are  known  to  bear  abundantly 
a  good  type  of  fruit.  For  spring  budding,  buds  can  be  taken  from 
fruiting  trees  and  kept  dormant  in  moist  sand  in  a  cool  place  until 
the  seedlings  show  a  sap-flow  suitable  for  budding. 

The  method  of  budding  described  in  Chapter  IX  is  that  usually 
employed  in  budding  citrus  trees,  and  the  rules  for  loosening  the  liga- 
ture, etc.,  are  similar.  Midsummer  buds  are  apt  to  have  soft  growth 
at  the  coming  of  cold  weather ;  fall  buds  remain  dormant  until  spring ; 


BUDDING-OVER    OLD    CITRUS    TREES  367 

spring  buds  start  to  grow  almost  immediately,  and  have  the  benefit 
of  the  whole  summer  season  for  growth  and  maturing  of  wood. 

After  the  bud  has  started  out  well,  the  top  of  the  stock  should  be 
removed  at  a  short  distance  above  the  bud,  and  suckers  on  the  old 
stock  should  be  continually  looked  for  and  removed.  The  tender 
shoot  of  the  bud  may  be  protected  by  tying  to  the  stub,  and  when  the 
growth  of  the  bud  has  become  strong  enough  to  support  itself,  the  old 
stock  is  smoothly  sawn  away  above  the  bud  and  the  wound  covered 
with  liquid  grafting  wax  or  paint. 

The  care  of  budded  trees  in  nursery  is  similar  to  that  of  the  seed- 
lings of  the  previous  year.  If  too  great  a  tendency  to  branch  low 
down  is  observed,  the  tips  of  the  lower  shoots  should  be  pinched,  but 
it  is  not  desirable  to  under-prune  much;  the  retention  of  the  lower 
branches  thickens  the  stem.  Sometimes  a  very  rank  growth  on  the 
bud  will  need  a  stake  to  strengthen  it  or  to  protect  it  from  blowing  out. 
The  intrusion  of  gophers  and  other  vermin  should  be  resolutely  and 
persistently  guarded  against. 

Working  Over  Old  Trees. — Old  orange  trees  can  be  transformed 
into  improved  varieties  either  by  budding  or  by  grafting,  as  described 
at  the  close  of  Chapter  IX,  though  re-working  by  grafting  has  been 
almost  entirely  superseded  by  budding.  The  common  way  to  bud  over 
an  old  tree  is  to  cut  back  part  of  the  branches  and  force  out  new  shoots, 
the  best  of  which  are  selected  for  budding  and  the  others  removed. 
Sometimes  only  a  part  of  the  tree  is  removed  at  first,  and  when  the 
new  buds  have  grown  out  on  that,  the  other  part  is  similarly  treated. 
Others  remove  the  whole  top  except  a  single  low  branch  to  maintain 
sap  circulation  until  after  the  new  buds  start. 

Recently  the  practice  of  budding  into  old  bark  has  been  widely 
adopted  as  the  quickest  way  to  secure  a  new  tree.  As  with  working 
into  old  bark  in  other  trees,  it  is  necessary  to  take  an  older  bud  and 
a  larger,  thicker  shield  of  bark  behind  it,  than  when  budding  into 
younger  stock.  Some  remove  the  wood  from  the  back  of  the  shield, 
but  generally  it  is  not  done.  The  following  is  an  outline  of  practice 
approved  by  the  Redlands  Horticultural  Club : 

Keep  the  buds  carefully  in  a  damp  cloth.  Slide  the  bud  upward,  above  the 
cross  section.  Bind  around  the  bark,  steering  clear  of  the  buds  proper,  a 
wrapping  of  waxed  cloth,  already  prepared,  three-fourths  of  an  inch  wide. 
When  enough  of  this  has  been  wrapped  about  the  tree  trunk  or  branch  to 
keep  the  bark  and  the  bud  in  place,  rub  the  end  of  the  muslin  strip  with  the 
handle  of  the  budding  knife,  down  upon  the  muslin  already  wound  about  the 
bark.  This  will  hold  the  waxed  wrapping  firmlv  in  place.  From  ten  days  to 
two  weeks  after  the  buds  have  been  inserted,  cut  off  the  entire  top  of  the  tree, 
above  the  buds,  and  cover  the  stump  of  trunk  or  large  branch  with  grafting  wax 
— applied  hot — with  a  brush. 

As  soon  as  the  wax  is  put  on — and  it  must  be  put  on  as  soon  as  the  top 
is  sawed  off — whitewash  the  tree,  over  the  waxed  cloth,  also  over  the  bud,  over 
every  part  of  the  tree  that  is  left,  except  the  stump  ends,  to  which  the  hot 
wax  has  been  applied.  Immediately  the  buds  will  begin  to  grow.  From  ten  days 
to  two  weeks  after  whitewashing  take  off  the  muslin  wrap,  and,,  if  the  work  has 
been  done  carefully  in  accordance  with  the  above  directions,  90  per  cent  of  the 
buds  will  develop — perhaps  more.  A  prime  necessity  for  this  work  is  a  razor- 
sharp  budding  knife. 


368  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

There  is  a  variation  in  practice  in  cutting  back  the  stock  above  the 
bud.  Instead  r»f  cutting  back  at  once,  heroically,  as  just  described,  some 
girdle  the  branch  or  cut  back  part  of  the  top  at  a  distance  above  the 
bud,  cutting  down  to  the  bud  after  it  shows  good  strong  growth,  tying 
the  young  growth  to  the  stub  at  first  to  protect  it.  Others  insert  the 
bud  in  the  fall,  cutting  back  to  start  the  bud  after  the  fruit  on  the  old 
top  is  gathered.  It  is  very  important  to  watch  for  suckers  below  the 
bud  and  remove,  to  pinch  them  back,  to  make  a  bunch  of  leaves.  The 
growth  from  the  bud  itself  often  needs  pinching  to  induce  low  branch- 
ing. Twig-budding  can  also  be  used  on  the  orange  by  the  method 
already  described  for  the  olive. 

Budding  in  old  trees  is  best  done  in  the  spring,  when  the  sap  flow 
is  strong,  but,  as  stated,  can  be  done  in  the  fall  and  the  bud  allowed  to 
lie  dormant  until  spring. 


PLANTING    ORANGES    IN    ORCHARD 

As  already  stated,  orange  trees  are  planted  out  a  greater  age  than 
deciduous'  fruit  trees.  Budded  trees  are  given  one  or  two  years' 
growth  in  nursery  and  one  or  two  years'  growth  on  the  bud,  which, 
added  to  the  year  in  seed  bed,  makes  them  three  to  four  years  of  age 
from  the  sowing  of  the  seed.  Seedlings,  to  be  planted  out  as  such, 
are  allowed  two  years'  growth  in  the  nursery,  which  makes  them  three 
years  old  from  the  seed.  For  this  length  of  time  and  the  unusual 
care  involved  in  their  growth,  taking  up  from  nursery  and  the  prepara- 
tion for  carriage,  orange  trees  of  planting  age  are  of  much  greater 
cost  than  deciduous  fruit  trees. 

Since  the  growing  of  seedlings  for  their  fruit  has  practically  ceased, 
the  distance  between  the  trees  in  orchard  planting  has  ranged  from 
twenty  to  twenty-four  feet.  All  the  varieties  now  propagated  are  quick 
to  bear  fruit,  and  if  properly  shaped  will  find  ample  space  in  these 
distances — the  greater  distance  on  the  richer  soil  as  a  rule. 

Preparation  of  land  for  orange  planting  by  deep  and  thorough  cul- 
tivation and  laying  off  to  secure  straight  rows  by  the  square,  quincunx, 
and  hexagonal  methods  have  been  quite  fully  discussed  in  Chapter  X, 
and  Chapter  XI  has  suggestions  for  planting,  many  of  which  are 
applicable  to  the  setting  of  orange  trees.  There  are,  however,  special 
methods  employed  in  lifting  the  orange  trees  from  nursery  rows  and 
in  placing  them  in  permanent  position,  which  will  be  outlined. 

The  orange,  in  common  with  other  evergreen  trees,  is  exceedingly 
sensitive  to  exposure  of  its  roots,  and  for  this  reason  the  handling  of 
the  young  trees  is  very  different  from  that  of  ordinary  orchard  trees. 
Three  ways  are  employed  for  securing  this  constant  moisture  of  the 
roots,  as  follows: 

Packing  in  Wet  Straw. — As  fast  as  the  trees  are  lifted  from  the 
nursery  ground  by  digging  carefully  so  as  to  loosen  and  secure  all  the 
roots  possible,  they  are  packed  in  damp  and  partially  rotten  straw, 


TRANSPLANTING     CITRUS     TREES  369 

proper  receptacles  being  at  hand  so  that  the  roots  are  not  exposed  by 
carrying  them  any  distance.  In  taking  up,  all  roots  bruised  by  the 
spade  are  cleanly  cut  with  a  sharp  knife.  The  tap-root  is  cut  away  at 
a  depth  of  a  foot  or  so  from  the  surface.  This  use  of  wet  straw,  if 
faithfully  carried  out,  will  answer  well  in  taking  trees  short  distances 
for  planting,  but  the  use  of  a  puddle  on  the  roots  before  packing  in 
damp  straw  gives  additional  assurance  of  success.  Large  shipments 
of  trees  have  been  made  by  packing  roots  in  damp  moss  in  specially 
made  chests  holding  100  to  125  trees.  These  chests  have  top  and 
one  side  on  hinges  so  that  the  roots  can  be  thoroughly  bedded  in  the 
moss  as  filling  proceeds.  The  hinged  side  and  top  are  then  brought 
together  and  closed  with  hasp  and  staple. 

Puddling  the  Roots. — This  method  is  also  used  for  deciduous 
fruit  trees,  as  mentioned  in  Chapter  XL  It  consists  in  having  a  thin 
puddling  of  loamy  soil  with  preponderance  of  sand  rather  than  of  clay, 
into  which  the  roots  are  dipped  as  soon  as  the  tree  is  lifted  from  the 
nursery.  This  mixture,  which  should  be  about  as  thick  as  cream,  may 
be  made  in  a  hole  in  the  ground',  or,  better  still,  in  a  box  or  cask  large 
enough  to  allow  complete  plunging  of  the  roots.  As  soon  as  dipped, 
and  with  all  the  mud  which  will  adhere,  the  roots  are  packed  in  wet 
straw.  If  the  trees  are  to  remain  thus  packed  for  any  length  of  time 
the  greatest  care  must  be  observed  to  keep  the  straw  damp,  and  water 
must  be  applied  gently  to  avoid  washing  the  puddle  from  the  roots. 

Sacking  the  Roots  with  a  Ball  of  Earth. — This  is  a  very  satis- 
factory way  to  move  orange  trees,  and  if  it  is  well  done,  the  tree  does 
not  wilt,  and  may  be  moved  long  distances  and  handled  more  freely 
than  the  puddled  roots.  To  ball  and  sack  trees,  dig  a  trench  along  one 
side  of  the  row  about  six  inches  away  from  the  trees,  and  about  a  foot 
and  a  half  deep.  By  careful  digging  under  each  tree  from  this  trench 
the  tap-root  is  reached,  and  severed  by  a  cut  with  a  sharp  spade.  The 
side  roots  are  also  cut  by  thrusting  the  spade  down  on  the  three  sides 
not  opened  by  the  trench.  The  top  earth  is  carefully  removed  nearly 
down  to  the  highest  lateral  roots,  and  after  being  sure  that  the  roots 
are  severed  all  around,  the  tree  is  lifted  out  with  the  ball  of  earth  which 
encloses  the  remaining  roots.  This  ball  is  rounded  off  carefully  and 
then  placed  on  a  half  of  a  grain  sack  or  other  piece  of  burlap,  the 
corners  of  which  are  drawn  up  and  tied  around  the  stem  of  the  tree 
with  baling  rope.  It  is  also  an  additional  surety  of  safety  to  allow  the 
baling  rope  to  run  under  and  around  the  ball  to  aid  in  holding  it 
together.  The  balled  trees  must  be  carefully  handled  so  as  not  to 
break  the  ball  which  would  result  in  tearing  to  pieces,  as  well  as  expos- 
ing, the  roots. 

The  manner  of  handling  the  trees  depends  somewhat  upon  the 
character  of  the  nursery  soil.  Successful  balling  of  course  requires  a 
certain  amount  of  adhesiveness  in  the  soil. 

One  can  not  be  too  careful  in  the  handling  of  orange  trees.  Though 
they  will  stand  harsh  treatment  when  in  permanent  place,  they  must  be 
most  carefully  transplanted.  Lifting  from  the  nursery  when  the  soil 


370  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

is  too  dry,  exposure  of  the  roots,  or  careless  planting,  will  consign  the 
tree  to  a  slow,  sickly  growth,  and  often  kill  it  outright. 

Cutting  Back  at  Transplanting. — The  rule  of  reducing  the  top 
to  compensate  for  the  loss  of  roots,  is  vital  in  moving  orange  trees, 
but  sometimes  cutting  back  is  carried  too  far  and  subsequent  growth 
is  checked  rather  than  promoted.  Some  growers  cut  back  the  young 
trees  a  little  while  before  lifting  them  from  the  nursery.  Some  take  off 
all  leaves  after  planting  out,  and  claim  that  growth  starts  sooner  and 
more  strongly,  but  it  is  doubtfull  whether  defoliation  is  advisable,  except 
in  case  of  wilting,  when  it  is  necessary. 

Digging  Holes  and  Setting  Trees. — The  same  considerations 
which  require  extra  care  in  lifting  trees  for  nursery,  rule  in  putting 
them  in  permanent  place.  All  authorities  on  the  subject  specify  excep- 
tional care  in  preparing  the  tree  holes  as  a  profitable  investment  on 
the  part  of  the  planter.  Large  and  deep  holes  are  commended,  provided 
the  planting  is  done  in  a  deep,  free  soil.  Deep  holes  would  be  more 
injurious  than  beneficial  in  a  tight  sub-soil,  unless  drainage  were 
furnished,  but  there  are  good  orange  trees  now  bearing  in  such  places 
— good  enough  at  least  to  be  an  ornament  and  acceptable  fruit  pro- 
ducers for  family  use. 

On  large-scale  planting  in  deeply  prepared  soils,  holes  large  enough 
to  allow  good  spreading  of  the  roots  are  sufficient.  Handling  the  soil 
at  planting  has  been  fully  described  in  Chapter  XI,  and  the  importance 
of  bringing  the  soil  into  firm  contact  with  the  roots  has  been  urged. 
The  use  of  water  in  planting  citrus  fruit  trees  is  especially  desirable. 
Trans-planting  should  be  done  just  as  the  growth  is  starting  in  the  late 
spring1  or  early  summer,  and  this  is  the  opening  of  the  dry  season  and 
rains  can  not  be  expected.  Therefore,  when  the  roots  are  arranged  and 
the  top  soil  lightly  trampled  around  them,  water  is  run  in  the  hole  and 
the  earth  compacted  around  the  roots  by  water  settling.  After  the 
water  has  settled  away,  the  hole  is  filled  and  the  surface  left  loose  to 
prevent  evaporation. 

These  instructions  apply  to  the  planting  out  of  trees  which  are 
taken  up  with  long  roots  and  puddled.  In  planting  out  balled  trees, 
the  sack  is  not  removed,  but  after  the  tree  is  embedded  in  the  earth, 
the  tying  rope  is  cut.  The  sack  soon  decays  in  the  soil. 

Orange  trees  can  be  successfully  transplanted  at  different  times 
of  the  year,  but  the  best  time,  as  just  stated,  is  after  the  ground  gets 
well  warmed  by  the  spring  sunshine.  The  date  at  which  this  condition 
arrives  depends  upon  locality.  Experience  seems  to  indicate  that  the 
young  orange  tree  is  in  best  condition  to  transplant  just  as  the  new 
growth  is  starting  out,  and  preferably  when  it  has  not  grown  out  more 
than  two  inches.  In  setting  the  tree,  it  should  stand  not  lower  than  in 
the  nursery.  Root  injury  is  sometimes  due  to  deep  planting. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  that  transplanted  orange  trees  do  not 
become  dry  after  planting.  The  methods  of  irrigation  are  described 
in  Chapter  XV.  Good  cultivation  should  also  attend  the  orange  from 
its  first  planting  onward.  This  subject  is  fully  discussed  in  Chapter 
XIII. 


STARTING   CITRUS   TREES   IN   ORCHARD  371 

PRUNING   THE   ORANGE 

All  the  considerations  urged  in  Chapter  XII  in  favor  of  low-headed 
and  strongly  branched  trees  apply  to  the  orange,  though  the  habit  of 
the  tree  in  growth  and  bearing  requires  different  pruning  policies. 
The  orange  tree  is  more  disposed  naturally  to  assume  a  good  form  than 
most  other  trees,  and  for  this  reason  most  experienced  growers  declare 
their  belief  in  pruning  as  little  as  possible.  This  is  unquestionably  good 
policy  providing  attention  enough  is  given  to  securing  a  shapely  and 
convenient  tree,  and  to  overcome  the  tendency  in  the  young  tree  to  run 
out  very  long  shoots  which  result  in  unsymmetrical  shoulders  with 
hollows  beneath  them  and  obviate  a  weeping  habit,  which  interferes 
with  irrigation  and  cultivation  and  prevents  the  development  of  good 
bearing  space  above.  It  is  so  easy  to  bring  the  orange  tree  into  good 
form  by  a  little  hard  thinking  about  what  shape  is  desirable  and  a  little 
timely  cutting  and  pinching  to  secure  it. 

It  has  long:  been  held  that  the  orange  tree  should  assume  a  com- 
pact wall  of  foliage.  The  interior  of  the  tree  being  considered  merely 
the  framework  to  support  this  and  pump  sap  into  it.  Recently  the 
importance  of  removing  dead  wood  from  the  center  of  the  tree  is 
being  urged,  even  though  the  cost  is  considerable,  and  a  rational  thin- 
ning of  branches  to  admit  light  and  air  in  sufficient  amount  to  secure 
good  fruit  nearer  the  center  of  the  tree  is  also  being  advocated  and 
practiced  to  some  extent.  All  these  progressive  tendencies  carry  the 
orange  nearer  to  the  application  of  the  principles  of  pruning  which  are 
discussed  in  detail  in  Chapter  XII,  including  the  rational  recourse  to 
more  severe  pruning  or  cutting  back  to  induce  a  growth  of  new  and 
stronger  wood  for  subsequent  bearing.  In  other  cases  cutting  back 
of  varieties  inclined  to  make  a  rank  wood  growth,  like  the  Valencia  Late 
to  encourage  a  better  supply  of  fruiting  wood,  is  being  advocated.  It 
seems  clear  that  there  are  important  ends  to  be  gained  by  more  pruning 
of  the  orange  tree,  and  by  earnest  thinking  and  close  observation  along 
this  line. 

It  has  been  held  that  it  was  necessary  to  prune  the  young  tree  to 
quite  a  high  head  at  first  to  allow  for  the  natural  droop  of  the  branches 
and  the  result  is  seen  in  many  young  trees  with  slim  stems  and  um- 
brella-like tops.  It  is  better,  to  develop  a  stout  stem  by  allowing  for  a 
time  a  low  growth  upon  it  and  then  raise  it  later  by  removal  of  the 
lower  growth  which  has  done  good  service  and  outlived  its  usefulness. 
By  wise  under-pruning  it  is  possible  not  only  to  secure  a  shapely  and 
convenient  tree  but  also  to  so  train  the  lower  growth  that  it  shall  pre- 
sent good,  low  bearing  wood  without  groveling  in  the  dust. 

Unquestionably  the  drooping  habit  of  budded  orange  trees  is  largely 
due  to  their  treatment.  A  grower  who  does  not  believe  in  pruning 
allows  the  branches  to  extend  too  far  horizontally,  and  the  weight  of 
the  foliage  and  the  early  fruiting  brings  the  branches  to  the  ground, 
To  relieve  the  lower  branches  of  the  young  tree  of  a  part  of  this  weight 
will  enable  them  to  assume  a  better  direction,  and  this  slight  relief  at 
first  will  prevent  much  branch-sawing  in  later  years.  The  young  tree 


372 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


as  it  comes  from  the  nursery  usually  starts  upon  an  upright  course.  If 
stopped  at  about  three  feet  it  can  be  brought  along  to  develop  strong 
and  well-arranged  branches,  much  as  has  been  described  for  deciduous 
fruit  trees  in  Chapter  XII.  The  adjacent  engraving,  Fig.  1,  shows  a 
young  tree  in  planting  condition,  stopped  at  three  feet  and  needing 
only  a  slight  cutting  back  of  the  laterals  to  be  ready  to  begin  its  orchard 
life.  If  young  trees  are  transplanted  short  distances  and  at  the  right 
time  they  do  not  need  so  much  cutting  back  as  is  commonly  given  them. 
If  allowed  to  grow  from  the  start  shown  in  Fig.  1,  pruning  only  to 


-PH4  — 


Fig.  1.     Orange  tree  at  planting 
in  orchard.     Three  feet  high 


prevent  long  branches  from  running  out  at  random,  and  removing 
branches  which  may  start  strongly  from  near  the  base,  the  tree  will 
assume  the  branch-form  shown  in  Fig.  2  and  at  from  two  to  three 
years  after  planting  in  the  orchard.  At  about  this  age  the  removal  of 
lower  branches  begins,  as  they  have  served  their  purpose  in  shading  the 
trunk  and  bearing  the  first  fruit.  These  branches  are  removed  one  by 
one  until,  when  the  tree  is  five  years  in  the  orchard,  it  has  lost  all 
branches  below  the  two-foot  line  except  the  one  branch  marked  "a"  of 
which  the  upright-growing  part  will  be  retained.  The  higher  branches 


DEVELOPING   BRANCH-FORM   OF  ORANGE 


373 


Fig.  2.    Branch  form  of  orange  before 
removing  lower  branches. 


assume  the  more  horizontal  habit,  too  great  out-shooting  is  repressed 
and  at  about  five  years  orchard-age  the  tree  attains  a  height  of  about 
twelve  feet  and  if  of  the  general  form  shown  in  Fig.  3.  The  next  few 
months  will  bring  its  foliage  to  the  ground  to  remain  there  or  to  be 
under-trimmed,  as  the  notion  of  the  grower  may  be. 


Fig.  3.     Good  form  of  five -year-old 
orange  tree. 


Good  form  secured  by  training 


374  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

BUILDING  DOWN  AND  NOT  SAGGING  DOWN 

It  is  perfectly  feasible  and  rational  to  secure  a  good  form  of  low 
tree  without  removal  of  large  branches  and  without  relying  upon  the 
sag  of  the  branches  from  a  high  head.  It  requires  rather  more  watch- 
fulness and  attention  and  study  of  the  subject  than  some  growers  desire 
to  give,  but  the  results  when  attained  are  very  satisfactory.  The  method 
is  that  of  J.  H.  Reed,  of  Riverside,  and  has  been  followed  by  him  for 
a  number  of  years  with  his  own  orchard  and  others  of  which  he  has 
had  charge.  It  will  be  found  readily  intelligible  with  the  help  of  the 
sketches.  Mr.  Reed  would  begin  with  a  young  nursery  tree  like  that 
already  shown  in  Fig.  1.  He  does  not  believe  in  much  cutting  back 
before  planting  providing  a  fair  amount  of  roots  are  left  in  the  ball  at 
transplanting.  If  the  tree  has  been  properly  planted  and  cared  for,  it 
will  soon  begin  to  put  out  new  growth,  usually  first  along  the  stem,  the 
strongest  growth  being  lowest  down.  As  many  of  these  young  branches 
along  the  stem  as  are  not  desired  for  permanent  branches,  are  rubbed 
off,  the  earlier  the  better,  at  least  before  woody  fiber  is  deposited  in 
them.  Mr.  Reed  rubs  off  promptly  all  below  a  point  about  two  feet 
from  the  ground,  if  there  is  a  prospect  of  getting  sufficient  good 
branches  above  that  point.  If  not  he  saves  them  down  to  eight  or  even 
twelve  inches  lower  if  need  be. 

Mr.  Reed's  idea  is  to  build  the  head  along  a  considerable  length  of 
the  trunk  and  not  have  the  branches  bunched  at  the  top,  and  this  is 
the  same  idea  that  is  urged  in  the  development  of  the  trunk  of  the 
deciduous  fruit  tree  in  Chapter  XII.  He  finds  it  impossible  to  do  this 
in  the  nursery  because  if  it  is  attempted  to  form  a  head  18  or  24  inches 
along  the  upper  portion  of  the  stem  instead  of  one  bunched  near  the 
top  of  it,  the  lower  branches  will  appropriate  most  of  the  sap  and  the 
upper  portion  will  not  be  well  developed ;  while  if  this  upper  story  is 
well  established  in  the  nursery  the  lower  portion  can  be  built  on  with- 
out detriment  to  the  upper,  if  nutriment  sufficient  for  both  is  furnished. 
Fig.  4  will  show  approximately  the  branch-form  of  the  young  tree  at 
about  six  months  from  planting  and  the  shoots  with  which  the  building- 
down  is  begun.  The  first  step  is  to  check  the  drooping  habit.  Upon 
this  point  Mr.  Reed  says : 

The  common  notion  that  the  branch  of  the  Navel  orange  naturally  tends 
down  is  a  mistake  which  grows  out  of  the  fact  that  in  its  rapid  growth  the  new 
part  of  the  stems  and  large  leaves  are  so  loaded  with  sap  that  they  pull  the  stems 
from  their  natural  upright  position,  and,  unless  relieved,  hold  them  there  till  the 
deposit  of  woody  fiber  fixes  the  branches  in  the  drooping  or  unnatural  position. 
If  the  tips  of  these  rapidly  growing  branches,  with  their  heavy  leaves  be  clipped 
at  the  right  time,  the  branches  will  spring  back  to  the  erect  position,  where  they 
will  remain  to  send  out  new  branchlets.  It  is  wonderful  how  the  orange  tree  can 
be  molded  like  a  thing  of  wax  by  pinching  and  clipping  here  and  there,  if  done 
at  the  right  time. 

Fig.  5  shows  the  result  of  this  clipping  of  heavy  shoots  to  allow 
them  to  assume  a  more  upright  growth  and  the  encouragement  of  new 
shoots  below  the  two-foot  mark.  Fig.  6  gives  the  branch  form  of  a 
five-year-old  tree,  with  its  lower  story  of  bearing  wood  well  developed, 


DEVELOPING   BRANCH-FORM    OF  ORANGE 


375 


Fig.  4.     Branch  form  of  orange  six  months 
after  planting. 


Fig.  5.     Tendency  of  clipped  branches  to  rise. 


376 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


Fig.  6.     Branch  form  of  five-year-old 
tree  built  down. 

and  Fig.  7  is  the  foliage-form  of  the  same  tree,  about  fifteen  feet  high, 
with  its  leaves  and  fruit  reaching  to  the  ground.  As  to  how  low  the 
branches  should  be  allowed,  Mr.  Reed  says  that  until  recently  he  has 
thought  it  best  to  keep  the  lower  branches  clipped  back  so  that  the  fruit 
would  not  touch  the  ground,  but  he  is  persuaded  that  it  is  better  to  let 
them  come  to  the  ground  even  if  considerable  fruit  rests  on  it.  He  finds 


Fig.  7.     Foliage  form  of  five-year-old  tree. 


that  many  of  the  best  orchardists  do  this,  and  claim  that  there  are  really 
less  culls  among  the  fruit  on  the  ground  than  on  the  less-protected 
branches  above. 

Later  Pruning  of  the  Orange. — After  the  form  of  the  orange  is 
well  established  the  aim  should  be  to  preserve  a  compact,  symmetrical 
and  convenient  form.  It  is  desirable  that  weak  wood  should  be  re- 


PRUNING     BEARING-ORANGE     TREES  377 

moved;  dead  interior  branches,  which  have  given  up  the  struggle  for 
the  light,  should  also  be  removed.  It  is  an  appalling  undertaking  to 
get  into  the  inside  of  an  old  orange  tree  and  saw  off  and  drag  out  the 
dead  wood  but,  as  already  stated,  the  conviction  is  growing  that  this 
should  be  done.  Of  the  growing  shoots  there  is  a  reasonable  amount 
of  thinning  to  be  done.  The  clipping  back  of  ambitious  shoots  multi- 
plies laterals.  There  should  be  a  good  cover  of  leaves,  but  the  crowd- 
ing of  leaves  on  leaves  excludes  light  and  air  and  weakens  the  tree  by 
lessening  the  vigor  of  leaf  action.  Dead  twigs  which  appear  among 
good  bearing  shoots  should  always  be  removed. 

The  gourmand  shoots  <or  suckers  should  be  repressed,  unless,  by 
clipping,  one  can  be  turned  into  a  branch  where  a  branch  is  needed. 
The  importance  of  resolutely  removing  sucker  growths  even  from  trees 
in  wrhich  the  wood  may  have  become  hardened  is  being  recognized  as 
a  fixed  policy  in  pruning.  Good  trees  have  been  diverted  from  bearing 
fruit  of  good  type  to  that  which  is  in  all  respects  inferior,  by  allowing 
supremacy  to  sucker-growths.  Growth  of  new  fruit  wood  from  old 
is  desirable,  but  suckers  from  stem  or  main  branches,  showing  the 
marks  of  wild  growth  should  be  extirpated.* 


PRUNING  FROZEN  TREES 

The  widespread  freezing  of  citrus  trees  which  occurred  in  January, 
1913,  demonstrated  that  the  orange  tree  is  hardier  against  a  drop  of 
the  mercury  to  12  or  15  degrees  Fahr.  than  any  Calif ornian  supposed. 
V'ery  few  trees  were  seriously  frozen,  though  very  many  lost  good 
fruiting  wood,  even  with  the  temperature  lower  than  has  been  experi- 
enced for  sixty  years,  and  the  crop  being  gathered  in  1914  demonstrates 
the  quick  recovery  of  the  trees.  Policies  in  the  pruning  of  frozen  trees 
and  in  treatment  of  rare  injuries  like  bark-splitting,  are  being  carefully 
studied  through  field  studies  and  actual  tests,  by  the  citrus  experts  of 
the  California  Experiment  Station,  and  popular  instruction  will  appear 
in  due  time  through  that  channel,  even  though  the  occasion  for  the  use 
of  it  may  not  recur  for  half  a  century. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  ORANGE 

The  orange  is  thus  far  subject  to  few  diseases  in  California.  The 
most  grievous  is  the  so-called  gum  disease,  which  is  analogous  to  the 
gumming  of  other  trees  and  will  be  discussed  in  the  chapter  treating 
of  tree  diseases.  Cracking  of  the  fruit  is  a  trouble  which  has  never  been 
fully  explained. 

There  are  several  serious  insect  enemies  of  the  orange,  which  will  be 
discussed  in  the  chapter  on  that  subject.  The  "black  smut,"  which 
makes  leaves  and  fruit  unsightly  in  some  parts  of  the  State,  is  a  fungoid 
growth  upon  the  exudations  of  insects,  and  can  be  prevented  by  remov- 
ing its  cause. 

*Detailed  discussions  of  the  subject  are  given  in  the  Pacific  Rural  Press,  January  17 
and  March  14,  1914. 


378  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

VARIETIES  OF  THE  ORANGE 

Though  many  varieties  of  the  orange  have  been  introduced  in  Cali- 
fornia, but  few  are  largely  grown.  During  the  last  fifteen  years  there 
has  been  a  pervading  disposition  to  concentrate  upon  the  Washington 
Navel,  and,  except  to  get  other  varieties  either  earlier  or  later  to  extend 
the  season,  there  seems  little  reason  to  go  beyond  the  Navel  for  com- 
mercial purposes.  Not  only  have  recent  plantings  been  predominantly 
of  this  variety,  but  old  trees  of  other  kinds  have  been  very  largely 
budded  over  to  it,  and  this  work  is  still  going  on  at  a  rapid  rate. 

As  already  claimed  in  the  opening  pages  of  this  chapter,  the  Wash- 
ington Navel  is  the  greatest  commercial  orange  in  the  world.  As  it 
goes  from  California  into  the  world's  commerce  it  is  a  combined 
product  of  grower's  skill  and  climatic  conditions  operating  upon  its  own 
natural  qualities  and  characters.  Neither  of  these  factors  alone  could 
achieve  its  present  position.  The  navel  mark  is  neither  peculiar  to  it 
nor  determinative  of  it,  for  there  are  other  navels  which  are  inferior 
here  and  our  navel  is  inferior  elsewhere ;  and  even  in  Bahia,  whence  it 
came,  it  has  no  such  quality  and  standing,  because  in  coming  to  Cali- 
fornia it  passed  from  humid,  tropical  to  arid,  semi-tropical  environ- 
ment. As  already  suggested,  the  tropical  orange  is  not  in  the  same 
class  with  the  semi-tropical  from  the  point  of  view  of  commerce.  Trade 
in  tropical  oranges  is  local  or  limited ;  trade  in  semi-tropical  oranges 
is  world-reaching.  The  orange  produced  in  an  arid,  semi-tropical 
climate  is  dense  and  compact,  firm  and  better  in  keeping  and  carrying 
characters.  It  is  also  of  more  sprightly  flavor  and  richer  composition, 
as  shown  earlier  in  this  chapter.  Such  an  orange,  enclosed  in  a  thin 
skin  of  silky  texture  and  beautiful  finish,  comes  very  close  to  an  ideal 
upon  which  to  found  an  industry. 

Although  California  has  apparently  no  need  for  changes  of  type  in 
oranges  and  has  worked  diligently  and  long  for  the  attainment  of  the 
types  which  are  at  present  supreme  in  her  industry,  there  is  still  oppor- 
tunity for  improvement  within  the  types.  Such  improvement  is  prob- 
ably to  be  attained  not  by  hybridizing,  but  by  selection.  The  Washing- 
ton Navel,  like  other  members  of  the  citrus  family,  is  keenly  disposed 
to  variation  and  some  of  its  variations  have  been  named  and  propa- 
gated as  the  lists  below  will  show,  but  variations  appear  as  degradations 
as  well  as  improvements.  The  pursuit  of  such  and  other  improvements, 
and  their  opposites  also,  is  now  being  systematically  taken  up  at  the 
Citrus  Experiment  Station  at  Riverside  which  is  a  branch  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  California  Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley,  and  by  the 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. Preliminary  publications  by  Mr.  A.  D.  Shamel  in  the  Reports 
of  the  California  Fruit  Growers'  Convention  for  1911  and  1912,  are  of 
deep  interest  and  can  be  had  from  the  California  State  Commissioner 
of  Horticulture,  Sacramento. 

Relative  Importance  of  Orange  Varieties. — The  relative  import- 
ance of  the  orange  varieties  grown  in  California,  and  the  shipping  sea- 
son of  each,  are  indicated  by  the  Citrus  Protective  League  as  follows: 
Washington  Navels,  27,000  carloads  in  November  and  December  from 


POPULAR    ORANGES    IN    CALIFORNIA  379 

northern  and  central  California  and  from  December  to  June  in  south- 
ern California;  Valencias,  8,500  carloads,  from  June  to  October  in- 
clusive; Seedlings,  1,000  carloads,  from  March  to  July  inclusive;  Medi- 
terranean Sweets,  2,000  carloads,  from  March  to  July  inclusive.  Other 
varieties,  including  St.  Michaels,  Thompson  Improved  Navel,  Ruby 
Blood,  Malta  Blood,  Jaffa,- Tangerines  and  Navelencias,  comprise  about 
1,500  carloads. 

DESCRIPTIONS  OF  VARIETIES 

Washington  Navel  (Bahia,  Riverside  Navel}. — Fruit  large,  solid,  and  heavy; 
skin  smooth  and  of  a  very  fine  texture;  very  juicy;  high  flavored,  with  melting 
pulp ;  is  practically  seedless,  only  in  exceptional  cases  are  seed  found ;  tree  is  a 
good  and  prolific  bearer,  medium  thorny,  a  rapid  grower,  although  it  does  not 
attain  a  very  large  size ;  bears  when  very  young;  commencing  to  bear  as  early  as 
one  year  old  from  the  bud ;  ripens  early.  This  variety  was  imported  from  Bahia, 
Brazil,  in  1870,  by  Mr.  W.  Sanders,  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washing- 
ton, and  in  1874  two  trees  were  received  from  Washington  by  Mrs.  Tibbetts,  of 
Riverside,  Cal.  Trees  were  also  received  about  the  same  time  by  Alexander 
Craw,  but  the  Riverside  trees  were  first  in  fruit,  and  the  excellence  of  the  variety 
being  at  once  recognized,  it  was  propagated  rapidly  and  took  the  name  Riverside 
Navel  from  the  place  where  its  characteristics  were  first  made  known.  As  it 
came  to  be  grown  largely  in  other  districts  as  well,  a  broader  name,  Washington 
Navel,  recognizing  its  receipt  from  the  national  capital,  was  adopted. 

There  is  much  tendency  to  variation  in  the  Washington  Navel,  and  sub- 
varieties  are  to  be  found  involving  departures  in  the  direction  of  thinness  and 
silkiness  of  rind,  etc.,  as  well  as  interior  characters.  The  first  to  become  promi- 
nent of  these  is  Thomson's  Improved  Navel  with  A.  C.  Thomson,  of  Duarte, 
Los  Angeles  county,  claimed  to  have  produced  by  a  process  of  propagation,  but 
which  is  believed  to  be  a  natural  variation.  It  is  a  very  refined  fruit;  generally 
held  to  be  too  fine  for  ordinary  handling,  and  not  otherwise  superior  to  the 
Washington  Navel. 

Golden  Buckeye  Navel. — Introduced  by  Mr.  R.  M.  Teague,  San  Dimas.  Young 
wood,  slender  but  strong;  tree  of  striking  appearance;  fruit  marked  with  bands 
of  deeper  color,  skin  very  smooth ;  pulp  aromatic  with  suggestion  of  pineapple 
flavor. 

Golden  Nugget  Navel. — Also  by  R.  M.  Teague.  Young  wood  willowy  and 
slender,  tree  umbrageous ;  fruit  smooth,  solid,  thin-skinned,  rather  oblong  and 
good  size,  rich  golden  color ;  pulp  free  from  rag,  and  delicious ;  said  to  average 
larger  than  common  Washington  and  to  be  very  promising. 

Navelencia. — Another  navel  variation  held  to  be  a  cross  with  Valencia  by 
Thomson.  Resembling  Navel  but  more  drawn  out  at  the  stem  end.  Large, 
handsome  and  later  than  Navel.  Growing  in  favor. 

Australian  Navel. — A  coarser  type  of  the  Navel  introduced  from  Australia 
in  1874  by  Lewis  Wolfskill,  of  Los  Angeles,  and  largely  propagated  formerly. 
It  has  now  been  practically  abandoned  for  the  Washington  Navel.  It  seems 
to  be  of  more  account  at  some  points  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  than  elsewhere. 
Recently  held  to  be  undistinguishable  from  inferior  types  produced  by  sucker 
growths  on  Washington  Navel  trees. 

Jaffa. — A  variety  introduced  in  early  years  but  largely  discarded.  It  has 
been  recently  propagated  in  the  San  Joaquin  district,  where  it  has  shown 
desirable  characters.  Resembles  Valencia.  Late  but  is  earlier  in  ripening — 
following  the  Navel. 

Valencia  Late  (Hart's  Tardiff}. — Medium  size,  oblong,  pale  yellow;  flesh 
rich,  deep  yellow,  sprightly  and  crisp ;  tree  a  strong  grower,  slightly  thorny. 
Ripens  late,  and  valuable  for  late  shipping. 


380  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Malta  Blood. — Fruit  small  to  medium,  oval;  flesh  fine  texture  and  flavor, 
streaked  and  mottled  with  red ;  few  seeds.  The  tree  is  thornless  and  regular 
and  heavy  bearer. 

Ruby. — Medium  size,  roundish;  when  ripe  often  reddened  by  deep  red  pulp 
within;  juicy  and  snrightly,  often  rather  acid;  tree  vigorous,  thornless  and  a 
good  bearer. 

Mediterranean  Sweet. — Fruit  medium  to  large,  pulp  and  skin  of  fine  texture, 
very  solid  and  few  seeds ;  ripens  late,  often  not  until  May  or  June.  The  tree 
is  thornless  and  of  dwarf  habit  of  growth  and  is  inclined  to  overbear.  It  was 
at  one  time  the  most  widely-distributed  variety  in  the  State,  next  to  the  Wash- 
ington Navel,  but  has  recently  been  largely  budded  over.  It  was  introduced  and 
named  by  T.  A.  Garey,  of  Los  Angeles. 

Paper  Rind  St.  Michael. — Fruit  small,  round,  very  firm  and  very  juicy;  pale, 
thin  skin;  very  elegant  in  appearance.  It  ripens  late  and  keeps  well  on  the 
trees  as  late  as  August;  tree  is  of  dwarf  habit,  medium  thorny,  a  good  bearer, 
and  very  desirable. 

Kumquat  (Citrus  Japonica}. — Fruit  very  small,  oblong  or  olive  shaped,  rind' 
thick,  yellow,  smooth ;  sweet-scented ;  very  little  pulp ;  containing  many  seeds ; 
tree  dwarf  (a  bush),  a  prolific  bearer.  Chiefly  used  for  conserves. 

Dancy's  Tangerine,  or  Kid  Glove. — Leaves  broad,  fruit  flat,  small  to  medium, 
reddish;  skin  separating  readily  from  the  pulp;  flesh  juicy  and  aromatic. 

Satsuma  (Unshiu  Oonshiu). — A  considerable  acreage  of  this  variety,  planted 
ten  years  ago  on  dwarfing  stock,  has  availed  very  little  commercially.  At 
present  there  is  disposition  to  grow  the  variety  on  sweet  orange  stock  because 
of  its  earliness,  but  this  practice  has  been  recently  condemned  by  Florida  experi- 
ence, where  it  is  held  that  it  must  be  grown  on  the  trifolicata  root.  Tree  quite 
hardy,  fruit  irregular  in  size,  but  usually  medium  size,  flattened ;  rind  easily 
detached ;  fine  texture,  sweet  and  nearly  seedless. 

Mandarin,  Willow-Leaved. — Medium  sized,  flattened,  deep  yellow;  flesh  dark 
orange,  skin  loose;  tree  compact,  ornamental. 

King. — Of  the  Mandarin  class;  large,  rough  skinned,  skin  and  segments 
loose,  pulp  high  flavored,  sweet,  aromatic. 


STANDARD  PACK  FOR  CITRUS  FRUITS 

A  standard  orange  box  in  California  is  12  x  12  x  26  inches  outside 
measurements  with  a  fruit  space  11^  x  11^  x24  inches,  and  its  weight 
is  usually  estimated  at  72  pounds.  A  standard  California  lemon  box 
is  10^  x  14  x  27  inches  outside  measurements,  divided  also  into  two 
compartments.  Pomelos  are  packed  in  the  orange  box,  while  the 
Tangerines,  Mandarins  and  other  kid  glove  varieties  are  packed  in 
half  boxes  of  the  orange  size,  two  of  which  are  cleated  together  for 
shipment.  In  rare  instances  they  are  packed  in  quarter  boxes,  four 
being  cleated  together. 

A  carload  of  packed  oranges  varies  some  in  number  of  boxes  in 
keeping  with  the  size  of  the  car.  A  36-foot  car  will  take  336  boxes, 
the  40-foot  car  384,  and  the  42-foot  408.  In  lemons  the  36-foot  car 
will  take  288  boxes,  the  40-foot  car  312,  and  the  42-foot  car  336.  When 
packed  the  boxes  are  placed  on  end  two  tiers  high  and  six  rows  wide, 
with  a  space  for  ventilation  between  each  and  every  box,  made  feasible 
by  nailing  small  strips  of  lumber  of  sufficient  strength  crosswise  of  the 
car. 

In  oranges  the  regular  sizes  are  126,  150,  176,  200,  216;  small 
"off-sizes"  250,  324,  360;  large  "off-sizes"  64,  80,  96,  112.  The  relative 


UP    TO    DATE    HANDLING    OF    ORANGES  381 

value  of  the  different  sizes  in  the  regular  trade  is  given  by  Mr.  Powell, 
whose  excellent  publication  on  the  marketing  of  oranges  is  cited  in 
the  chapter  on  that  fruit,  in  this  way:  "A  car  of  Washington  Navel 
oranges  may  contain  boxes  of  all  sizes.  A  car  is  called  a  "standard 
car"  when  it  contains  not  more  than  ten  per  cent  of  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing sizes :  96,  112,  250,  and  not  over  twenty  per  cent  of  the  126  size. 
The  remainder  of  the  car  may  be  divided  among  the  150,  176,  200  and 
216  sizes.  If  a  car  is  sold  to  a  dealer  at  a  fixed  price  per  box  it  is  usual 
to  allow  a  discount  of  25  to  50  cents  per  box  on  the  excess  in  the  96, 
112,  126  and  250  sizes,  and  a  discount  of  50  cents  per  box  on  the  48, 
64,  80,  288,  300,  324,  360  and  420  sizes.  The  rule  concerning  the  sizes 
in  a  standard  car  may  vary  with  the  season,  with  the  section  and  with 
the  general  size  of  the  fruit  taken  as  a  whole.  When  oranges  of  either 
the  large  or  small  sizes  are  scarce,  they  are  at  a  premium,  and  the  pro- 
portion in  a  car  may  be  raised  without  discount. 


A  CITRUS  PACKING  HOUSE 

To  convey  an  idea  of  the  systematic  handling  of  citrus  fruits  in  the 
California  packing  houses,  with  the  advantage  of  the  best  architectural 
construction  and  arrangements  and  using  up-to-date  machines  and 
processes,  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  treatise.  At  some  future  day,  no 
doubt,  some  one  will  undertake  an  adequate  publication  on  that  subject. 
To  give  the  reader  a  glimpse  of  this  branch  of  the  citrus  industry,  the 
following  description  by  Mr.  J.  F.  Adamson  of  the  new  plant  of  the 
Pomona  Fruit  Growers'  Exchange,  the  second  of  two  large  houses 
owned  by  that  association.  There  being  nearly  300  active  members,  it 
becomes  necessary  that  the  fruit  be  handled  with  expedition,  and  at 
the  same  time  with  extreme  care,  the  first  so  that  there  be  no  conges- 
tion of  of  teams,  and  the  second  to  prevent  injury  to  the  fruit : 

The  fruit  in  the  field,  or  picking  boxes,  is  hauled  in  on  spring  wagons 
covered  from  the  sun  by  canvas  wagon  sheets,  and  is  delivered  directly  to  a 
gravity  conveyor,  on  which  the  boxes  roll  without  jar  to  the  point  where  they 
are  piled.  It  is  manifestly  impossible  to  regulate  the  delivery  to  the  rate  of 
packing,  so  the  fruit  has  to  be  piled  as  it  comes  in  and  taken  to'  the  washer  .as 
needed.  Passing  through  the  washer,  the  fruit  is  rinsed  off  under  a  spray 
of  clean  water,  and  goes  directly  to  the  drier,  in  which  it  remains  for  fifteen 
minutes,  being  moved  along  under  a  gentle  blast  of  dry  air.  At  the  end  of  this 
time  it  is  delivered  to  the  sorting  table,  dry,  and  without  having  been  handled 
or  bumped,  except  the  handling  of  the  boxes  from  wagon  to  conveyor,  .  and 
from  pile  to  washer. 

The  sorting  of  fruit  must  of  necessity  be  a  hand  job,  as  after  all,  there 'is  a 
certain  amount  of  expert  human  judgment  used  in  the  separation  of  grades 
in  fruit  or  other  produce  which  can  not  be  done  by  machinery.  In  the  sorting 
table  of  this  house,  there  is,  however,  an  element  of  novelty.  The  fruit  comes 
before  the  sorters  on  the  usual  belt,  but  the  similarity  ends  there.  In  the 
ordinary  sorting  system  the  fruit  is  carried  along  in  front  of  the  sorters,  and 
each  man  picks  off  the  grades  of  fruit  as  the  belt  moves  along.  The  man  at 
the  farther  end  of  the  belt  picks  over  the  fruit  left  on  the  belt  by  the  first, 
second,  and  third  or  fourth  man,  making  an  extremely  limited  system.  In  the 
new  table,  however,  the  first  man  has  a  small  table  in  front,  of  him  to  which 
he  switches  as  much  fruit  as  he  can  handle,  and  from  that  table  he  sorts  into 
grades,  and  the  fruit  that  passes  him  to  the  other  man  has  not  been  picked 


382  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

over,  and  there  is  no  limit  to  the  men  that  can  be  worked  without  the  drawback 
of  repetition. 

I;rom  the  sorters  the  fruit  goes  to  the  usual  sizers,  over  a  complete  set  of 
automatic  weighers.  All  grades  and  culls  are  weighed  and  recorded  on  the 
grower's  load  check,  and  the  fruit  has  lost  its  individuality,  being  mixed  by 
grades,  and  handled  and  sold  only  under  those  grades  and  the  brands  corre- 
spond to  them. 

In  all  this  travel  the  fruit  has  been  guarded  from  the  least  bump.  No  long 
steep  inclines  are  used  which  would  set  the  fruit  in  motion  that  would  require 
stopping,  but  is  carried  through  almost  every  stage  of  the  proceeding  on  belts. 

Under  the  sizers  are  located  the  empty  packing  boxes,  fed  in  from  the  base- 
ment by  conveyors  and  always  handy  to  the  packers.  The  full  boxes  are  carried 
from  the  packers  by  power-conveyor  to  the  nailing  presses,  where  the  covers 
are  put  on  the  box  strapped  with  steel  ready  for  shipment. 

Fruit  that  is  to  be  pre-cooled  then  goes  by  gravity  conveyor  to  the  refriger- 
ator-rooms in  the  basement,  where  they  are  kept  for  three  or  four  days  in  a 
cold  blast  until  the  temperature  of  the  fruit  is  lowered  to  35  degrees  Fahren- 
heit, when  it  is  loaded  into  the  cars  by  means  of  a  power  conveyor. 

This  packing  house  is  actuated  by  one  of  the  latest  models  of  crude- 
oil  engines,  of  90  horsepower,  and  costing  for  fuel  about  ten  cents  per 
hour.  This  power  is  used  to  operate  a  25-ton  refrigerating  machine, 
two  large  fans  for  air  circulation,  all  the  conveyors,  and  an  ice  hoist — 
an  estimated  load  of  85  horsepower.  The  establishment  cost  over 
$65,000,  and  is  evidence  that  the  citrus-fruit  industry  has  passed  from 
temporary  expedient  to  permanence,  just  as  the  handling  of  fruit  has 
passed  from  slipshod  methods  to  a  system  characterized  by  the  utmost 
care  and  forethought. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 
THE  POMELO  OR  GRAPE  FRUIT  IN  CALIFORNIA 

This  citrus  fruit  achieved  a  very  sudden  interest  in  California  be- 
cause of  the  prices  commanded  by  Florida  pomeloes  about  twenty  years 
ago.  When  this  supply  of  eastern  cities  was  cut  off  by  the  serious  frost 
injuries  in  Florida  there  arose  a  passion  for  planting  the  trees  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  a  considerable  acreage  was  planted,  and  as  the  tree  is  a  very 
rapid  grower  and  precocious  in  fruit-bearing,  large  shipments  were 
made  in  1898,  but  the  results  were  not  satisfactory,  and  since  that 
time,  although  pomeloes  sometimes  sell  to  good  advantage,  the  demand 
is  on  the  whole  light  and  irregular.  The  local  consumption  of  pomeloes 
in  California  is  increasing  but  does  not  warrant  much  acreage.  For 
these  reasons  early  plantings  have  been  largely  grafted  over  to  the 
orange. 

The  fruit  is  a  Shaddock  (Citrus  decumana).  Varieties  have  been 
secured  of  smaller  size  and  of  blander  flavor  than  the  coarse,  sour 
and  acrid  fruit  which  is  suggested  by  its  name.  An  effort  has  been 
made  to  secure  the  favorite  varieties,  and  a  large  list  has  been  planted 
in  this  State,  but  the  fruit  does  not  command  the  place  at  the  East 
which  was  awarded  to  the  Florida  product.  As  a  tree  the  pomelo  most 
nearly  resembles  the  orange  and  its  culture  is  the  same.  As  for  varie- 
ties, California  experience  has  been  too  brief  and  fitful  to  demonstrate 
particular  value  or  adaptation  in  them.  Among  growers  there  is  no 
wide  agreement  as  to  superiority  from  a  commercial  point  of  view. 
Amateurs  can  find  many  desirable  sorts  in  our  citrus  nurseries. 

Mr.  A.  P.  Griffith  of  Azusa  is  perhaps  the  most  enthusiastic  and 
confident  of  California  growers  that  the  pomelo  grown  in  this  State 
will  attain  wide  popularity  in  the  United  States.  His  grove  is  now 
seven  acres  in  extent,  nearly  all  of  the  Nectar  variety  which  is  of  the 
type  which  he  believes  should  be  grown  to  win  public  favor.  He  con- 
cludes that  the  market  wants  a  fruit  not  smaller  than  80's  and  prefers 
them  to  stop  at  64's.  A  fruit  flat-round  that  will  cut  up  in  two  halves 
each  of  which  will  stand  upright  on  a  plate,  cut  side  up,  seems  especially 
desirable.  A  fruit  that  is  spherical  or  pear-shaped  is  not  desired. 
There  are  several  varieties  whose  similarity  in  type  would  seem  to 
warrant  including  all  under  one  name.  These,  with  the  addition  of 
the  seedless,  comprise  all  there  is  of  intrinsic  value  among  California 
pomeloes.  If  all  other  varieties  not  of  this  type  were  budded  over,  and 
thus  taken  out  of  the  market,  Mr.  Griffith  believes  the  demand  would 
increase. 

Marketing  Grape  Fruit. — The  California  problem  seems  to  be 
not  only  to  grow  grape  fruit  acceptable  to  consumers  in  distant  markets 
but  to  place  the  fruit  upon  those  markets  when  they  are  not  otherwise 
well  supplied.  Recently  better  results  have  been  attained  by  shipping 
during  the  Valencia  season  than  earlier.  When  California  growers 
383 


384  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

give  as  much  attention  to  meeting  the  demand  as  they  have  to  the 
orange  and  the  lemon,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  the  grape  fruit  will  be- 
come commercially  more  satisfactory. 

Varieties. — The   following   comprise    about   the    only   varieties 
grown  in  this  State.    Most  growers  prefer  the  Marsh  Seedless : 

Nectar. — A  Florida  seedling,  grown  at  Duarte ;  flat-round,  heavy ;  peel  smooth 
and  bright,  pale-lemon  color ;  oil  cells  small  and  numerous ;  flesh  dense,  firm 
texture,  abundant  juice,  vinous,  excellent,  bitter-sweet  element  distinct;  few 
seeds  and  little  rag;  sizes  from  42  to  80  to  the  box. 

Imperial. — Medium  to  large,  peel  very  smooth,  medium  thin  and  of  fine 
texture;  little  rag,  juice  abundant,  fine  aromatic  flavor,  good  keeper  and  shipper. 
Tree  upright  and  heavy  bearer. 

Marsh  Seedless. — Medium  size,  52  to  64  to  the  box ;  thin  rind ;  almost  entirely 
seedless;  flesh  dark  and  rich,  a  late  keeper  and  early  and  abundant  bearer. 

Triumph. — Medium  size,  peel  smooth,  clear,  thin  and  fine  grained;  very  juicy, 
heavy  and  good  flavored;  juice  free  from  bitterness;  very  little  rag;  an  early 
and  prolific  bearer. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 
THE  LEMON  AND  MINOR  CITRUS  FRUITS 

Lemon  growing  is  a  very  unique  and  distinctive  branch  of  Cali- 
fornia horticulture,  which  in  the  present  advancement  of  culture  and 
preparation  for  the  market,  well  illustrates  the  originality  and  invention 
which  the  California  fruit  grower  has  displayed  in  his  undertakings. 
Lemon  growing  in  California  is  old  because  it  rose  at  the  old  missions 
in  the  second  century  back  of  us,  but  successful  lemon  growing  as  a 
great  industry  is  new  and  constantly  assuming  new  phases.  For  the 
old  seedling  lemons  were  bad,  and  though  enterprising  growers  soon 
learned  that  fact  and  set  about  getting  better  ones,  it  took  years  to 
secure  them  and  to  learn  how  to  grow  and  handle  them  so  that  the 
Californian  could  compete  with  the  Sicilian  fruit  in  the  markets  of  the 
United  States.  Nor  was  time  the  only  thing  sacrificed — hundreds  of 
thousands  of  dollars  were  lost  before  the  California  grower  could  put 
upon  the  market  a  good  lemon,  fit  to  stay  good  for  a  sufficient  length 
of  time.  Unprofitable  plantings;  expensive  curing  houses,  which  did 
not  cure  well;  countless  experiments  which  yielded  only  loss  and  dis- 
appointment— all  these  are  wrecks  upon  the  rock  of  American  lemon 
growing. 

Naturally  Californians  sought  first  to  know  how  lemons  were  grown 
and  handled  abroad.  At  cost  of  great  effort  and  outlay  they  learned 
practically  nothing  that  they  could  do  and  a  great  deal  that  it  was  not 
necessary  to  do.  Then  they  assumed  a  more  rational  mood — a  dispo- 
sition to  discern  what  principles  are  involved  in  the  problem,  and  to 
apply  them  in  their  own  way  according  to  conditions  locally  prevailing. 
Along  this  line  grand  success  has  been  attained  by  a  few  masterful 
men  conducting  large  lemon  enterprises  or  smaller  undertakings  of 
their  own,  while  the  mass  of  lemon  planters,  for  one  reason  or  another, 
have  never  reaped  the  reward  they  expected.  On  the  whole,  it  may  be 
said  that  lemon  growing  is  a  much  harder  and  more  exacting  enterprise 
than  orange  growing,  and  for  this  reason  many  have  new-topped  their 
trees  to  oranges  and  thus  escape  difficulties  which  they  could  not  over- 
come. 

With  the  aid  of  the  protective  tariff  the  most  resolute  and  capable 
have  attained  success,  and  the  California  lemon  became  known  and 
highly  esteemed  upon  its  merits  everywhere.  The  tariff  has  somewhat 
reduced  the  effect  of  cheap  labor  in  Italy  and  cheap  water  transporta- 
tion from  the  Mediterranean  region,  and  our  lemons  could  sometimes 
compete  with  the  foreign  product  not  only  in  the  west  but  even  in  the 
cities  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  All  this  has  been  accomplished  within 
two  decades  and  it  is  a  notable  result.  One  measure  of  this  fact  may  be 
found  in  the  shipment  of  over  six  thousand  seven  hundred  carloads 
during  the  season  of  1910-11.  The  California  lemon  has,  however,  not 
yet  attained  such  mastery  of  American  markets  as  the  orange  has,  for 
there  is  a  value  of  about  six  and  one-half  millions  of  dollars  in  imported 
385 


386  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  :   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

lemons,  while  imported  oranges  are  only  worth  one-twenty-fifth  as 
much.  The  California  contention  that  the  lemon  should  be  encouraged 
with  increased  protection  to  enable  producers  to  push  the  issue  of  an 
American  lemon  for  Americans  to  a  successful  termination,  was  re- 
jected by  the  tariff  of  1913.  In  1914  the  future  of  the  California  lemon 
is  not  clear.  The  product  of  1913  was  reduced  by  frost  to  the  figures  of 
a  decade  ago,  though  in  1911  it  was  four  times  as  great.  The  exact 
figures  are  given  at  the  opening  of  Chapter  XXXII.  Whether  the 
lemon  can  weather  the  storms  of  all  kinds  which  have  arisen  remains 
to  be  demonstrated. 

The  best  pack  of  California  lemons  has  a  uniformity  of  size,  a  finish 
of  skin,  a  juiciness  and  keen  acidity  which  is  unrivaled  in  the  world. 
Numerous  careful  tests  have  been  made  of  the  California  lemon  in 
Atlantic  cities  in  comparison  with  the  best  south  European  product, 
and  the  superiority  of  the  American  fruit  has  thus  been  demonstrated. 


SITUATIONS  AND  SOILS  FOR  THE  LEMON 

The  lemon  does  best  in  a  practically  f  restless  situation.  Such  places 
are  found  in  largest  area  in  the  southern  half  of  the  coast  regions  of 
California,  but  also  exist  at  favoring  elevations  in  the  interior.  The 
moderating  influence  of  proximity  to  salt  water,  and  the  effect  of  local 
topography  and  environment,  which  give  frost-free  nooks  or  belts,  are 
elements  favoring  the  lemon  grower.  In  such  situations  the  lemon 
blooms  and  fruits  continuously  throughout  the  year. 

While  the  lemon  requires  a  less  extreme  of  low  temperature  than 
the  orange,  it  also  thrives  with  a  less  extreme  of  high  temperature  and 
less  duration  of  it.  It  apparently  does  not  require  as  much  heat  to 
develop  acid,  which  is  the  charm  of  the  lemon,  as  it  does  sugar,  which 
is  essential  to  an  acceptable  orange;  therefore,  a  coast  situation  which 
may  not  yield  a  sweet  orange  may  produce  a  good  lemon,  although  it 
is  a  fact  that  in  the  southern  coast  region,  where  the  largest  commer- 
cial production  of  lemons  is  now  achieved,  the  orange  also  does  well. 
Another  advantage  of  the  lower  summer  temperature  is  that  the  con- 
tinuous ripening  is  not  interfered  with,  as  it  is  by  high  summer  heat, 
which  hastens  maturity  and  brings  the  mass  of  the  fruit  to  marketable 
condition  in  the  winter — a  season  when  the  demand  for  the  lemon  is 
very  small.  This  objection  is,  however,  being  measurably  overcome 
by  the  proper  storage  and  treatment  of  the  fruit  for  sale,  at  a  consider- 
able interval  after  picking,  as  will  be  mentioned  presently.  But  both 
the  curing  and  storage  of  lemons  are  more  easily  secured  in  the  more 
equable  temperature  and  moister  air  of  the  coast  region. 

The  lemon  delights  in  a  sandy  loam,  and  probably  our  best  orchards 
are  on  such  soil,  but  the  trees  thrive  in  other  soils.  There  is  a  differ- 
ence of  opinion  among  growers  as  to  what  soil  is  to  be  especially  sought 
for.  There  are  profitable  lemon  orchards  in  southern  California  located 
upon  deep  clay  loams,  and  even  upon  strong  red  clay  soils.  As  with 
some  other  fruits,  the  choice  of  soil  is,  to  a  certain  extent,  governed 
by  the  stock  on  which  the  lemon  is  worked. 


GROWING  OF  THE  LEMON   TREE  387 

PROPAGATING  AND  PLANTING 

The  prevailing  stock  for  the  lemon  is  the  orange  seedling,  either 
the  sweet  or  sour  stock,  under  the  same  conditions  that  each  is  preferred 
for  the  orange,  the  sour  stock  resisting  measurably  the  effects  of  ill- 
drainage  of  heavy  land  or  flat,  low  places.  The  orange  root  thrives  on 
a  greater  variety  of  soils  than  the  lemon,  and  produces  a  healthy  lemon 
tree  where  the  lemon  on  its  own  root  would  fail.  The  growth  of  orange 
seedlings  for  budding  has  been  described  in  the  last  chapter.  If  lemon 
seedlings  are  desired  they  may  be  grown  in  the  same  way.  Plants 
either  for  permanent  growth  or  for  stocks  for  budding  can  be  grown 
from  cuttings,  as  explained  in  Chapter  VIII.  The  budding  of  the 
lemon  is  practically  the  same  as  of  the  orange,  which  has  been  described. 
An  old  tree  can  be  changed  from  one  variety  to  another  by  the  methods 
described  for  the  orange,  and  oranges  can  be  worked  into  old  lemon 
trees  and  good  fruit  secured  if  the  lemon  itself  be  growing  upon  an 
orange  root,  which  is  likely  to  be  the  case  with  trees  planted  during  the 
last  decade. 

Planting  of  the  lemon  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  orange.  The  dis- 
tance in  planting  varies  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet.  Irrigation  of 
lemon  and  orange  trees  is  also  similar. 


PRUNING  THE  LEMON 

The  pruning  of  the  lemon  is  essentially  different  from  that  of  the 
orange,  because  the  habit  of  the  tree  is  different.  The  lemon  requires 
constant  attention  to  bring  it  into  good  bearing  form  and  keep  it  there ; 
the  orange,  after  it  is  well  shaped,  simply  needs  attention  to  encourage 
it  to  retain  the  bearing  form  to  which  it  seems  naturally  disposed.  The 
orange  provides  itself  with  satisfactory  bearing  wood,  as  a  rule ;  the 
lemon  devotes  itself,  even  when  it  is  old  enough  to  know  better,  to  a 
rangy  rambling  wood  growth  with  bearing  wood  upon  the  ends  of 
willowy  rods  where  it  is  swept  about  in  the  wind  and  burned  in  the  sun, 
instead  of  nestling  it  neatly  among  the  leaves  as  the  orange  does. 

The  rational  proceeding  with  the  lemon  is,  then,  to  develop  it  at  first 
into  a  low,  stocky  and  strong  form,  such  as  is  described  in  Chapter  XII 
for  deciduous  tree.  This  may  be  secured  by  pinching  so  as  not  to  allow 
running  out  of  long  branches  at  first,  or  it  may  be  secured  by  severe 
cutting  back  of  the  long  growths  of  the  young  tree.  In  either  case  low 
branches  will  be  secured.  Make  good  selection  from  these  branches  to 
form  a  symmetrical  tree  and  cut  back  the  growth  which  comes  upon 
them  to  cause  it  to  branch  in  its  turn.  In  this  way  plenty  of  good, 
strong  wood  is  secured  low  down,  and  with  short  distances  between  the 
laterals.  Strong,  upright  shoots  (wrongly  called  "suckers")  which 
break  out  at  points  where  branches  are  not  desired,  should  be  rubbed 
off  or  cleanly  cut  away.  Having  secured  about  the  right  branching  in 
about  the  right  places  no  strong  sprouts  should  be  allowed,  and  the 
tree  should  be  encouraged  to  make  smaller  laterals,  which  will  be  the 
bearing  wood.  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  this  rational  plan  of 
restricting  wood  growth  and  directing  the  energies  of  the  tree  to  fruit 


388  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  :   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

has  in  some  cases  been  pursued  too  far  and  the  tree  has  resented  repres- 
sion by  diminished  thrift.  The  pruner  must  allow  freer  growth  of  shoot 
to  secure  better  foliage.  The  pruning  of  the  lemon  as  of  other  trees 
must  always  be  pursued  with  judgment  rather  than  by  recipe. 

When  the  adequate  growth  of  bearing  wood  within  reach  is  borne 
in  mind  it  appears  that  the  pruning  of  the  lemon  involves  many  of  the 
considerations  urged  in  Chapter  XII  for  deciduous  fruits;  the  method 
of  making  a  strong,  short  trunk,  the  arrangement  of  branches,  the  pre- 
vention of  long  growths,  the  encouragement  of  low,  bearing  twigs,  the 
thinning  of  twigs  to  prevent  the  tree  from  becoming  too  dense,  the 
points  to  be  observed  in  cutting  back,  not  by  shearing  but  by  treating 
each  branch  according  to  its  position  and  vigor — all  these  must  be  borne 
in  mind  by  the  lemon  pruner.  It  must  also  be  remembered  that  the 
work  must  be  resolutely  continued  and  the  tree  always  prevented  from 
wild  growth  and  kept  down  to  bearing  on  the  smaller  twigs,  which  are 
promoted  and  retained  for  that  purpose.  The  building-down  process 
described  for  the  young  orange  is  easily  applicable  to  the  lemon. 

Old  lemon  trees  which  have  been  allowed  to  grow  away  into  a  long, 
rangy  form  and  to  bear  fruit  too  high  for  profit,  can  be  brought  down 
to  good  form  by  severe  cutting  back  and  after-treatment  of  the  new 
shoots,  keeping  the  smaller  horizontal  growths  and  cutting  out  cleanly 
the  strong  upright  shoots,  or  cutting  them  back  if  more  branches  are 
needed.  The  time  for  pruning  the  lemon  depends  upon  the  end  in 
view ;  if  a  young  tree,  to  promote  wood  growth,  prune  at  the  opening 
of  the  growing  season  in  the  spring;  in  older  trees,  to  repress  growth 
and  advance  fruiting,  prune  in  midsummer. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  harvesting  lemons  is  a  continuous 
operation  as  will  be  stated  presently,  keeping  the  bearing  wood  of  the 
tree  within  easy  reach  is  more  imperative  from  an  economic  point  of 
view  than  with  trees  from  which  fewer  pickings  gather  the  crop. 
Adjacent  engravings  give  suggestive  views  of  rationally  controlled 
lemon  trees.  Pruning  is  also  related  to  preventing  infection  of  the 
fruit  with  lemon  rot  fungus  spores  from  the  ground.  Fruits  which 
touch  the  ground  or  upon  which  dirt  is  splashed  by  rains  is  first  in- 
fested. The  whole  question  is  discussed  in  Bulletin  190  of  the  Cali- 
fornia Experiment  Station. 


PREPARATION  OF  LEMONS  FOR  MARKETING 

The  lemon  as  taken  from  the  tree  is  not  in  condition  for  marketing 
except  to  packers  who  wish  to  undertake  the  curing.  To  secure  best 
results  in  quality  and  in  keeping  properties,  the  lemon  should  be  care- 
fully cut  from  the  tree  as  soon  as  proper  size  is  reached.  To  allow  the 
fruit  to  hang  upon  the  tree  until  lemon  color  is  assumed,  gives  a  lemon 
which  is  deficient  in  juice,  oversized,  apt  to  develop  bitterness,  and 
prone  to  decay.  Two  and  five-sixteenths  rings  are  used  for  winter 
pickings  and  2l/2  for  spring  and  summer,  never  more  than  six  weeks 
being  allowed  to  elapse  between  pickings,  and  the  fruit  is  usually 
picked  once  a  month.  By  careful  attention  to  this,  desirable  sizes  and 
good-keeping  stock  are  obtained.  Neglect  of  this  is  the  weak  point  of 


PREPARING   THE   LEMON   FOR    MARKET  389 

many  of  the  lemon  growers  of  California.  Mr.  C.  C.  Teague,  manager 
of  the  Limoneira  Company  of  Santa  Paula,  Ventura  County,  the 
largest  lemon  growing  concern  in  California,  has  made  close  examina- 
tion of  practice  among  lemon  growers,  and  concludes  that  the  care- 
lessness with  which  picking  is  done  is  almost  criminal.  In  grove  after 
grove  which  he  visited  at  least  50  per  cent,  of  the  values  had  been  lost 
by  allowing  the  fruit  to  hang  on  the  tree  too  long.  Not  only  on  ac- 
count of  large  sizes  would  it  have  to  be  discounted  50  cents  per  box, 
but  the  keeping  quality  of  the  lemon  which  is  allowed  to  mature  on  the 
tree  is  never  good.  Good  results  can  not  be  obtained,  even  by  the  best 
methods  of  keeping  lemons,  unless  the  fruit  is  picked  at  the  proper 
time  and  properly  handled.  Mr.  Teague  says  a  lemon  should  be 
handled  as  carefully  as  an  egg. 

If  gathered  before  the  color  begins  to  turn  properly  cured  lemons 
may  be  kept  for  months,  and  they  will  improve  in  market  qualities,  by  a 
thinning  and  toughening  of  the  skin,  and  by  increase  of  juice  contents. 
This  curing  of  the  fruit,  as  it  is  called,  is  accomplished  in  many  simple 
ways.  If  the  fruit  is  gathered  and  placed  in  piles  under  the  trees, 
where,  with  low-headed  trees,  it  is  completely  shaded  by  the  foliage,  it 
processes  well  and  comes  out  beautiful  in  color  and  excellent  in  quality, 
providing  it  is  a  good  variety.  Some  have  trusted  wholly  to  this  open- 
air  curing  under  the  trees,  merely  protecting  the  fruit  by  a  thin  cover- 
ing of  straw,  or  other  light,  dry  materials.  Others  let  the  fruit  lie  a 
few  days  under  the  trees,  carefully  shaded  from  the  sun,  and  place  it  in 
boxes  or  upon  trays,  and  keep  it  months  in  a  darkened  fruit-house,  pro- 
viding ventilation  but  guarding  the  fruit  against  draughts  of  air. 
Gathering  the  fruit  while  still  green  and  packing  with  alternate  layers 
of  dry  sand,  has  given  excellent  marketable  fruit,  but  of  course  the 
handling  of  so  much  sand  is  too  expensive  nor  is  it  at  all  necessary. 

Much  attention  has  been  given  to  lemon  storage  in  southern  Cali- 
fornia, and  many  curing  and  storage  houses  have  been  constructed. 
Naturally  there  is  great  variation  in  design  and  method  of  operation. 
The  essential  conditions  to  be  secured  are  exclusion  of  light ;  regula- 
tion of  temperature;  ample  ventilation,  under  control,  however,  so  as 
to  prevent  entrance  of  air  which  is  too  dry  or  too  hot ;  convenience  and 
cheapness  of  handling,  for  the  lemon  is  expensive  in  handling  at  best 
during  the  months  of  storage  which  is  often  desirable.  Some  of  these 
conditions  are  relatively  of  much  more  importance  in  the  interior  than 
in  the  coast  region,  because  heat  and  dry  air  reach  occasionally  ex- 
tremes which  are  not  experienced  near  the  ocean  which  is  a  great 
regulator  of  temperature  and  atmospheric  moisture.  For  these  reasons 
a  much  simpler  system  of  storage  is  now  in  large  use  in  the  coast  dis- 
trict, while  in  the  interior  suitable  special  buildings  or  basements  are 
apparently  necessary.  Anyone  entering  upon  lemon  handling  should 
certainly  visit  establishments  now  in  satisfactory  use  and  learn  by 
careful  observation  of  their  suitability  to  his  purposes. 

Near  the  coast,  and  so  far  toward  the  interior  as  ocean  influences 
extend  in  adequate  degree,  the  building  of  special  curing  houses  has 
been  abandoned  and  some  quite  expensive  structures  have  been  turned 
to  other  uses.  An  objection  to  house-storage  lies  in  the  fact  that  the 


390  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

fruit  it  is  apt  to  be  massed  in  the  house  and  that  which  is  just  picked 
given  the  same  ventilation  as  that  which  has  been  in  the  house  several 
months,  when,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  lemons  in  different  stages  of  curing 
require  radically  different  treatment  as  regards  ventilation.  As  a  result 
of  this  treatment  some  of  the  fruit  is  usually  wilted  from  receiving  too 
much  air,  while  the  greater  portion  of  it  is  badly  decayed  from  receiving 
too  little. 

Proper  ventilation  is  the  keynote  of  success  in  keeping  lemons,  and 
after  extensive  and  expensive  experience  along  the  old  lines,  Mr. 
Teague  of  the  Limoneira  Company,  already  cited,  concluded  that  lemon 
handlers  had  been  on  the  wrong  track  in  believing  a  low  temperature 
first  in  importance.  If  the  ventilation  is  right  the  temperature  will 
take  care  of  itself.  Mr.  Teague  decided  that  proper  conditions  for 
keeping  lemons  lie  just  between  the  points  where  they  wilt  and  where 
they  sweat,  inducing  neither  if  possible,  for  too  much  moisture  induces 
decay  and  too  little  causes  shriveling.  The  fragment  of  the  stem  left 
on  the  fruit  by  the  cutter  may  be  used  as  a  test ;  if  it  adheres,  the  con- 
ditions are  right  for  slow  curing;  if  it  detaches  easily,  the  best  keeping 
quality  is  not  being  secured. 

The  Limoneira  Company  was  first  to  equip  a  house  on  the  open  air 
plan.  The  house  is  300  x  100  feet.  The  flooring  is  2-inch  planking  and 
the  roof  covered  with  gravel-paper  roofing.  The  building  has  no  sides 
whatever,  allowing  free  circulation  of  air.  The  fruit  for  storage  is 
put  into  regular  shipping  boxes,  piled  in  blocks  of  560  boxes.  There 
is  a  double  row  of  these  blocks  on  either  side  of  a  20-foot  space  which 
extends  to  the  entire  length  of  the  building,  and  which  answers  the 
double  purpose  of  a  work  room  and  an  air  space.  The  boxes  are  so 
piled  as  to  permit  of  the  circulation  of  air  around  each  box.  Each 
block  of  fruit  is  covered  by  a  canvas  10  x  10  x  20,  made  box  shape  by 
a  canvas  cover  and  four  canvas  curtains  on  rollers,  the  openings  at  the 
corners  being  closed  by  lacings  as  desirable.  The  ventilation  is  con- 
trolled by  raising  or  lowering  the  canvas,  and  each  block  of  fruit  can 
be  given  exactly  the  ventilation  that  it  requires,  irrespective  of  the 
other  fruit  in  the  house.  By  this  method  50  or  100  cars  of  fruit  can  be 
handled  and  kept  in  as  good  condition  as  if  there  was  only  one.  Each 
block  being  numbered,  a  complete  record  of  the  lemons  from  each  of 
the  six  sections  of  the  ranch  is  kept  from  the  time  it  is  picked  until  the 
fruit  is  shipped.  The  fruit  is  all  washed  in  a  lemon  washing  machine, 
and  is  piled  up  in  the  house  wet,  just  as  it  comes  from  the  machine. 
The  canvas  covers  are  not  dropped  over  it,  however,  until  it  is  thor- 
oughly dry.  An  idea  of  these  curing  tents  can  be  had  from  an  ad- 
jacent engraving  which  shows  them  on  both  sides  of  a  central  space 
which  is  used  for  packing  the  fruit  in  the  shipping  boxes. 

With  proper  curing  facilities  lemons  picked  in  November  and  De- 
cember may  be  kept  until  the  following  July.  Later  pickings  may  not 
keep  so  well  and  may  be  marketed  first.  Of  the  finer  points  in  lemon 
handling,  however,  there  is  much  which  must  be  learned  by  experience. 

Forced  curing  of  lemons,  by  which  green  fruit  may  be  colored  in 
about  two  weeks,  is  done  by  burning  oil  stoves  in  a  closed  room.  The 
change  is  effected  by  the  products  of  combustion  and  not  by  the  heat 


THE   LIME   IN    CALIFORNIA  391 

alone.  The  process  is  described  in  detail  in  Bulletin  No.  232  of  the 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  of  the  United  States  Department  or  Agricul- 
ture, February  13,  1912. 


VARIETIES  OF  LEMONS  FOR  CALIFORNIA 

During1  the  earlier  years  of  California  lemon  growing  there  were 
continuous  efforts  put  forth  to  secure  better  lemon  varieties.  During 
the  last  decade  three  varieties  have  been  accepted  as  satisfactory  and 
nearly  all  others  have  been  dropped.  The  three  are  Eureka,  Lisbon,  and 
Villa  Franca,  arranged  according  to  present  degree  of  popularity  in 
Southern  California,  where  nearly  the  whole  commercial  product  is 
now  made,  although  some  plantings  have  been  undertaken  farther 
north,  chiefly  in  the  citrus  belt  on  the  east  side  of  the  San  Joaquin 
Valley. 

Eureka. — A  native  of  California,  originated  by  C.  R.  Workman,  at  Los 
Angeles,  from  seed  imported  from  Hamburg  in  1872,  only  one  seed  growing, 
from  which  buds  were  put  by  him  on  orange  stock.  Distributed  by  T.  A. 
Garey,  of  Los  Angeles.  Tree  very  free  from  thorns.  Fruit  medium  size,  sweet 
rind,  a  good  keeper,  few  seeds;  very  popular,  especially  in  coast  regions.  Less 
popular  in  the  interior  because  of  scant  foliage. 

Lisbon. — Imported  from  Portugal;  first  grown  by  D.  M.  Burnham,  of  River- 
side. Fruit  uniformly  medium  size,  rather  oblong,  fine  grain,  thin  sweet  rind, 
strong  acid;  few  seeds;  a  good  keeper;  tree  is  a  strong  grower,  with  compact 
foliage,  prolific  bearer,  but  starts  bearing  late;  quite  thorny,  but  thorns  decrease 
in  size  as  the  tree  grows  older;  popular  at  interior  points  especially,  and  Eureka 
trees  in  the  Tulare  region  are  being  grafted  over  to  Lisbon. 

Villa  Franca. — Imported  from  Europe.  Medium  size,  oblong,  slightly  pointed 
at  the  blossom  end,  rind  thin,  without  bitterness,  acid,  strong,  juicy,  nearly 
seedless.  Tree  thornless,  branches  spreading  and  somewhat  drooping,  foliage- 
abundant;  withstands  lower  temperature  than  other  imported  varieties. 


THE  LIME 

The  lime  (Citrus  medica  acida)  has  proved  much  less  hardy  than 
the  lemon.  It  has  been  killed  in  situations  where  the  orange  and  lemon 
have  not  been  injured.  Unless  adequate  protection  is  thought  worth 
the  effort,  there  is  little  use  in  planting  the  lime,  except  in  a  frostless 
situation.  Such  localities  are  found  near  the  ocean  in  southern  Cali- 
fornia, and  here  and  there  at  proper  elevation  around  the  Bay  of  San 
Francisco  and  in  the  interior  both  north  and  south ;  still  the  growth  of 
the  lime  must  be  counted  very  hazardous.  There  is  less  inducement  to 
experiment  with  the  fruit  from  the  fact  that  the  Pacific  Coast  markets 
are  well  supplied  with  Mexican  limes,  usually  at  prices  which  leave  no 
opportunity  for  competitors. 

Limes  are  grown  from  seed,  the  variety  usually  coming  true  from 
seed.  The  trees  are  small  and  are  frequently  grown  in  hedge  form. 
The  common  variety  is  the  Mexican.  The  Imperial,  a  large,  rather 
hardy  variety,  is  favorably  reported  by  several  growers.  Bearss  Seed- 
less is  being  successfully  and  profitably  grown  by  Mr.  R.  Gallegos  at 
the  Mission  San  Jose  in  Alameda  County. 


392  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

THE  CITRON 

This  fruit  (Citrus  medico,  cedra)  is  little  grown  in  California, 
although  it  is  quite  hardy  and  could  be  produced  over  a  large  area. 
The  only  use  for  the  fruit,  which  resembles  a  monstrous  lemon,  is  in 
its  candied  rind,  and  no  one  has  deemed  it  worth  while  to  push  com- 
petition with  the  imported  candied  citron,  though  very  fine  experi- 
mental lots  have  been  produced,  and  the  interest  of  the  fruit-preserving 
establishments  in  the  product  recurs  periodically.  There  have  been  col- 
lections of  citron  trees  imported  from  the  Mediterranean  region  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  planted  at  several  points  in 
southern  California.  As  yet  no  considerable  product  has  been  reached. 
There  is,  however,  no  cessation  of  interest,  and  experimental  planting 
continues,  with  a  prospect  of  satisfactory  attainment  ere  long.  Samples 
of  the  candied  article  have  been  approved  by  experts  as  very  satis- 
factory. 

An  outline  for  the  preparation  of  candied  citron  is  as  follows :  The 
fruit,  before  assuming1  a  yellow  color,  and  also  when  bright  yellow,  is 
picked  and  placed  in  barrels  filled  with  brine,  and  left  for  at  least  a 
month.  The  brine  is  renewed  several  times,  and  the  fruit  allowed  to 
remain  in  it  until  required  for  use,  often  for  a  period  of  four  or  five 
months.  When  the  citrons  are  to  be  candied  they  are  taken  from  the 
barrels  and  boiled  in  fresh  water  to  soften  them.  They  are  then  cut 
into  halves,  the  seed  and  pulp  are  removed,  and  the  fruit  is  again  im- 
mersed in  cold  water,  soon  becoming  of  a  greenish  color.  After  this  it 
is  placed  in  large  earthen  jars,  covered  with  hot  syrup,  and  allowed  to 
stand  about  three  weeks.  During  this  time  the  strength  of  the  syrup 
is  gradually  increased.  The  fruit  is  then  put  into  boilers  with  crystal- 
lized sugar  dissolved  in  a  small  quantity  of  water,  and  cooked;  then 
allowed  to  cool,  and  boiled  again  until  it  will  take  up  no  more  sugar. 
It  is  then  dried  and  packed  in  wooden  boxes. 


ORNAMENTAL  CITRUS  SPECIES 

There  are  grown  in  this  State  for  curiosity  or  ornament  various 
minor  citrus  species,  including  the  Bergamot  and  the  dwarf  ornamental 
sorts  from  Asia.  There  are,  of  course,  the  ornamental  species  grown 
by  florists  for  their  fragrant  bloom. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

MINOR   SEMI-TROPICAL   FRUITS    IN    CALIFORNIA 

A  number  of  interesting  fruits  are  now  grown  in  this  State  which, 
for  one  reason  or  another,  have  not  yet  attained  any  great  commercial 
importance,  although  some  of  them  are  rapidly  advancing  in  popular 
esteem  and  likely  to  gain  much  higher  place  in  the  markets.  Others 
will  probably  never  be  grown  except  for  home  use  and  garden  orna- 
ment. 

THE  BANANA 

The  banana  has  been  a  favorite  plant  for  experimental  culture  for 
many  years,  and  though  good  fruit  has  been  grown  at  various  points 
in  the  State,  the  culture  is  too  hazardous  to  warrant  large  investment, 
and  if  this  danger  was  not  present,  the  abundant  supplies  available 
from  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  would  probably  reduce  the  profits  to  a 
narrow  margin.  The  banana  can  be  trusted  only  in  protected  situations 
and  in  small  numbers  which  can  be  given  special  attention.  With  these 
conditions  the  banana  may  yield  very  acceptable  fruit  for  home  use  and 
be  an  ornament  to  the  garden.  Its  beauty  is,  however,  seriously  im- 
paired by  winds,  which  whip  its  tender  leaves  into  shreds  and  give  the 
plant  an  unkempt  appearance. 

The  largest  number  of  bananas  are  seen  in  Los  Angeles  and  Santa 
Barbara,  and  one  grower  at  an  elevation  near  the  latter  place  reports 
his  table  supplied  daily  throughout  the  year  with  the  fruit  of  the 
Cavendish  species,  which  is  the  most  commonly  grown  sort.  The  Yel- 
low Martinique  or  Yellow  Costa  Rica,  the  Orinoco,  the  Hawaiian  Lele, 
Hart's  Choice,  and  a  large-fruited  variety  known  in  Los  Angeles 
County  as  the  Baldwin,  are  also  approved  by  growers.  How  to  grow 
bananas  in  the  garden,  according  to  the  experience  of  the  late  S.  H. 
Gerrish,  of  Sacramento,  is  as  follows : 

By  experiment  I  have  found  that  the  banana  will  live — if  in  a  proper  soil — 
without  injury  to  the  roots,  at  a  temperature  as  low  as  sixteen  degrees  Fahr. ; 
the  stalk  will  stand  a  temperature  of  twenty-five  degrees  without  injury,  and 
the  leaves  are  not  wilted  until  the  air  is  chilled  to  thirty  degrees.  My  method 
has  been  to  supply  the  richest  food  for  this  gigantic  plant  and  force  it  to  its 
extreme  growth.  Every  one  has  old  chip  dirt,  ashes,  boots,  shoes,  clothes,  and 
manure,  which  are  often  a  nuisance.  Dig  a  big  hole,  bury  this  up,  in  the  center 
of  the  mass  place  a  pailful  of  sand,  and  plant  the  fresh  bulb.  This  is  to 
preserve  the  dormant  plant  from  the  wire-worms  and  insects,  which  will  not 
attack  the  growing  plant.  As  the  plant  grows,  give  it  an  abundance  of  water 
and  all  the  slops  of  the  house.  Any  kind  of  manure,  fresh  or  old,  ashes,  leaves, 
and  vegetables  will  soon  disappear  and  be  absorbed  by  this  gigantic  king  of 
plants.  As  the  rainy  season  approaches,  pile  all  the  leaves  and  twigs  of  trees 
around  the  plants.  It  protects  the  bulbs  and  makes  the  soil  rich  for  next  season. 
393 


394  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  :   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

THE  CHERIMOYER  OR  PERUVIAN  CUSTARD  APPLE 

The  oldest  cherimoyer  (Anona  cherimolia)  is  growing  in  Santa 
Barbara.  The  fruit  was  introduced  about  fifty  years  ago,  and  the  parent 
tree  has  for  many  years  produced  abundant  fruit  in  such  perfection 
that  the  seeds  have  readily  germinated,  and  the  trees  thus  propagated 
have  been  in  successful  bearing  in  several  Santa  Barbara  gardens. 
The  leaves  are  oval  and  pointed  at  both  ends;  flowers  solitary,  very 
fragrant,  and  having  a  greenish  color.  Good  specimens  of  the  fruit 
are  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter,  often  heart-shaped,  grayish  brown 
or  nearly  black  when  fully  ripe.  The  flesh,  in  which  thirty  or  forty 
brown  seeds  are  found,  is  soft,  sweet,  and  pleasant  to  the  taste,  being 
most  palatable  when  near  decay.  Mr.  I.  H.  Cammack,  of  Whittier, 
describes  the  pulp  as  of  the  consistency  of  ice  cream  or  a  custard 
flavored  with  a  blending  of  pineapples  and  bananas.  If  it  has  a  fault 
it  is  too  rich.  Apparently  it  has  no  particular  season  for  ripening,  yet 
the  best  specimens  seem  to  be  found  in  Santa  Barbara  in  April  and 
May.  The  cherimoyer  is  also  found  in  gardens  in  San  Diego  and  Los 
Angeles  counties.  It  needs  a  well-protected  situation.  The  fruit  has 
been  marketed  on  a  limited  scale  in  Los  Angeles,  and  larger  plantations 
have  been  made,  especially  in  the  Cahuenga  Valley,  near  Los  Angeles. 
The  plant  comes  true  from  seed  and  the  tree  bears  in  its  fourth  year, 
and  should  have  as  much  room  as  an  orange  tree.  Mr.  C.  P.  Taft,  of 
Orange,  points  out  the  fact  that  much  can  be  gained  by  selection  and 
propagation  from  the  most  satisfactory  trees,  as  follows : 

Cherimoyers  found  in  the  gardens  of  southern  California  are  almost  always 
seedlings,  and  generally  shy  bearers.  There  is  but  one  named  variety,  so  far 
as  I  am  aware,  the  Golden  Russet.  This  is  very  prolific  and  frequently  attains 
large  size.  Specimens  above  one  poimd  in  weight  are  not  uncommon.  The 
qualit^  is  as  good  as  any,  but  is  variable  owin~  to  the  season  and  time  of 
ripening,  much  cold  having  a  marked  deteriorating  effect.  The  normal  shape 
is  like  that  of  the  strawberry,  and  the  variations  from  the  normal  are  equally 
abundant;  in  fact,  in  this  respect  the  cherimolia  is  quite  extraordinary,  as  the 
same  tree  will  have  on  it  fully  matured  fruit  from  less  than  an  inch  in  diameter 
up  to  six  or  eight  inches.  In  size  the  tree  averages  about  the  same  as  the 
peach.  The  market  is  a  good  one,  large  fruit  commanding  $3  per  dozen  or 
more,  while  the  smaller  ones  sell  by  the  pound  at  a  relatively  lower  price. 


THE  CHOCHO  OR  CHAYOTA* 

The  chocho  plant  is  fruiting  in  Santa  Barbara  County,  for  Mr. 
Kinton  Stevens,  of  Montecito,  who  obtained  the  seed  from  Samoa. 
Sechium  edule  is  the  botanical  name  of  this  plant,  but  it  is  perhaps 
better  known  as  "choco,"  "chocho,"  "chayota,"  and  "Portuguese 
squash."  It  belongs  to  the  order  cucurbitacae,  and  is  a  perennial  vine, 
resembling  in  growth  and  fruit  our  summer  squash  or  vegetable  mar- 
row. It  is  a  very  prolific  bearer.  Both  the  fruit  and  the  great  yam- 
like  tuber  are  used  as  food  by  man  and  beast  in  the  West  Indies,  where 
it  is  considered  a  wholesome  article  of  diet.  The  roots  often  weigh  as 
much  as  twenty  pounds.  They  have  a  flavor  similar  to  the  yam,  and 

*An  interesting  illustrated  account  of  this  plant  by  K.  A.  Ryerson  may  be  found  in  the 
University  of  California  Journal  of  Agriculture,  April,  1914. 


THE    GUAVA    AND    ITS    USES  395 

are  considered  a  greater  delicacy  than  the  fruit,  which  in  a  raw  state 
resembles  the  chestnut  in  flavor,  and  under  favorable  conditions  weighs 
over  three  pounds.  The  proper  way  to  grow  them  is  to  plant  the  whole 
fruit,  as  they  have  but  one  seed,  and  they  produce  fruit  in  three  months, 
under  favorable  conditions.  The  vine  is  exceedingly  rapid  in  growth 
and  may  cover  a  thousand  square  feet  in  one  summer. 


THE  GUAVA 

Two  species  of  guava  have  been  quite  widely  tried  in  this  State — 
the  strawberry  guava  (Psidium  cattleyanum)  and  the  lemon  guava 
(Psidium  guayava).  The  former  is  the  hardier,  and,  in  fact,  seems  to 
be  about  as  hardy  as  the  orange,  and  it  has  fruited  in  widely-separated 
parts  of  the  State;  the  latter  is  quite  tender,  and  is  at  present  only 
grown  in  favorable  places  along  our  southern  coast,  and  even  there  it 
is  found  inferior  in  quality  and  usefulness  to  the  strawberry  guava. 

Mr.  C.  P.  Taft,  of  Orange,  has  confidence  in  the  lemon  guava 
through  the  selection  of  better  varieties.  It  is  far  larger  than  the 
Strawberry,  and  of  quite  attractive  appearance.  Sometimes  the  color 
is  almost  white,  sometimes  quite  green,  and  frequently  of  a  bright 
yellow,  often  with  a  red  check.  These  variations  are  only  what  is 
naturally  to  be  expected  from  seedlings,  and  almost  no  others  have  yet 
been  planted.  Mr.  Taft  has  fruited  quite  a  number,  perhaps  a  hundred, 
and  finds  it  to  possess  qualities  which  if  properly  selected  and  developed 
will  cause  it  to  equal  the  Strawberry  guava  in  hardiness  and  flavor  and 
early  ripening. 

Mr.  D.  W.  Coolidge,  of  Pasadena,  president  of  the  California  Asso- 
ciation of  Nurserymen,  at  the  annual  meeting  of  that  body  in  Fresno, 
November,  1913,  gave  his  judgment  of  the  standing  of  the  guava  in 
California  as  follows : 

The  guava  is  a  plant  of  great  value  as  an  ornamental.  Its  glossy  green 
foliage  is  scarcely  less  attractive  than  Us  large  snowy  white,  jasmine  scented 
flowers.  While  many  varieties  of  the  guava  are  found  growing  in  our  section, 
few  of  them  to  my  mind  have  any  real  value.  The  strawberry  guava  type  is 
the  hardiest  and  by  all  odds  the  best,  and  all  that  have  had  opportunity  to  test 
it  agree  with  me  in  saying  Guava  lucidum  is  the  best.  This  is  a  yellow  straw- 
berry guava  of  a  distinctive  flavor,  and  were  it  not  for  the  large  seeds  possessed 
by  all  guavas  would  be  considered  an  ideal  desert  fruit.  This  particular 
variety,  too,  is  most  prodigious  in  its  bearing  qualities.  I  have  known  a  plant 
three  years  from  seed  to  nroduce  more  than  a  quart  of  fruit,  and  we  have  had 
in  our  nursery  plants  eighteen  months  from  the  time  the  seed  was  placed  in 
the  ground  with  a  number  of  fruits  on  them.  The  fruits  will  average  an  inch 
or  more  in  diameter,  always  round,  and  are  of  a  bright  lemon  color.  The 
ordinary  strawberr^  or  red  guava  is  worth  while  growing  for  jellies.  Another 
desirable  strawberry  guava  is  the  Guava  araca.  This  in  appearance  is  similar 
to  lucidum,  but  is  much  later.  While  lucidum  ripens  from  September  to 
November,  I  have  never  known  araca  to  ripen  before  the  middle  or  last  of 
December.  This  one  is  the  more  susceptible  to  frost. 

The  guava  grows  quite  readily  from  the  seed,  and  grows  from  cut- 
rings  under  glass.  In  regions  of  generous  rainfall  and  on  retentive  soil 
it  does  not  require  irrigation,  but  it  must  have  sufficient  moisture  at 
command.  A  light  loam  seems  best  adapted  to  the  shrub. 


396  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

THE  FEIJOA 

Along  with  the  guava  should  be  mentioned  the  Feijoa  Sellowiana, 
a  member  also  of  the  myrtle  family.  In  habits  of  growth  it  is  much 
the  same  as  the  guava  and  while  the  foliage  is  not  so  handsome,  being 
of  a  generally  silver  gray  effect,  the  flower  is  very  showy.  In  May  it 
sends  forth  a  great  profusion  of  blossoms,  which  may  be  called  red, 
white  and  blue,  unless  one  desires  to  be  perfectly  accurate,  in  which 
case  the  blue  would  have  to  be  changed  to  purple.  The  petals  are  un- 
usually thick  and  fleshy  and  are  very  sweet  to  the  taste.  The  highly 
perfumed  fruit,  about  one  and  one-half  to  two  inches  or  more  in  length, 
comes  in  November.  The  flavor  is  delicious,  like  the  strawberry,  but 
lacking  the  acid.  The  seeds  are  very  small,  almost  unnoticeable ;  quite 
a  contrast  in  this  respect  to  the  guava.  F.  W.  Popenoe,  Altadena,  Los 
Angeles  County,  has  published  an  excellent  monograph  on  this  fruit. 

Mr.  Coolidge  gives  this  appreciative  sketch  of  the  plant  and  fruit: 

For  eight  years  I  have  been  watching  a  fruit  which  was  introduced  sup- 
posedly as  a  tropical  or  semitropical  fruit,  but  we  find  it  does  not  belong 
to  this  class  at  all.  Feiioa,  comiri~  from  Uruguay  and  Southern  Brazil,  is  a 
fruit  of  extreme  hardiness.  I  have  in  mind  one  plant  that  has  stood  a  tempera- 
ture of  four  degrees  above  zero  without  any  injury  whatever.  I  know  of  other 
plants  growing  on  the  desert  that  have  endured  a  week's  temperature  of  115 
degrees  without  any  injury,  so  we  can  safely  class  it  as  a  hardy  fruit.  So  far 
nothing  but  seedlings  have  been  grown,  and  these  vary  greatly  as  to  bearing 
qualities  and  size  of  fruits,  but  there  are  individual  plants  growing  in  our 
section  that  fruit  regularly  and  produce  fruits  of  a  good  size.  Within  a  few 
years  we  will  have  plants  of  the  feijoa  producing  fruits  on  the  average  as  large 
as  an  ordinary  hen's  egg.  The  fruit  ripening  in  December  gives  it  a  status 
that  no  other  fruit  of  its  character  has.  I  have  kept  the  fruits  in  good  condi- 
tion for  four  weeks  after  picking.  It  is  one  of  our  finest  ornaments  with  its 
grayish  green  persistent  foliage  and  charming  "white  and  red  flowers. 


THE  GRANADILLA 

The  granadilla  is  the  term  applied  to  the  edible  fruit  of  a  species  of 
passion  vine  (Passiflora  edulis)  which  is  quite  hardy,  and  is  growing 
in  different  parts  of  the  State.  The  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a  small 
hen's  egg,  purple  exterior  when  ripe,  the  thin,  brittle  shell  inclosing  a 
mass  of  small  seeds  covered  with  a  brilliant  yellow  pulp,  mildly  acid, 
and  of  very  agreeable  flavor.  Very  good  jelly  has  been  made  of  the 
fruit.  Another  passion  vine  with  large  pink  flowers  is  very  widely  dis- 
tributed in  California,  and  bears  a  large,  yellowish-brown  fruit  with 
edible  pulp. 

THE  JUJUBE 

The  jujube  (zyziphus  jujube),  from  the  fruit  of  which  the  delicate 
paste  of  the  confectioner  is,  or  should  be,  made,  was  introduced  by 
Mr.  G.  P.  Rixford  in  1876,  and  is  fruiting  regularly  and  freely  in  sev- 
eral parts  of  the  State.  The  plant  is  easily  grown  from  seed  or  cuttings. 
The  orange-red  berries  are  produced  three  years  from  planting,  and 
ripen  in  November  and  December.  They  are  edible  fresh  or  dried. 
As  yet  the  fruit  has  not  been  turned  to  commercial  account. 


LOQUAT    AND    PERSIMMON  397 

THE  LOQUAT 

The  loquat  (Eriobotrya  Japonica)  is  widely  grown  in  California  as 
an  ornamental  plant,  and  a  small  amount  of  fruit  is  profitably  marketed 
each  year.  During  the  last  twenty  years  a  very  marked  improvement 
in  loquats  has  been  achieved  by  painstaking  effort  by  Mr.  C.  P.  Taft,  of 
Orange,  whose  experience  is  freely  drawn  upon  in  this  chapter.  Mr. 
Taft's  work  has  demonstrated  that  this  fruit  is  susceptible  of  improve- 
ment in  size,  flavor,  appearance,  in  bearing  habit  of  the  tree,  and  in 
direction  of  early  and  late  varieties,  and  in  all  these  directions  not  only 
in  the  line  of  better  fruit,  but  fruit  which  commands  in  the  market 
several  times  the  value  of  the  common  types.  Upon  the  basis  of  the 
new  varieties  the  season  for  the  loquat  is  from  February  to  June,  the 
bulk  of  the  crop  coming  in  April  and  the  first  half  of  May.  The  Ad- 
vance Loquat  was  the  first  of  the  new  varieties  to  attract  attention.  It 
is  very  prolific.  The  fruit  is  often  as  much  as  three  inches  in  length, 
and  from  one  inch  to  one  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter ;  it  being  of 
a  peculiar  pear  shape.  The  clusters  frequently  contain  twenty  speci- 
mens. Its  color  is  a  bright  orange  yellow  when  fully  ripe,  and  it  should 
never  be  picked  until  it  is  so.  The  flavor  is  distinct  and  very  sweet. 
Many  compare  it  to  the  cherry.  If  not  bruised  when  handled  it  will 
keep  easily  two  weeks,  growing  sweeter  by  the  process,  and  will  eventu- 
ally shrivel  up  without  decay,  thus  proving  itself  capable  of  being 
shipped  long  distances.  Mr.  Taft  has  named  the  following  varieties : 

Blush. — Very  large,  much  like  Advance  resistant  to  diseases. 

Advance. — Yellow,  pear-shaped,  from  two  to  three  inches  in  length,  clusters 
very  large,  very  sweet  when  fully  ripe. 

Premier. — Salmon-colored,  oval,  large,  but  not  as  large  as  the  Advance, 
sweet,  but  peculiar  flavor  . 

Victor. — Largest,  color  pink  to  red,  probably  the  best  for  canning. 

Pineapple. — Very  large,  round,  immense  clusters;  flesh  white,  skin  yellow. 

Commercial. — Very  large,  pear-shaped,  yellow  with  white  flesh. 


THE  PERSIMMON 


The  persimmon  of  the  southern  states  (Diospyros  Virginiana)  was 
introduced  into  California  in  early  days  some  time  ago,  as  there  are 
trees  thirty  to  forty  feet  high  growing  on  Rancho  Chico.  The  widely- 
distributed  species,  however,  is  the  Japanese  (Diospyros  Kaki),  of 
which  many  varieties  are  now  fruiting  in  different  parts  of  the  State. 
The  tree  is  quite  hardy,  and  fruits  freely  both  along  the  coast  region 
and  in  the  interior.  It  easily  takes  the  form  of  a  low  standard,  and 
with  its  large,  glossy  leaves  during  the  summer,  and  its  immense,  high- 
colored  fruit  clinging  to  the  twigs  after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  it  is  a 
striking  object  in  the  orchard  or  in  the  house  garden. 

Persimmons  grow  readily  from  seed,  but  in  most  cases  the  improved 
varieties  must  be  reproduced  by  grafting  on  seedlings  either  of  the 
Japanese  or  American  species.  The  tree  seems  to  thrive  in  any  fair 
fruit  soil,  taking  very  kindly  to  close  soils  if  well  cultivated.  The 
amounts  of  fruit  now  reaching  our  markets  are  increasing  and  a  de- 
mand is  found  for  certain  amounts  at  fair  prices,  but  there  is  no  object 


398  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

now  apparent  for  large  increase  in  production.  This  fruit,  so  highly 
esteemed  in  the  Orient  and  so  highly  praised  by  travelers,  has  not  be- 
come as  popular  as  expected  on  this  coast,  nor  have  the  great  markets 
at  the  East  required  more  than  a  carload  or  two  a  year  so  far.  Such 
limited  shipments  have,  however,  sold  well  in  the  large  Atlantic  coast 
cities,  where  a  considerable  number  of  Orientals  have  congregated. 
Americans  who  wish  persimmon  at  all  seem  to  prefer  the  smaller  but 
more  piquant  Virginia  species. 

Recently,  however,  the  local  demand  has  increased  because  of  the 
large  numbers  of  Japanese  who  are  now  upon  the  Pacific  Coast  and 
a  shipping  demand  for  the  fruit  from  Seattle  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands 
and  other  Pacific  ports,  has  arisen.  Local  sale  in  San  Francisco  and 
Los  Angeles  is  profitable  in  a  small  way.  The  removal  of  astringency 
while  the  fruit  remains  firm  has  been  successfully  accomplished  by 
Mr.  George  C.  Roeding  of  Fresno,  following  a  Japanese  method.  It  is 
simply  to  place  the  fruit  in  tubs,  from  which  saki,  or  Japanese  "rice 
beer,"  has  been  lately  removed.  The  tubs  are  hermetically  sealed,  and 
the  fruit  left  in  them  from  eight  to  ten  days.  When  it  is  then  removed, 
it  is  found  to  have  altogether  lost  the  puckering  power.  Mr.  Roeding 
says  that  he  used  eight  large  saki  tubs,  each  of  which  would  hold 
twenty-five  gallons,  and  in  those  treated  one  thousand  pounds  of  per- 
simmons. 

Perhaps  the  largest  single  persimmon-producing  proposition  in  Cali- 
fornia is  that  of  Ira  Avery,  in  Placer  County,  which  is  thus  described 
by  Mr.  R.  E.  Hodges : 

A  mile  down  grade  into  the  American  River  canyon,  protected  on  all  sides  by 
magnificent  hills,  Ira  Avery's  father-in-law  planted  Japanese  persimmon  trees 
in  1876,  and  three  of  them  are  still  thrifty  and  bearing.  It  was  in  1887  that 
Mr.  Avery  bought  the  ranch  and  planted  50  more.  In  the  years  since  then, 
many  persimmons  have  been  planted  in  whatever  nooks  of  the  ranch  were 
available  until  he  now  has  1500  trees  ranging  from  one  to  38  years  old.  Four 
hundred  were  planted  last  snring,  and  one  of  these  bore  fruit  the  same  season, 
the  first  four  or  five  years,  however,  all  fruit  should  be  picked  off.  It  is  during 
this  time,  too,  that  all  the  pruning  is  done,  just  to  shape  the  tree.  Picking 
begins  the  middle  of  September  and  lasts  till  December.  The  fruit  is  then 
unripe,  hard  as  a  green  tomato,  colored,  but  not  the  same  as  they  become  later. 
They  are  wrapped  in  papers  like  peaches,  and  packed  in  peach  boxes,  holding 
about  30  Ibs. ;  the  largest  size  being  highest  priced.  The  Tane  Nashi  variety  pays 
best  on  account  of  its  size  and  earliness.  Seven  main  varieties  are  grown  and 
shipped,  as  follows:  Tane  Nashi,  Hachiyu,  Hyakume  (the  most  important), 
Maru  Kaki,  Mikado,  and  Edoishi. 

Some  trees  yield  over  30  boxes,  many  are  not  yet  in  bearing;  the  crop  in 
1912  was  2200  boxes,  in  1913  1500,  because  the  trees  bear  lighter  in  alternate 
years. 

New  York  is  the  best  market,  Pittsburg,  Philadelphia  and  Boston  being 
good,  while  the  demand  is  light  in  the  Middle  West.  Many  are  sold  in  San 
Francisco,  where  the  average  net  in  1913  was  $1.08><  per  box,  while  the  net  on 
eastern  shipments  was  $1.35.  The  fruit  is  too  hard  to  eat  even  after  shipment 
to  New  York,  where  it  must  be  stored  some  time  until  well  ripened. 

THE  PINEAPPLE 

Casual  experiments  with  the  pineapple  in  the  open  air  in  this  State 
have  been  made  for  a  number  of  years,  the  fruit  being  occasionally 
produced.  Most  has  been  accomplished  by  Mr.  J.  B.  Rapp,  of  Holly- 


PINEAPPLE  AND  POMEGRANATE  399 

wood,  Los  Angeles  County.  Mr.  Rapp's  place  is  in  the  Cahuenga 
Valley,  and  in  that  part  of  the  valley  which  is  famed  as  frostless,  where 
even  beans  and  tomatoes  survive  winter  temperatures.  Mr.  Rapp  set 
out  his  first  twenty-five  plants  in  1891,  and  a  number  of  his  neighbors 
also  set  out  groups  of  plants,  but  two  years  finished  up  all  but  his.  In 
1893  the  first  of  his  plants  fruited,  but  they  did  not  seem  to  take  kindly 
to  the  situation  at  first.  They  grew  very  slowly  and  the  first  fruit  only 
weighed  half  a  pound.  After  setting  out  his  own  acclimated  plants, 
they  have  done  better  each  year,  and  the  fruit  which  Mr.  Rapp  has  sold 
recently  has  weighed  from  two  to  four  pounds  each.  If  the  strongest 
offsets  or  suckers  are  planted  they  bear  inside  of  a  year,  and  Mr.  Rapp 
is  endeavoring  to  have  his  fruit  set  from  May  to  November,  as  the  fruit 
setting  at  other  times  in  the  year  is  usually  undersized  on  account  of 
the  slow  growth  during  the  winter  and  early  spring.  It  seems  probable 
that  the  pineapple  resents  the  dry  air  of  our  summer  as  well  as  the  lack 
of  winter  heat,  and  a  lath  covering  and  a  summer  spraying  may  be 
desirable.  It  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  fruit  can  be  profitably  grown 
in  this  State  on  a  commercial  scale. 

The  pineapple  thrives  best  on  a  fine  sandy  loam,  but  will  grow  well 
on  many  soils  if  well  drained  and  cultivated.  The  plants  can  be  set 
three  by  three  or  four  by  five  feet,  so  as  to  allow  cultivation  both  ways 
while  the  plants  are  young.  Plants  are  secured  from  "suckers,"  which 
come  from  the  root,  from  "slips,"  which  grow  on  the  stem  just  below 
the  "apple,"  and  from  "crowns,"  or  the  tufts  of  leaves  at  the  top  of  the 
fruit.  Suckers  are  said  to  bear  in  one  year,  and  slips  and  crowns  in 
two  years.  Strong  suckers  are  best  for  planting,  and  they  should  be  set 
out  early  in  the  spring  as  soon  as  the  danger  of  cold  weather  is  over. 


THE  POMEGRANATE 

This  fruit  (Punica  granatum),  famed  in  literature  and  art,  is  grown 
in  various  parts  of  the  State,  and  certain  amounts  are  profitably  sold. 
The  shrub  or  low  tree,  in  good  soil,  will  reach  the  height  of  twenty 
feet.  It  is  a  hardy  plant,  easy  of  propagation  from  seed  or  cutting. 
The  beauty  of  the  tree,  not  taking  the  fruit  into  account,  has  caused  it 
to  be  planted  in  many  gardens.  Exposed  to  the  raw  sea  winds  it  does 
not  bloom  well  not  set  with  fruit,  and  is  best  adapted  to  the  warmer 
regions  of  the  interior,  where  it  is  an  early  and  abundant  bearer.  The 
variety  chiefly  cultivated  is  a  bright  orange  color,  but  there  is  found  a 
large  variety  of  them,  varying  from  almost  pure  white  with  a  faint 
blush,  to  dark  red.  The  fruit  ripens  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  State, 
north  and  south,  in  October. 

Pomegranates  for  eastern  shipment  are  proving  profitable  in  the 
Porterville  district,  whence  nine  carloads  were  shipped  in  1913,  and 
the  packers  reported  the  supply  scant  of  the  demand.  In  that  year  the 
greater  part  of  the  fruit  shipped  netted  about  $2.00  for  four-basket 
boxes,  or  at  the  rate  of  approximately  $75  per  ton  net  to  the  growers. 
An  especial  feature  was  made  of  fancy  packages,  which  proved  accept- 
able to  the  trade. 


400  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW   TO  GROW  THEM 

THE  STRAWBERRY  TREE 

The  Spanish  madrono  (Arbutus  unedo)  is  now  quite  widely  grown, 
chiefly  as  an  ornamental  shrub  or  tree.  The  growth  is  exceedingly 
beautiful  if  kept  free'  from  scale  insects,  the  fruit  ranging  as  it  ripens 
through  shades  of  yellow,  orange,  and  deep  red,  and  contrasting  beau- 
tifully with  the  glossy  evergreen  foliage.  The  fruit  is  of  pleasant 
flavor. 

MELON  SHRUB 

This  plant  (Solanum  Guatemalense)  is  a  small,  half-herbaceous 
shrub  from  the  table-land  of  Guatemala.  The  fruit  is  yellow,  splashed 
with  violet,  somewhat  of  the  shape  of  the  egg-plant,  but  is  usually 
seedless,  and  is  readily  propagated  from  cuttings.  There  are  thriving 
plants  in  many  protected  places  in  the  State,  and  some  fruit  reaches  the 
market,  but  few  seem  to  like  the  flavor,  which  is  something  like  a 
tomato  and  melon  mixed.  Its  greatest  use  will  probably  be  for  salads. 


THE  MELON  TREE 

The  melon  pawpaw  (Carica  papaya)  has  been  widely  introduced 
experimentally  in  this  State,  and  many  situations  are  found  unfitted 
for  its  growth,  but  satisfactory  fruiting  has  been  secured  at  several 
places  in  southern  California,  especially  if  protected  the  first  year  it 
will  stand  light  frosts  afterwards.  With  Mr.  Cammack,  at  Whittier, 
Los  Angeles  County,  it  ripens  fruit  the  third  year  from  the  seed — the 
fruit  being  pleasant  to  eat  as  one  would  a  mushroom.  The  large  fig- 
like  leaves  and  the  peculiar  markings  of  the  trunk  make  the  tree  a 
very  striking  object. 

THE  PRICKLY  PEAR 

The  tuna,  or  fruit  of  the  cactus  (Opuntia  vulgaris),  is  produced  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  State  except  on  the  mountains.  It  was  one  of 
the  old  mission  fruits,  and  was  enjoyed  by  the  early  mining  population 
until  better  fruits  were  available.  It  is  about  as  large  as  a  medium- 
sized  pear,  and  has  a  pleasant  acid  flavor  is  one  succeeds  in  escaping 
the  prickels  in  getting  at  the  interior  of  the  fruit.  The  tuna  is  still  a 
commercial  article  in  a  small  way.*  Plants  are  grown  readily  from  cut- 
tings of  the  fleshy  leaves. 

Quite  a  distinction  must  now  be  made  between  the  foregoing  and 
the  smooth  or  spineless  fruits  which  are  superior  in  quality  as  well  as 
unarmed  with  prickles,  and  therefore  readily  handled  and  eaten.  Varie- 
ties more  or  less  innocent  in  this  respect  were  introduced  from  the 
Mediterranean  region  many  years  ago,  and  propagated  to  a  limited 
extent.  Recently  Mr.  Luther  Burbank  of  Santa  Rosa  has  undertaken 
special  work  with  the  cactus,  both  for  fruiting  and  forage  purposes, 
and  has  attained  remarkable  results  which  are  attracting  wide  attention, 
and  upon  which  producing  enterprises  are  being  undertaken. 

*The  tuna  as  food  for  man,  by  David  Griffiths,  Bulletin   116,   Bureau  of  Pjant  Industry. 


AVOCADO    OR    AGUACATE  401 

THE  ALLIGATOR  PEAR 

The  avocado,  or  Aguacate  of  the  Mexicans  (Persea  gratissima)  has 
proved  hardy  in  several  districts  in  the  State,  north  and  south.  It  is 
not  likely  that  it  will  be  satisfactory  without  high  summer  heat  and 
freedom  from  heavy  frosts.  It  is,  however,  one  of  the  most  promising 
of  its  class  of  fruits,  as  it  is  known  to  epicures,  and  its  marketing  at  a 
high  price  is  reasonably  assured.  Mr.  J.  C.  Harvey,  of  Los  Angeles, 
gives  this  interesting  account  of  it : 

It  is  a  handsome  evergreen  tree,  and,  in  the  typical  form,  bears  elliptical 
leaves  from  two  and  one-half  to  three  inches  in  width,  narrow  toward  the  base, 
and  about  six  inches  long.  In  some  varieties  the  new  growth  is  of  a  reddish 
brown,  ultimately  becoming  deep  green.  The  fruits  are  pear-shaped,  about  the 
size  of  a  Bartlett  pear,  and  contain  a  single,  rather  large  seed.  When  ripe,  the 
skin,  which  is  much  thinner  than  that  of  an  orange,  parts  easily  from  the  pulp, 
which  is  of  a  moderately  firm  though  buttery  consistency,  and  forms,  with  lime 
juice  or  pepper  and  salt,  one  of  the  most  delicious  salads  known  to  epicures. 
Indeed,  the  fruit  is  a  perfect  mayonnaise  in  itself.  Few  persons  fail  to  like  it, 
even  at  first,  and  in  countries  where  it  is  common,  it  is  esteemed  above  all 
other  vegetable  productions,  both  by  natives  and  foreigners  alike.  The  pulp  is 
quite  rich  in  a  bland  and  most  agreeable  oil,  said  to  be  very  nutritious.  The 
tree  attains  a  height  of  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  feet,  and  forms  a  hand- 
some object  when  liberally  cultivated.  The  tree,  is  a  gross  feeder.  Good- 
sized  trees  carry  a  large  crop,  which,  after  attaining  a  certain  size,  can  be  picked 
at  intervals  of  a  week  or  two,  extending  over  a  period  of  two  or  three  months, 
the  fruits  in  each  instance  ripening  in  a  week  or  ten  days  after  gathering; 
and  a  very  remarkable  fact  is  that  the  quality  or  flavor  of  the  last  picking 
seems  just  the  same  as  the  first. 

The  alligator  pear  must  be  considered  as  one  of  the  most  promising 
fruits  included  in  this  chapter;  it  is  now  being  planted  largely  and  it 
may  prove  the  most  profitable  of  the  group.  Efforts  are  in  progress  for 
improved  varieties  by  selection  from  fruiting  seedlings  and  propagation 
by  budding. 

The  seeds  may  be  started  in  small  pots,,  and  shifted  before  they 
become  potbound  into  small  redwood  boxes.  As  the  plants  attain  the 
size  of  a  lead  pencil  and  larger,  bud  them  at  any  time  during  the  reason 
when  the  bark  will  slip  and  when  budwood  is  obtainable,  using  care  not 
to  cut  or  injure  the  cambium  layer.  The  bud  is  tied  with  wax  cloth, 
and  trained  up  as  in  any  other  budded  tree.  As  the  bud  unites,  say  in 
from  two  to  four  weeks  (as  the  case  may  be)  the  seedling  is  partly  cut 
back  to  force  out  the  bud.  The  strings  are  left  on  until  the  bud  starts. 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  use  too  much  water  in  growing  the  young 
trees. 

The  literature  of  the  alligator  pear  is  increasing  and  should  be 
consulted.* 

Two  general  types  of  avocado  are,  in  1914,  being  rather  sharply 
contrasted ;  the  thick-skinned,  being  advocated  as  more  likely  to  be 
profitable  in  California  because  its  covering  favors  long  shipment  and 
because  it  is  better  known  at  the  east,  as  the  Florida  product  is  of  that 

*The  Avocado,  by  G.  N.  Collins.  Bulletin  77,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agr.  1907.  Consult  also  Yearbooks  of  Ihe  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.  for  1905  and  1906.  The 
Avocado  in  Southern  California  and  the  Development  of  the  Avocado  Industry  by  F.  W. 
Popenoe,  Altadena,  Los  Angeles  county.  New  varieties  of  the  Avocado  for  California,  by 
K.  A.  Ryerson,  University  of  California  Journal  of  Agriculture,  November,  1913.  Mr. 
Ryerson  gives  original  descriptions  of  fourteen  varieties  which  he  considers  superior  for 
commercial  planting. 


402  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

type ;  the  thin-skinned,  because  of  its  greater  frost  resistance.  Califor- 
nians  have  still  much  to  learn  of  this  fruit  both  in  its  cultural  and  com- 
mercial aspects.  At  the  California  Nurserymen's  convention  of  1913 
Mr.  J.  S.  Armstrong  of  Ontario  gave  the  following  review  of  varieties 
now  being  propagated : 

The  thin  skinned  sorts  are  much  the  hardier,  some  excellent  types  of  which 
are  now  fruiting  with  us.  The  best  of  these  I  may  mention :  The  Harman,  the 
Ganter,  the  Northup,  the  Fowler  and  the  Chappelow.  Last  winter  (1913)  young 
trees  of  these  hardy  types  withstood  from  five  to  fifteen  degrees  of  frost  without 
serious  injury  where  the  trees  had  been  allowed  to  harden  up.  One  twelve- 
year-old  seedling  tree  in  the  colder  part  of  the  valley  withstood  a  temperature 
of  12  degrees  above  zero.  The  ends  of  the  branches  were  nipped,  but  the  main 
branches  were  not  injured. 

The  thick  skinned  varieties  are  not  as  resistant  to  extremes  of  heat  or  cold, 
however,  as  the  former  mentioned  types,  hence  are  recommended  only  for 
planting  in  more  favored  localities.  Among  the  best  known  thick-skinned 
varieties  are  the  Taft,  Lyon,  Wagner,  Meserve,  and  Walker.  Of  these  the  Taft 
is  undoubtedly  the  best.  It  is  pear  shaped,  weighing  a  pound  or  over.  On  Mr. 
C.  P.  Taft's  grounds  near  Orange  the  original  is  a  large  spreading  tree  which 
usually  bears  several  hundred  fruits  annually. 

As  there  is  an  uncommonly  great  variation  in  the  time  of  blooming 
and  also  in  the  period  required  for  the  fruit  of  different  types  of  trees 
to  come  to  maturity,  an  orchard  may  be  obtained  by  selection  which 
will  bear  continuously.  This  is  of  course  very  desirable  to  the  con- 
sumer and  immaterial  to  the  market  grower,  as  there  is  plenty  of 
demand  at  all  times. 


THE  WHITE  SAPOTA 

There  are  two  old  trees  in  Santa  Barbara,  one  believed  to  have 
survived  from  the  mission  planting  in  the  early  part  of  the  last  century, 
the  other  half  as  old,  of  the  white  sapota  (Casimiroa  edulis).  Dr. 
Franceschi  commends  the  tree  for  every  garden.  Mr.  Harvey  of  Los 
Angeles  describes  the  sapota  as  growing  with  him  from  seed  from 
Vera  Cruz  as  follows: 

This  tree  endures  slight  frosts  unharmed.  It  is  indigenous  in  northwest  Mex- 
ico and  is  remarkable  among  the  Aurantiacea,  producing  green  colored  flowers, 
and  superficially  bears  little  resemblance  to  an  otherwise  well-marked  order  of 
plants.  The  fruits  are  the  size  of  apples,  and  are  esteemed  in  that  portion  of 
Mexico  where  it  is  common;  according  to  some  botanical  authorities  it  is  not 
considered  altogether  wholesome,  possessing  narcotic  properties.  The  pulp  is 
described  as  possessing  a  delicious,  melting,  peach-like  taste. 

Mr.  Taft  reports  the  sapota  as  bearing  well  with  him.  The  tree  is 
an  exceedingly  rapid  grower,  much  after  the  habit  of  the  walnut,  but 
evergreen.  In  August  and  September  the  peach-like  fruit,  greenish 
yellow,  with  large  seeds  shaped  life  those  of  an  orange,  matures  well 
and  is  excellent,  this  being  the  normal  season  for  ripening.  At  other 
times  fruit  is  often  found,  but  is  apt  to  be  worthless  and  even  dangerous. 
As  it  will  not  ripen  well  off  the  trees  and  must  be  quite  soft  when 
eaten,  it  will  never  be  of  much  market  value. 


OTHER   MINOR   SEMI-TROPICALS  403 

THE  TREE  TOMATO 

This  plant  (Cyphomandra  betacea)  is  a  native  of  Central  America 
and  is  of  shrubbery  habit,  growing  five  or  six  feet  high,  with  large, 
shining  leaves,  often  a  foot  long.  The  flowers  are  fragrant,  of  a  pale 
flesh  color,  with  yellow  stamens,  and  are  followed  by  fruit  the  shape 
and  size  of  a  duck's  egg,  at  first  of  a  purple  tint,  but  gradually  assuming 
a  warm,  reddish  color  as  it  ripens.  When  ripe  the  fruit  may  be  used 
raw  as  a  tomato  is.  If  the  skin  is  removed  and  the  fruit  stewed  with 
sugar,  it  has  a  slight  sub-acid  flavor  which  is  very  refreshing.  It 
makes  a  fine  jelly.  The  plants  bear  the  second  year  from  the  seed  and 
the  fruit  ripens  continuously  for  several  months.  The  seeds  should  be 
started  just  as  are  those  of  the  common  tomato,  and  the  plants  set  out 
eight  or  ten  feet  apart. 

THE  KAI  APPLE 

This  name  is  applied  to  the  fruit  of  Aberia  Caffra,  a  native  of  Natal 
and  Kaffaria,  a  tall  shrub,  yielding  an  edible  fruit  of  a  golden  yellow 
color,  about  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  is  commended  as  a  hedge  plant,  as 
it  is  densely  clothed  with  strong  dry  spines.  The  leaves  are  small  and 
of  a  rich  green  hue.  The  fruit,  which  is  produced  freely  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  the  State,  is  chiefly  used  for  making  preserves. 


OTHER  FRUITS 

The  foregoing  enumeration  does  not  include  all  the  exotic  fruits 
which  have  found  a  place  in  California  soil.  There  are  many  more, 
some  of  which  are  demonstrating  their  fitness  to  add  to  the  graces  or 
the  gains  of  our  horticultural  life.  The  caricas,  carissas,  eugenias, 
hovenia,  etc.,  are  all  gaining  places  in  California  gardens.  Even  the 
more  strictly  tropical  mango,  the  monstera,  sapodilla  and  the  like  are 
claiming  the  attention  of  amateurs.  Of  the  mango  in  southern  Cali-. 
fornia  the  best  account  is  by  F.  W.  Popenoe,  Altadena. 


PART    SIX:    SMALL    FRUITS 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 
BERRIES  AND  CURRANTS  IN  CALIFORNIA 

In  suitable  soils  and  situations,  and  with  proper  care  and  cultivation, 
the  small  fruits  sustain  the  general  reputation  of  California  by  the  size 
and  quality  of  the  product,  and  by  the  long-continued  and  abundant 
fruiting  of  the  plants.  Probably  nowhere  else  in  the  world  do  small 
fruits  better  repay  generous  treatment  than  in  this  State,  and  probably 
nowhere  do  they  suffer  more  from  neglect.  There  are  parts  of  the 
State,  of  course,  where  some  small  fruits,  left  to  their  own  resources, 
thrive  and  bear  abundantly,  but,  speaking  of  the  State  as  a  whole,  the 
price  of  success  is  intelligent  devotion  on  the  part  of  the  grower. 

There  are  localities  in  California  which  favor  almost  continuous 
growth  and  fruiting  of  some  of  the  small  fruits,  and  it  is  no  fiction  to 
say  that  in  such  a  place  one  may  have  raspberries  and  strawberries 
upon  his  table  every  month  of  the  year.  Such  situations  are  the  thermal 
belts,  which  are  practically  frostless,  and,  by  securing  favoring  moisture 
conditions  in  the  soil  and  proper  varieties  of  the  fruits,  the  existing 
temperature  conditions  will  produce  the  results  indicated.  Though  this 
be  the  case,  the  profitable  growth  of  small  fruits  is  not,  of  course, 
restricted  to  such  situations,  but  the  largest  commercial  enterprises  are 
carried  on  in  places  where  the  summer-crop  rule  prevails,  but  the  bear- 
ing season  is  much  larger  than  in  the  eastern  States. 

Small  fruits  for  family  use  may  be  grown  on  all  fertile  soils,  and 
therefore  they  should  be  produced  on  every  farm.  Growing  for  market 
on  a  large  scale  involves  considerations  of  suitability  of  soil  and  climate, 
ease  of  cultivation,  water  supply,  and  facilities  for  transportation,  which 
will  probably  occur  to  any  one  who  gives  the  matter  the  thought  and 
personal  observation  of  existing  small  fruit  farms,  which  such  an 
important  commercial  venture  should  command. 

It  is  often  claimed  that  soil  for  small  fruits  should  be  deep  and  rich 
of  the  types  generally  called  garden  soils.  There  is  an  advantage  in 
this  because  of  amount  of  plant  food  and  retention  of  moisture  when 
well  cultivated,  but  at  the  same  time  shallow  soils  even  when  overlying 
hardpan,  which  may  not  suit  deep  rooting  trees  or  garden  roots,  can 
be  profitably  used  for  small  fruits  if  water  and  fertilizers  are  intelli- 
gently used.  This  will  be  stated  more  fully  in  the  discussion  of  the 
strawberry,  but  the  general  fact  is  pertinent  to  the  growth  of  other 
small  fruits  also. 

Preparation  of  soil  for  small  fruits  should  be  most  thorough  and 
careful.  Even  more  generous  work  than  that  commanded  in  Chapter 
X  for  trees  and  vines  should  be  done.  It  is  the  more  necessary  to 
work  deeply  because  subsequent  culture  of  small  fruits  must  be  shallow. 

404 


CALIFORNIA    BLACKBERRY    GROWING  405 

THE  BLACKBERRY 

The  blackberry  is  a  great  favorite  in  California  markets.  It  thrives 
in  all  parts  of  the  State,  and  the  plant  is  best  suited  of  all  small  fruits 
to  yield  generously  without  irrigation,  though  it  relishes  sufficient  mois- 
ture and  repays  it  with  fruit.  There  is  great  difference  in  practice  as  to 
supplying  water  artificially.  The  growth  of  cane,  and  the  size  and 
appearance  of  the  fruit,  will  show  the  observing  grower  what  should 
be  the  practice  in  his  situation,  and  the  general  suggestions  as  to  irriga- 
tion in  Chapter  XV  are  applicable.  There  are  regions  in  which  blacK- 
berries  are  irrigated  weekly  throughout  the  summer,  and  others  in  which 
the  berries  are  gathered  from  June  to  November  without  irrigation.  Of 
course,  with  such  wide  local  variations  there  can  be  no  general  rule  for 
practice.  Let  the  grower  simply  bear  in  mind  that  if  he  does  not  get 
good,  plump,  and  glistening  fruit  and  good  strong  growth  of  new  canes 
at  the  same  time,  he  should  give  irrigation.  The  requirements  of  the 
plant  during  the  fruiting  season  are  great,  and  they  must  be  met.  Many 
failures  are  due  to  lack  of  irrigation  when  needed. 

Propagation. — Blackberry  plants  are  secured  by  digging  up  the 
shoots  which  come  late  in  the  summer  from  old  stools ;  securing  there- 
with a  bunch  of  fibrous  roots  with  a  portion  of  the  main  root  three  or 
four  inches  long.  To  propagate  on  a  large  scale  dig  up  the  roots 
entirely,  and,  cutting  them  up  with  pruning  shears  into  pieces  about 
two  inches  long,  plant  them  in  a  well-prepared  bed  in  the  garden  or 
nursery.  Place  the  root  cuttings  about  two  inches  apart  and  cover 
about  three  inches  deep  with  well-pulverized  soil,  the  depth  being 
regulated,  of  course,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  deeper  in  light 
than  heavy  soils.  A  light  mulch  will  assist  in  retaining  moisture.  The 
time  for  this  work  is  at  the  dormant  period  of  the  plant.  One  summer's 
growth  gives  good  plants  for  setting  out. 

The  Mammoth  and  Crandall  are  propagated  by  rooting  tips  of 
canes. 

Planting  out  Blackberries. — Blackberries  should  be  planted  in 
rows  far  enough  apart  to  admit;  of  the  use  of  the  horse  and  cultivator. 
As  the  constant  tendency  of  the  plant  is  to  extend  itself  in  the  growth 
of  new  canes,  the  rows  should  not  be  less  than  six  to  eight  feet  part, 
and  the  plants  about  three  feet  apart  in  the  row.  The  plants  soon 
occupy  the  full  space  in  the  row,  and  cultivation  is  only  possible  between 
the  rows.  Some  growers  plant  blackberries  as  they  do  grapevines, 
seven  or  eight  feet  apart  both  ways,  and  then  cultivate  with  the  horse 
both  ways.  Planting  in  rows  is  usually  thought  better.  The  number 
of  plants  to  fill  an  acre  at  different  distances  can  be  calculated  as 
described  in  Chapter  XXVI  for  grapevines. 

D.  Edson  Smith,  of  Orange  County,  who  had  much  experience  with 
small  fruits,  described  his  method  of  laying  out  and  planting  on  a  large 
scale,  with  a  view  to  irrigation,  as  follows : 

Plow  deeply  and  harrow  thoroughly  several  times  before  setting  out.  Lastly, 
open  a  trench  with  your  plow  where  the  row  is  to  be,  twenty  inches  deep;  go 
along  with  a  basket  of  plants,  a  four-foot  lath  and  a  shovel,  and  set  a  plant  in 
this  trench  every  four  feet  and  fill  the  dirt  around  it  with  the  shovel.  If  this 
trench  is  too  deep  in  places  for  the  length  of  the  plant  root,  fill  in  with  a  little 


406  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

dirt;  if  not  quite  deep  enough  in  places,  scoop  out  a  shovelful.  Aim,  in  prepar- 
ing the  ground  with  plow  and  smoother,  to  leave  it  dishing  each  way  toward 
the  row  of  young  plants,  so  that  irrigating  water  turned  in  at  the  upper  end  will 
run  along  the  row  of  plants  as  in  a  trough.  Aim  to  have  the  ground  around  the 
set  plants  a  few  inches  below  the  general  level  of  the  land.  After  the  plants  are 
all  set  in  a  row,  go  along  with  a  rake  if  there  are  but  a  few  plants,  or  with  a 
horse-hoe  is  there  are  many,  and  fill  in  the  trench  between  the  plants.  It  is  a 
pleasure  to  set  out  plants  in  this  way,  and  such  deep,  rich,  well-stirred  soil 
delights  the  plant  roots,  so  that  they  grow  rapidly  in  every  direction,  and  the 
plants  throw  up  their  heads  in  a  manner  entirely  satisfactory  to  all  concerned. 
If  the  ground  is  dry,  or  there  is  no  rain  soon  after  setting  out  the  plants,  irrigat- 
ing water  should  be  turned  down  the  row  or  at  least  a  quart  or  two  of  water 
poured  around  each  plant;  then,  before  the  soil  hardens,  stir  it  well  with  cultivator 
and  hoe.  All  future  care  resolves  itself  into  frequent  waterings  and  frequent 
stirrings  of  the  soil.  Allow  no  weeds  to  appear,  and  keep  three  inches  of  surface 
soil  well  loosened  with  the  horse  and  hoes.  These  small  fruits  require  frequent 
waterings,  especially  when  forming  fruit  and  during  the  fruiting  season. 

Cultivation. — Thorough  cultivation  of  the  surface  soil  is  essen- 
tial for  retention  of  moisture.  After  the  plants  attain  size,  cultivation 
should  be  secured  with  as  shallow-cutting  tools  as  possible  so  as  to 
prevent  injury  to  the  roots,  which  not  only  weakens  the  plant,  but 
increases  the  growth  of  suckers  between  the  rows.  A  horse-hoe  with  a 
long  knife  running  horizontally,  or  with  duck-foot  teeth,  well  sharpened, 
answers  well  in  keeping  the  ground  clear  of  weeds  and  suckers,  and  the 
surface  loose.  Due  regard  must,  however,  be  paid  to  securing  sufficient 
depth  in  this  surface  layer  to  prevent  the  soil  beneath  baking  hard  and 
drying  out,  as  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  cultivation. 

Frequency  of  cultivation  depends  upon  irrigation,  for  the  cultivator 
must  always  follow  the  application  of  water.  The  spaces  in  the  row 
which  can  not  be  reached  with  the  cultivator  must  be  kept  clean  from 
weeds,  and  free  from  baking,  by  the  use  of  the  hoe.  It  is  advisable 
that  the  cultivation  be  the  cleanest  possible,  for  moisture  exhaustion  by 
weeds  can  not  be  afforded. 

Pruning  and  Training. — There  is  a  little  difference  in  the  way 
of  training  blackberries  practiced  in  this  State.  Of  course  this  does 
not  include  the  "let  alone"  system,  which  is  not  followed  by  any  good 
grower.  The  difference  lies  mainly  in  the  use  or  disuse  of  artificial 
supports  for  the  canes.  In  either  case  the  pruning  of  the  canes  is 
similar  in  kind  but  different  in  degree,  for  if  no  supports  are  used,  the 
canes  are  headed  lower. 

At  planting  out,  cut  back  the  cane  to  near  the  surface  of  the  ground 
and  mark  the  plant  with  a  small  stake.  At  first  the  top  growth  should 
not  be  checked,  but  when  new  canes  grow  out  strongly  they  should  be 
pinched  at  the  tip  to  force  out  lateral  branches  for  fruiting  the  next 
year.  Those  who  intend  to  tie  canes  to  a  stake  or  trellis  let  them  attain 
a  height  of  five  or  six  feet  before  pinching  off  the  terminal  bud ;  those 
who  intend  to  teach  the  cane  to  stand  alone  pinch  when  it  is  about  four 
feet  high.  All  agree  to  pinch  off  the  ends  of  the  lateral  branches  at 
about  eight  to  twelve  inches  from  the  main  stem.  This  pinching  of 
blackberry  canes  may  be  done  by  the  watchful  grower  of  a  few  plants, 
with  the  thumb  and  finger,  but  thrifty  blackberry  plants  are  such  rapid 
cane  growers  that  in  large  plantations  cutting  back  is  often  done  with 
a  sickle  or  corn  hook  or  sharp  butcher-knife,  several  times  in  the  course 


PRUNING  THE  BLACKBERRY  407 

of  the  summer.  It  is  also  advisable  to  thin  out  the  suckers  with  the  hoe 
while  cutting  out  weeds,  leaving  only  about  as  many  as  it  is  desired 
to  have  for  fruit  the  next  season.  This  method  gives  stout  canes,  with 
plenty  of  short  side  branches,  well  supplied  with  buds,  which  will  send 
out  fruiting  shoots  the  following  spring.  If  supports  are  used,  the  four 
to  six  canes  which  are  left  to  each  stool  are  gathered  within  a  loosely- 
drawn  bale  rope  and  tied  to  the  stake ;  or  if  a  trellis  is  used,  the  branches 
are  brought  up  to  the  wire  or  slat  so  that  the  distance  is  about  evenly 
divided  between  the  shoots. 

Mr.  Claud  D.  Tribble  of  Elk  Grove  gives  the  following  advice  for 
handling  the  Lawton,  which  is  the  chief  upright  variety  grown  in 
California : 

Give  the  plants  some  support  the  first  season  by  a  stake,  and  the  second  season 
the  permanent  stakes  are  put  in,  one  on  each  side  of  the  plant.  In  driving  them, 
allow  the  tops  to  be  wider  than  the  bottom  so  the  berries  can  be  picked  easily. 
Large  wires  or  wooden  cleats  are  used  to  support  the  vines  or  canes.  The  posts 
are  about  six  feet  long  and  driven  in  the  ground  until  solid,  making  the  top 
about  five  feet  high.  During  the  first  season's  growth  there  is  very  little  pruning 
except  thinning  to  the  desired  number  of  canes.  The  second  year  the  canes  are 
allowed  to  grow  above  the  stakes  and  then  tipped  to  cause  laterals  to  form, 
which  are  cut  back  to  less  than  12  inches  to  produce  berries  the  following  season. 
The  old  wood  is  cut  out  each  season  and  the  new  shoots  trained  as  before. 
If  the  old  canes  are  cut  out  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  gathered,  it  is  done  more 
economically  and  the  young  plants  grow  better. 

Though  these  systematic  methods  of  summer  pruning  are  practiced 
and  advocated  by  the  most  careful  growers,  it  should  be  stated  that 
there  are  large  plantations  which  are  conducted  upon  a  more  simple 
system.  The  pruning  consists  in  cutting  out  old  canes  in  the  winter, 
and  the  only  summer  pruning  is  slashing  off  these  canes  which  interfere 
with  cultivation.  The  canes  are  sometimes  held  up  by  tying  bunches 
of  them  together  with  ropes.  Of  course  this  system  costs  less  than  the 
more  careful  one  which  has  been  described,  and  yields  profit  enough 
to  induce  adherence  to  it.  No  doubt  quite  as  great  weight  of  berries 
could  be  had  from  a  smaller  area  by  a  better  system  of  growing. 

After  the  leaves  fall,  the  canes  which  have  borne  fruit  during  the 
summer  are  all  cut  off  even  with  the  surface  of  the  ground  with  long- 
handled  pruning  shears  or  with  a  short  hooked  knife  with  a  long 
handle,  and  all  debris  removed  from  the  rows. 

Application  of  Manure. — The  blackberry  loves  very  rich  ground, 
and  plenty  of  well-rotted  stable  manure  or  compost,  as  described  in 
Chapter  XIV,  should  be  applied.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  apply  in  a  thick 
covering  all  over  the  ground  and  between  the  canes  as  soon  as  the 
patch  is  cleaned  up  in  the  fall.  The  early  rains  carry  down  the  soluble 
parts  of  the  manure,  and  later  in  the  season  the  whole  is  plowed  in 
between  the  rows,  leaving  a  foot  or  more  next  the  plants  to  be  carefully 
forked  in,  as  the  digging  fork  does  not  cut  the  roots  like  the  spade. 

Mulching. — The  mulch,  to  keep  the  ground  moist  and  to  obviate 
summer  cultivation,  is  very  satisfactory  where  it  is  thoroughly  done. 
Apply  coarse  manure  or  partially-rotted  straw  and  the  like,  after  the 
last  spring  cultivation,  and  use  the  hoe  to  keep  down  weeds  and  suckers 
which  come  up  between  the  rows.  Some  growers  use  mulch  close  to 
the  canes,  cultivating  the  remainder  of  the  ground  between  the  rows. 


408  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW   THEM 

Bearing  Age  and  Longevity. — If  blackberry  plants  are  well 
treated  the  first  year  after  planting  out,  there  will  be  considerable  fruit 
the  following  summer.  How  long  the  plants  will  bear  satisfactorily 
depends,  also,  on  situation  and  treatment.  Sometimes  the  plants  fail 
early;  even  with  good,  generous  treatment  in  good  soil,  the  old  stool 
becomes  weak,  the  shoots  are  thin,  and  the  fruit  small.  Some  count 
about  eight  years  as  the  profitable  age  of  the  plant,  and  then  cut  out 
plants  and  give  the  land  a  change.  Of  course  berry  growers  prepare 
for  this  by  frequently  making  new  plantations. 

Irrigating  Blackberries. — Though  a  good  part  of  the  blackberry 
crop  is  grown  in  regions  of  heavy  rainfall  without  irrigation,  the  use 
of  water  is  sometimes  very  profitable.  Mr.  T.  B.  Cannon,  near  Los 
Angeles,  works  in  this  way : 

Mr.  ^  Cannon  aims  to  get  Crandall  blackberries  from  June  15  to  November, 
which  is  possible  by  his  system  of  irrigation  and  pruning.  So  the  water  is 
applied  in  winter  and  about  every  ten  days  until  the  berries  are  as  big  as  peas, 
cultivating  between  times.  The  rows  are  eight  feet  apart  and  the  plants  four, 
so  that  one-horse  cultivation  is  possible  until  the  fruit  gets  so  heavy  as  to  bend 
over  into  the  onen  space.  When  ripening  time  begins  in  June,  a  ditch  is  dug 
close  to  the  vines  on  each  side  of  the  row,  for  irrigation.  This  gets  water 
pretty  well  where  it  is  needed,  the  ditches  are  out  of  the  way  of  the  cultivator 
after  the  first  crop  is  off,  and  they  are  shaded  so  as  to  avoid  evaporation  in  the 
hot  summer.  Water  is  applied  every  four  or  five  days  during  the  heavy  picking, 
then  every  ten  days  till  the  main  summer  crop  comes  on,  when  it  is  applied 
twice  as  often  again.  Irrigation  when  the  berries  are  turning  black  makes  them 
larger  and  of  better  color.  While  the  juice  might  thus  be  considered  diluted, 
this  is  the  sort  of  berry  people  buy,  and  the  proportion  of  juice  to  seeds  is  what 
makes  a  desirable  market  berry,  when  markets  are  near  by.  Such  practice  might 
make  undesirable  fruit  for  canning  or  shipping. 

Varieties  of  the  Blackberry. — Comparatively  few  kinds  are 
largely  grown.  The  Wilson  Junior,  Lawton,  and  Kittatinny  were  for- 
merly the  prevailing  kinds,  ripening  in  the  order  named.  The  Erie  is 
favored  by  some  as  a  middle  season  variety.  The  Early  Harvest  has 
been  favorably  reported  by  a  number  of  growers.  These  have,  however, 
been  largely  superseded  by  a  renamed  variety,  Crandall's  Early,  which 
is  the  earliest  of  the  improved  varieties,  and  has  a  very  long  fruiting 
season.  The  fruit  was  named  after  Dr.  J.  R.  Crandall,  of  Auburn,  who 
first  fruited  the  variety  from  plants  given  him  by  a  stranger  hailing 
from  Texas,  and  the  proper  name  of  the  variety  is  probably  Texas 
Early.  It  is  a  strong,  vigorous,  hardy  plant,  very  productive,  of  firm, 
handsome  berries;  resembles  Lawton  in  canes,  leaves,  and  flavor  of 
fruit ;  not  given  to  sprouting  from  running  roots. 

Another  variety  which  has  advanced  in  favor  is  the  Oregon  Ever- 
green, introduced  from  Oregon  but  not  native  nor  originated  in  that 
State.  The  late  John  Rock  described  it  as  follows  :  "Origin  unknown ; 
beautiful ;  cut-leaved  foliage,  which  it  retains  during  the  winter ;  berries 
large,  black,  sweet,  rich,  and  delicious.  It  continues  to  ripen  from  July 
to  November,  which  makes  it  one  of  the  best  berries  for  family  use." 
It  loses  size  and  quality  notably  on  scant  moisture. 

Some  effort  has  been  made  to  secure  improved  varieties  of  our 
native  blackberry,  and  a  most  striking  result  has  been  secured  by  Judge 
J.  H.  Logan,  of  Santa  Cruz,  by  crossing  the  wild  berry  with  Crandall's 


PRUNING    TRAILING    BLACKBERRIES  409 

Early,  producing  a  fruit  so  large  that  it  has  been  named  "Mammoth" 
by  its  originator.  The  canes  of  the  Mammoth  are  very  peculiar,  being 
very  large  and  thickly  covered  with  small,  short  spines.  The  canes 
start  early  in  March,  grow  thick  and  stout  until  about  five  feet  high. 
They  then  take  on  a  running  habit  and  grow  from  twenty-five  to  thirty 
feet  in  a  season.  Late  in  the  fall  the  tips  or  stolons  seek  the  ground 
and  take  root.  The  Mammoth  is  not  an  evergreen  like  its  Texas  parent, 
although  it  does  not  entirely  lose  its  leaves  in  winter.  It  begins 
to  grow  and  flower  very  early  in  spring  and  ripens  its  fruit  the  last 
of  May,  some  weeks  earlier  than  the  Lawton.  The  fruit  is  more 
acid  than  the  Lawton,  but,  when  perfectly  ripe,  is  sweet  and  of  superior 
flavor.  When  cooked  or  canned  the  flavor  is  identical  with  the  wild 
berry  of  California.  This  variety  is  often  wrongly  called  "Black 
Loganberry." 

The  Himalaya  is  a  blackberry  of  wonderful  growth  and  prolificness, 
highly  praised  by  amateurs,  but  not  yet  fully  made  out  from  a  com- 
mercial point  of  view.  It  is  magnificent  on  a  garden  fence  or  trellis. 

The  Dewberry. — The  improved  varieties  of  the  dewberry,  or 
trailing  blackberry,  are  now  quite  widely  known  and  highly  praised,  but 
are  chiefly  grown  for  home  use.  Some  growers  use  trellises;  others 
train  the  vines  along  rows  on  the  ground  surface.  The  following  is 
the  method  of  Mr.  A.  M.  Munger,  of  Fresno,  and  includes  irrigation 
arrangements : 

For  planting  the  Lucretia  dewberry,  prepare  the  ground  by  plowing  deen  and 
cultivating  until  the  dirt  is  thoroughly  pulverized.  Set  the  plants  about  three 
inches  deep:  and  four  feet  apart,  in  rows,  leaving  a  space  of  six  feet  between  the 
rows.  Plant  between  February  15th  and  March  15th.  Irrigate  as  often  as  once 
a  month,  always  thoroughly  cultivating  after  each  irrigation.  By  so  doing  a 
sufficient  growth  is  secured  to  produce  a  good  crop  the  second  year.  Immedi- 
ately after  the  first  rainfall,  generally  in  October,  the  vines  should  be  pruned 
by  cutting  back  within  about  sixteen  inches  of  the  base  of  the  vine. 

In  February  of  the  second  year,  plow  between  the  rows  with  a  small  one- 
horse  plow,  turning  the  furrows  toward  the  vines,  but  using  a  shield  so  as  not 
to  cover  them.  Follow  immediately  with  a  hoe,  drawing  the  dirt  up  under  the 
vines  and  forming  a  ridge.  This  ridge  should  be  high  enough  to  keep  the  vines 
up  out  of  the  water  when  irrigating.  After  this  ridge  is  formed,  water  should 
be  run  quite  often,  as  the  dewberry  requires  a  great  deal  of  water  to  mature 
properly.  The  vines  should  be  irrigated  as  often  as  three  times  at  least  during 
the  spring.  The  fruit  begins  to  ripen  in  Fresno  about  May  25th,  and  continues 
about  one  month.  The  dewberry  roots  readily  from  the  tips  without  covering 
if  the  soil  is  loose  and  moist.  If  many  plants  are  desired  it  is  advisable  to 
cover  slightly,  and  the  tips  will  root  as  soon  as  the  soil  is  moistened  by  the  fall 
rains. 

A  trellising  method  for  dewberries  consists  in  driving  posts  to  stand 
about  three  feet  high  for  the  dewberry  can  not  be  trained  up  as  high  as 
other  berries.  Make  a  half  hoop  of  coarse  wire  extending  from  the 
root  of  the  plant  over  the  arms  at  top  of  the  post  and  training  the 
plants  on  this.  The  rows  are  usually  six  feet  apart  and  the  plants  six 
feet  apart  in  the  rows.  The  vines  should  be  well  thinned  to  produce 
large  berries. 

The  dewberry  which  has  recently  been  most  largely  planted  in  cen- 
tral and  southern  California  is  known  as  the  Gardena  because  of  the 


410  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

prolificness  and  profitability  of  a  patch  grown  by  W.  M.  Gray,  of  Gar- 
dena,  Los  Angeles  county.  Its  qualities  are  vigorous  growth,  hardiness, 
regular  and  profuse  yield  of  large,  early  berries. 

Pruning  and  Training  Trailing  Berries. — With  reference  to  the 
handling  of  trailing  blackberries  and  the  blackberry-raspberry  hybrids 
which  are  continually  becoming  more  popular,  it  may  be  said  that  there 
is  no  one  best  way.  There  are  several  good  ways,  according  to  the 
desires  and  convenience  of  the  growers,  and  this  is  the  reason  why 
there  is  an  apparent  conflict  in  which  all  contestants  may  be  right,  each 
from  his  own  point  of  view.  The  varieties  are  sufficiently  alike  to  be 
discussed  together.  What  seem  to  us  the  essentials  in  pruning  them 
are  these : 

First,  they  all  bear  on  canes  which  grow  the  previous  year,  and  the 
fruit  comes  on  laterals  which  break  from  them.  In  this  mild  climate 
there  is  continuous  break  of  laterals  which  may  cover  quite  a  long 
period  and  the  same  wood  may  seem  to  be  bearing  twice.  This  second 
bearing  is  of  so  little  account  that  the  general  rule  to  remove  old  wood 
after  its  main  fruiting  is  a  good  one. 

Second,  the  wood  which  grows  this  year  will  therefore  bear  next 
year,  and  will  send  out  bearing  laterals  sufficiently  with  a  number  of 
treatments.  The  new  cane  may  be  pinched  at  any  time  during  growth 
and  it  will  then  send  wood  laterals  (not  fruit  laterals)  at  once  and 
each  of  these  laterals  will  have  the  same  character  that  the  main  shoot 
would  have  had  if  it  had  not  been  pinched ;  that  is,  it  will  send  out  fruit- 
ing laterals  at  the  same  date  the  following  season. 

Third,  it  does  not  matter  whether  you  make  the  new  growth  bunchy 
by  laterals  following  pinching  or  whether  you  let  it  run  out  and  cut  off 
part  of  it  at  the  end  of  the  growing  season  or  whether  you  shorten  it 
in  and  at  the  same  time  cut  away  closely  all  the  laterals  which  it  may 
have  made  on  its  own  account  when  it  was  running  out.  In  all  cases 
there  will  be  dormant  buds  enough  to  give  fruiting  shoots  on  whatever 
part  of  the  cane  you  reserve. 

Fourth,  the  way  you  prune,  then,  depends  upon  serving  your  own 
convenience  in  the  training  of  these  shoots  up  to  a  post,  along  on  a 
wire  or  along  on  a  ridge  on  the  ground — whatever  suits  you  best  to 
keep  the  fruit  out  of  the  dirt,  and  to  promote  such  cultivation  as  is  desir- 
able, etc.,  will  be  accepted  by  the  plant  as  not  interfering  with  its 
starting  fruiting  shoots  from  whatever  dormant  buds  you  have  allowed 
it  to  retain  on  the  wood  which  it  matured  the  previous  season. 

Fifth,  there  is  in  addition  the  application  of  the  principle  that  good 
large  fruit  is  the  product  of  a  plant  which  is  not  carrying  too  much 
bearing  wood ;  that  is,  is  not  endeavoring  to  perfect  too  much  fruit  at 
the  same  time.  For  this  reason,  as  well  as  for  convenience,  it  is  desir- 
able not  to  allow  a  plant  to  retain  all  the  cane  it  grows,  but  to  shorten 
it  or  to  remove  the  laterals  or  part  of  them  or  to  shorten  the  laterals  or 
in  any  other  way  to  require  the  plant  to  direct  its  energy  to  the  better 
development  of  fewer  fruits. 

Sixth,  growers  are,  of  course,  influenced  by  different  considerations. 
Amateur  growers  delighting  in  running  vines  on  fences  or  trellises 


GROWING  CRANDALL  BLACKBERRIES  411 

would  not  prune  as  would  a  commercial  grower,  who  can  not  have  canes 
running  all  over  his  fields.  The  amateur  can  pinch  a  main  shoot  and 
send  the  laterals  up  the  arms  of  a  fan-shaped  trellis  if  he  likes  and  make 
an  object  of  rare  garden  beauty,  and  he  can  reduce  the  excess  of  bearing 
wood  by  cutting  away  the  parts  of  the  laterals  which  run  beyond  his 
arms  or  extra  ones  beyond  those  he  can  carry  on  his  trellis.  From  the 
point  of  view  of  the  plant,  he  does  the  same  thing  that  the  commercial 
grower  does  when  he  comes  along  with  his  scythe  or  sickle  and  cuts 
away  indiscriminately  all  the  growth  which  goes  beyond  the  space 
where  it  is  convenient  for  him  to  have  the  fruit. 

Seventh,  do  not  be  too  particular  about  exact  methods  to  imitate; 
try  rather  to  discern  principles  which  may  be  served  by  many  different 
methods. 

Six  Months  Fruiting  of  Crandalls. — One  way  in  which  the  prin- 
ciples just  outlined  may  be  applied  to  Crandall's  Early  which  is  our 
leading  blackberry,  considering  the  State  as  a  whole,  is  described  by 
Mr.  R.  E.  Hodges  as  the  practice  of  Mr.  T.  B.  Cannon,  of  Los  Angeles : 

Briars  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches  tall,  having  good  root  systems,  are  set 
with  a  spade  in  finely  pulverized  soil  as  soon  after  they  are  dug  as  possible  to 
avoid  wilting,  to  the  same  depth  as  they  were  before,  four  feet  apart  in  rows 
eight  feet  apart.  The  first  year  they  require  no  pruning.  The  space  between 
rows  is  occupied  by  cabbage,  beans,  corn,  potatoes,  etc. 

In  the  second  year  three  or  four  new  canes  come  up.  When  these  are  four- 
feet  high,  cut  off  six  inches,  and  laterals  start  from  the  leaf  axis.  When  these 
are  thirty  inches  long  their  end  buds  are  cut  off  and  they  send  out  blossoms 
which  bear  fruit  that  fall.  These  same  laterals  bear  the  main  crop  in  their 
second  year,  besides  sending  out  new  laterals  near  the  base  of  the  old  ones 
about  the  time  the  berries  are  well  set.  The  new  laterals  bear  the  second  crop, 
which  comes  on  about  the  time  the  first  crop  is  gone.  The  third  crop,  borne 
on  the  new  canes,  which  have  been  cut  back  meanwhile  to  three  and  one-half 
feet,  blossom  from  August  till  freezing,  and  the  berries  ripen  from  Septem- 
ber on. 

Mr.  Cannon  has  followed  this  plan  with  satisfaction  on  two  or  three  patches, 
the  largest  of  which  is  a  half-acre  set  seven  years  ago  in  the  young  family 
orchard.  The  first  crop  from  this  half-acre  in  1913  was  180  crates.  The  second 
and  third  crops  usually  together  equal  two-fifths  of  the  first.  The  second  is 
about  half  of  the  third.  Two  years  ago  the  third  alone  almost  equaled  the  first. 
And  the  berries  sometimes  sell  at  $2.80  per  crate  after  October. 

Growing  Crandalls  in  Hedge  Rows. — A  method  which  aims  at 
economy  in  getting  a  main  crop,  without  providing  for  succession,  is 
that  of  Mr.  J.  B.  Wagner,  of  Pasadena.  He  uses  no  trellises,  but  leaves 
the  old  canes  in  the  hedge-row  to  support  the  new  growth,  in  this  way : 

On  the  day  before  berry-picking,  all  protruding  new  growth  is  cut  back  as 
close  as  possible  to  the  blanket  of  bearing  canes  which  covers  the  mat  of  dead 
ones.  This  removes  all  hindrance  to  picking.  Do  not  leave  stubs  of  new  wood 
above  the  bearing  vines,  because  it  raises  the  general  level  of  bearing  wood  in 
a  year  or  two,  so  high  that  the  pickers  can  scarcely  reach  over  and  up  to  the 
center  of  the  row.  When  picking  is  over,  both  sides  of  the  hedge-row  are 
trimmed  off  clean  till  it  is  left  only  two  feet  wide.  New  growth  soon  leans  out 
over  this  and  covers  it,  ready  for  a  crop  next  year  with  the  berries  well  outside 
and  handy  for  the  pickers.  Every  six  years  he  trims  the  whole  hedge  back  to 
a  height  of  two  feet  and  clears  out  all  the  cane  over  a  year  old,  and  this  renews 
the  plantation. 


412  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Training  the  Mammoth. — A  good  way  with  the  Mammoth, 
grown  in  a  commercial  way,  is  described  by  Mr.  Tribble  as  follows : 

The  Mammoth  is  one  of  the  earliest  of  blackberries,  very  productive  and  is 
one  of  the  most  delicious.  The  plants  are  propagated  from  rooted  tips  which 
appear  on  the  ends  of  the  vines  during  the  winter  months.  Mammoths  are 
usually  trained  on  a  wire  trellis  made  by  driving  posts  at  each  hill  and  nailing 
on  cross-arms  to  support  the  wire,  which  is  stapled  to  each  end  of  the  cross- 
arms.  The  laterals  are  trained  along  the  wire  about  half  way  between  the  hills, 
and  then  cut  off  to  cause  them  to  throw  out  fruit  spurs.  As  soon  as  the  crop 
is  taken  from  the  old  canes  they  should  be  taken  out  and  the  new  canes  trained 
on  the  trellis  as  before. 

Training  the  Himalaya. — Success  with  the  Himalaya  blackberry 
is  wholly  dependent  upon  proper  pruning,  and  whether  it  be  grown 
upon  an  arbor  or  a  fence  or  upon  a  low  trellis,  the  same  principles 
must  be  applied.  This  variety  bears  on  the  same  laterals  each  season 
and  reaches  its  maximum  production  the  fourth  or  fifth  year.  This 
variety  is  the  latest  to  ripen  with  us,  coming  in  after  the  Mammoth 
blackberries  have  all  gone.  Methods  of  high  and  low  trellising  are  thus 
described : 

The  high  trellis  is  made  on  posts  7  feet  high  and  30  feet  apart.  Two  wires 
are  stapled  on  the  posts,  one  3l/2  feet  from  the  ground  and  the  other  at  the  top. 
Rows  should  be  planted  10  to  12  feet  apart  and  about  the  same  distance  in  the 
rows.  The  long  runners  should  be  trained  and  woven  in  these  wires  to  hold 
up  the  load  of  fruit.  The  second  year  the  runners  will  throw  out  laterals 
thickly  along  the  main  canes;  these  fruit  spurs  are  from  2  to  2y2  feet  in  length, 
projecting  outside  the  main  canes  where  the  berries  are  all  exposed  to  the 
picker's  reach.  Not  over  four  canes  should  be  allowed  to  grow  in  each  hill. 
After  reaching  the  desired  length  they  should  be  tipped. 

The  low  trellis  method  is  as  follows  :  New  vines  grow  from  the  roots  some 
30  or  35  feet  in  a  single  season.  These  are  trained  on  the  ground  by  stakes 
under  the  wires  which  support  the  bearing  vines,  so  they  do  not  interfere  with 
cultivation  and  picking.  Not  too  many  are  allowed  to  grow.  They  will  throw 
out  a  fruit  bud  about  every  eight  inches,  a  large  number  of  which  will  develop 
next  year  into  spurs  bearing  30  to  60  berries.  It  will  also  throw  out  numerous 
laterals  which  are  cut  off  before  laying  the  vine  on  the  wires  in  winter.  If  they 
were  left,  and  wound  around  the  wires,  they  would  tend  to  choke  out  the  fruit 
spurs,  besides  beiner  dangerous  to  pickers.  Suckers  are  kept  down,  and  there 
is  a  clear  path  for  the  pickers,  lined  shoulder  high  with  luscious  blackberries. 


THE  CRANBERRY 

Though  attention  has  been  given  to  experiments  with  the  growth 
of  the  cranberry  in  California  for  many  years,  it  has  not  been  demon- 
strated that  the  culture  is  successful  or  profitable.  Cranberries  have 
been  produced,  and  the  fruit  shown  at  fairs,  but  beyond  this  nothing 
has  yet  been  accomplished.  It  would  seem  to  be  a  fair  conclusion  that 
even  in  the  most  moist  regions  our  summer  air  is  too  dry  to  suit  the 
plant. 

THE  CURRANT 

The  currant  reaches  perfection  in  size  and  quality  in  parts  of  Cali- 
fornia adapted  to  its  growth,  but  its  area  is  comparatively  small.  The 
plant  does  not  thrive  in  the  dry,  heated  air  of  the  interior  either  at  the 
north  or  south.  It  does  well  near  the  coast,  especially  in  the  upper  half 


GROWING    THE    CURRANT  413 

of  the  State,  and  is  grown  for  market  chiefly,  on  lands  adjacent  to  the 
Bay  of  San  Francisco.  The  comparatively  cool  and  moist  air  of  the 
ocean  favors  it,  but  even  here  the  sunburn,  which  is  the  bane  of  its  ex- 
istence in  the  interior  valleys,  occasionally  injures  the  fruit.  Away  from 
the  coast,  currants  are  grown  to  a  limited  extent  along  the  Sacramento 
and  San  Joaquin  rivers,  near  their  confluence,  but  not  in  the  hot  val- 
leys whence  they  flow.  On  the  foothills,  too,  where  the  plant  has  a 
northerly  slope,  or  other  cooling  influence,  and  sufficiently  moist  soil, 
it  will  do  moderately  well.  It  is  quite  possible  that  the  currant  may  be 
satisfactorily  grown  for  home  use,  or  for  local  market  in  parts  of  the 
State  where  at  present  one  does  not  find  it,  providing  the  moderating 
effect  of  elevation  and  northerly  exposure,  coupled  with  the  shade  of 
trees;  be  secured,  but  even  then  the  hot  north  wind  of  the  early  summer 
may  often  injure  the  fruit.  So  far  as  the  metropolitan  market  is  con- 
cerned, it  does  not  matter  that  the  currant  area  is  limited,  for  existing 
plantations  produce  all,  and  sometimes  more,  than  can  be  profitably 
disposed  of  at  present.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  the  future  may 
show  a  larger  demand,  for  the  pure  food  laws  are  likely  to  prevent  the 
further  selling  of  apple  jelly  with  a  currant  color  and  flavor  under  the 
name  of  currant  jelly. 

Propagation. — The  currant  is  readily  grown  from  cuttings.  As 
soon  as  the  bush  drops  its  leaves,  and  the  ground  is  in  condition,  as  to 
moisture,  secure  the  cuttings  about  a  foot  in  length  from  straight  wood 
of  the  last  growth,  and  place  them  in  nursery  or  in  permanent  place,  in 
good  sandy  or  garden  loam,  deeply  spaded  and  well  broken  up.  Set  the 
cutting  firmly  in  the  earth,  six  or  seven  inches  deep.  If  they  are  to  be 
trained  as  small  trees,  every  bud  below  where  the  lowest  limb  is  to 
start  should  be  cut  out — even  to  the  end  of  the  cutting  underground — 
otherwise  they  will  be  continually  throwing  up  suckers.  If  they  are  to 
grow  as  bushes,  the  natural  and  more  productive  form  of  the  currant, 
set  them  as  they  are  taken  from  the  parent  bush. 

Planting  and  Care. — Currants  are  usually  grown  in  rows  about 
five  or  six  feet  apart,  the  plants  standing  two  and  a  half  or  three  feet 
apart  in  the  rows.  Most  of  the  currant  plantations  are  between  orchard 
rows,  the  partial  shade  of  the  trees  being  considered  desirable.  It  is 
claimed  that  currants  do  best  when  interplanted  with  cherry,  apricot, 
apple,  and  pear,  not  so  well  when  associated  with  plum  and  peach,  and 
the  almond  is  least  desirable — possibly  because  the  almond  is  often 
given  less  cultivation  than  the  pulpy  fruit  or  is  grown  on  lighter,  drier 
soils.  The  cultivation  is  such  as  is  usually  given  to  the  orchard,  except 
that  in  heavy  soil  the  plow  is  not  allowed  to  come  near  the  cuttings 
the  first  season  for  fear  of  tearing  them  from  their  rooting.  After  the 
first  year  the  plow  is  used  in  the  winter  and  the  cultivator  in  summer. 

Currants  will  repay  generous  applications  of  well-rotted  manure, 
and  relish  sufficient  moisture  in  the  soil.  Where  this  can  not  be  had 
from  rainfall,  and  retained  by  cultivation  and  mulching,  irrigation  must 
be  resorted  to. 

Pruning. — If  the  currant  is  to  be  grown  in  tree  form,  the 
branches  from  the  upper  buds  of  the  cutting  should  be  shortened  in  at 


414  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

the  end  of  the  first  summer,  and  branches  growing  horizontally  should 
be  removed.  The  weaker  shoots  in  the  head  are  thinned  out,  but  not 
so  much  as  to  leave  the  top  too  open.  If  the  plant  is  to  grow  as  a  bush, 
the  only  winter  pruning  will  consist  in  removing  dead  wood,  and  thin- 
ning the  new  shoots  as  may  seem  desirable,  and  cutting  back  about  half 
of  the  new  growth.  Summer  pinching  of  the  new  growth  is  desirable, 
as  it  causes  the  fruit  to  set  closely  and  tends  to  a  thick  growth  of  foliage 
also,  and  this  is  necessary,  for  the  bark  is  liable  to  sunburn,  and  the 
best  fruit  is  that  which  is  well  sheltered  by  the  leaves.  Another  ad- 
vantage of  the  bush  form  is  the  less  likelihood  of  killing  by  borers, 
which  is  imminent  when  the  growth  depends  upon  a  single  stem.  Well 
cared  for  bushes  will  bear  profitably  until  about  ten  years  old.  Replant- 
ing should  be  made  on  new  ground. 

Bearing. — The  currant  bears  a  quantity  of  excellent  fruit  the 
second  year  from  the  cutting,  and  reaches  its  fullest  product  about  the 
fifth  to  the  eighth  year,  when  the  yield  in  the  Hayward  region  is  said  to 
range  from  one  and  a  half  to  three  tons  to  the  acre. 

Varieties. — The  Cherry  currant  is  the  prevailing  variety,  al- 
though the  old  sorts,  the  Red  and  White  Dutch,  the  Red  and  White 
Grape,  etc.,  are  grown  in  some  localities,  and  Fay's  Prolific  is  approved 
by  some  growers.  Pomona  is  one  of  the  best  of  the  newer  red  varieties 
and  the  old  Fertile  de  Palluau  is  reported  as  doing  better  than  others 
in  hot,  interior  situations.  Black  currants  are  but  little  grown,  the 
market  demand  for  them  being  very  light. 


THE  GOOSEBERRY 

The  Gooseberry  is  another  fruit  with  somewhat  circumscribed  area 
in  this  State.  In  localities  which  favor  it,  the  fruit  is  often  found  very 
profitable,  but  the  demand  does  not  warrant  any  great  increase  of  prod- 
uct. Though  the  gooseberry  thrives  in  some  situations  which  do  not 
suit  the  currant,  they  may  both  be  described  as  averse  to  the  hot  and 
dry  parts  of  the  State.  Still,  for  home  use  or  local  sale  one  can  grow 
certain  varieties  of  gooseberries  successfully,  by  protecting  them  from 
too  great  exposure  to  the  sun,  and  by  keeping  the  soil  sufficiently  rich 
and  moist.  The  choice  of  varieties  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  as 
will  be  mentioned  presently.  At  present  the  chief  supplies  of  the  goose- 
berry, as  of  the  currant,  are  produced  in  the  country  adjacent  to  San 
Francisco  Bay,  though  thriving  and  profitable  plantations  are  found 
elsewhere  near  the  coast,  here  and  there  in  the  interior,  and  at  consid- 
erable elevations  on  the  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada. 

Propagation,  Pruning,  etc. — The  gooseberry  is  grown  from  cut- 
tings, very  much  as  already  described  for  the  currant.  The  common 
and  the  best  method  is  to  start  the  cuttings  early  in  the  winter,  though 
some  have  succeeded  with  cuttings  taken  in  the  spring  just  as  the  new 
growth  is  starting  out.  Disbudding  the  lower  part  of  the  cutting  if  it  is 
desired  to  train  in  tree  form  is  also  practiced  with  the  gooseberry,  but 
a  smaller  percentage  of  cuttings  is  found  to  grow  after  disbudding. 


GROWING   THE    GOOSEBERRY  415 

Gooseberries  are  planted  out  and  cultivated  as  already  described  for 
currants,  and  the  requirements  of  the  plant  in  soil,  moisture,  and  ma- 
nuring, are  much  the  same. 

If  the  gooseberry  is  to  be  grown  in  tree  form,  constant  attention  to 
removal  of  suckers  is  necessary ;  if  in  bush  form,  it  will  only  be  neces- 
sary to  remove  too  old  wood  and  thin  out  the  new  shoots.  Suckers 
should  be  removed  clean  from  the  stem,  so  as  to  eradicate  the  latent 
buds,  and  pulling  off  with  a  gloved  hand,  when  the  suckers  become 
woody  enough  to  withstand  breaking,  is  advised.  As  with  the  currant, 
the  borer  is  a  constant  menace  to  the  life  of  a  gooseberry  plant  confined 
to  a  single  stem. 

Diseases  and  Pests. — The  gooseberry  is  subject  to  insect  depre- 
dation both  in  wood  and  fruit  and  leaf.  The  prevailing  trouble,  how- 
ever, and  that  which  causes  the  failure  of  so  many  foreign  kinds,  is  me 
mildew.  To  escape  this  nothing  is  usually  done  except  to  select  varieties 
not  subject  to  the  disease,  but  susceptible  varieties  can  be  protected  by 
spraying  just  as  the  leaves  are  opening  and  once  a  month  afterwards 
with  potassium  sulphide  half  an  ounce  to  the  gallon  of  water.  This  does 
not  stain  nor  poison  the  fruit.  The  cooler  and  moister  the  air  the  less 
the  mildew. 

Varieties  of  the  Gooseberry. — The  American  varieties,  Downing 
and  Houghton's  Seedling,  chiefly  the  latter,  constituted  for  a  long  time 
the  main  varieties  marketed  in  San  Francisco.  Early  experiments  with 
collections  of  English  varieties  showed  that  most  of  them  were  fail- 
ures because  of  mildew ;  still  a  few  of  the  green  and  white  sorts,  nota- 
bly the  Whitesmith,  have  succeeded.  The  proportion  of  large  berries 
now  being  marketed  is  much  greater  than  formerly,  and  the  superior 
price  warrants  especial  effort  to  produce  them. 

A  large  English  variety,  which  was  brought  to  California  many 
years  ago  by  the  late  John  W.  Dwinelle,  is  now  the  most  widely  dis- 
tributed large  kind.  Its  true  name  was  lost  and  it  has  been  propagated 
under  various  names,  viz.,  Dwinelle,  Kelsey,  New  French ;  but  the  name 
Berkeley,  adopted  by  W.  P.  Hammon,  in  his  wide  distribution  of  it  in 
1884,  now  prevails.  It  is  large  and  handsome,  very  prolific,  ripens 
early,  and  is  usually  free  from  mildew. 

The  Champion,  an  Oregon  seedling  grown  by  Seth  Lewelling,  is 
medium  sized,  very  smooth,  and  thick  fleshed,  the  seeds  being  few  and 
small.  They  are  entirely  free  from  mildew,  and  are  clean,  bright  and 
beautiful.  The  Columbus,  a  New  York  variety,  is  large  and  of  good 
quality  and  resists  mildew  well. 

THE  MULBERRY 

Nearly  all  varieties  of  the  mulberry  have  been  introduced  in  Cali- 
fornia and  grown  rapidly  and  thriftily.  Most  attention  has  been  paid 
to  those  varieties  most  suitable  for  feeding  silk-worms,  but  the  fruiting 
varieties  are  also  grown  here,  though  the  fruit  has  assumed  no  com- 
mercial importance.  The  mulberry  is  grown  readily  from  cuttings. 
The  fruiting  varieties  thus  far  chiefly  distributed  are  the  Downing, 
Everbearing,  the  Persian,  the  New  American,  the  Russian,  and  the 


416  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Black  Mulberry  of  Spain.  All  these  bear  large  and  desirable  fruit.  The 
last  named,  introduced  by  Felix  Gillett,  of  Nevada  City,  is  grown  quite 
widely.  The  mulberry  has  a  long  season ;  the  Persian  ripens  in  Tulare 
the  last  of  May  and  continuously  thereafter  until  October. 


THE  RASPBERRY 

The  raspberry  is  another  of  the  great  small  fruits  of  California.  It 
thrives  over  a  great  area  of  the  state ;  in  fact,  there  are  few  situations 
in  which  it  can  not  be  grown  with  at  least  a  measure  of  success  if 
proper  attention  is  given  to  retention  of  moisture  in  the  surface  soil, 
and  to  giving  the  plants  partial  shade  in  the  heated  valleys,  and  the 
cooler  exposures  in  the  foothills.  The  raspberry,  skillfully  pruned  and 
generously  fed  and  cared  for,  is  almost  a  constant  bearer,  as  has  already 
been  intimated.  It  is  a  continual  delight  in  the  home  garden,  and  al- 
ways brings  a  high  average  rate  in  local  and  metropolitan  markets. 

The  culture  of  the  raspberry  is  in  the  main  like  that  of  the  black- 
berry, as  already  described.  The  red  varieties,  which  are  the  kinds  al- 
most exclusively  grown  in  this  State,  are  propagated  by  suckers  and 
root  cuttings  like  the  blackberry,  but  the  "black  caps"  are  propagated 
by  layering  the  cane  tips  during  the  growing  season,  and  this  method 
is  also  necessary  in  the  Loganberry  and  other  blackberry-raspberry 
hybrids.  Bending  down  a  cane  with  its  branches  and  covering  lightly 
with  soil  and  with  a  light  mulch  to  retain  moisture,  will  result  in  free 
rooting  of  the  buried  parts,  and  one  can  sometimes  secure  a  dozen 
plants  by  the  layering  of  a  single  cane  with  its  laterals. 

The  pruning  of  the  raspberry  is  also  by  the  renewal  system,  as  ad- 
vised for  the  blackberry.  The  topping  off  of  new  canes,  when  they 
reach  about  three  feet  in  height,  the  subsequent  pinching  of  the  laterals 
which  are  thus  forced  out,  the  resolute  thinning  out  of  sprouts  so  that 
but  three  or  four  strong  canes  are  allowed  from  one  root,  the  faithful 
repression  of  all  weeds,  the  maintenance  of  a  loose  surface  layer  of  the 
soil  by  very  shallow  cultivation,  the  free  application  of  manure  and  of 
water  unless  a  continually  moist  condition  near  the  surface  can  be  se- 
cured by  cultivation  and  mulching — all  these  are  among  the  essentials 
of  cultivation  which  will  secure  abundant  fruit  and  a  long  bearing  sea- 
son. However,  as  has  already  been  stated  with  regard  to  blackberries, 
there  are  large  plantations  which  pursue  a  less  careful  system  of  culti- 
vation especially  in  the  moderate  heat  and  drouth  of  the  coast  district. 

Continuous  bearing  of  the  raspberry  may  be  secured  in  those  varie- 
ties which  endure  the  treatment,  by  cutting  out  a  cane  as  soon  as  its 
fruit  is  gathered,  the  force  of  the  plant  being  then  devoted  to  the  fruit- 
ing of  a  second  cane,  which  has  previously  been  pinched,  and  a  third 
shoot  is  pinched  and  allowed  to  mature  its  wood  to  carry  over  and  bear 
the  first  crop  of  the  following  year.  A  succession  of  sprouts  is  gained 
by  pinching  off  the  tips  of  some  as  soon  as  they  have  grown  up  a  few 
inches,  which  results  in  the  growth  of  later  shoots  lower  on  the  stems. 
In  this  way  a  succession  of  fruit  is  obtained. 

The  Cuthbert  and  other  strong-growing  varieties,  after  the  pinching 
at  about  three  feet  from  the  ground,  will  send  out  laterals  which  will 


Plate    XX.— The    Mammoth    Blackberry.— (See   page   408.) 


GROWING   THE    RASPBERRY  417 

bear  late  in  the  fall,  and  the  same  cane  will  bear  a  crop  early  in  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  when  its  career  is  ended  and  it  should  be  removed. 

Raspberries  are  planted  about  three  feet  apart  in  rows,  and  the 
rows  about  six  feet  apart.  They  can  be  well  grown  nearer  together 
than  is  required  for  blackberries. 

A  Raspberry  Trellis. — Mr.  Louis  F.  Scribner,  a  well-known 
berry  grower  of  Pasadena,  commends  a  double-wire  trellis  made  in 
this  way: 

At  each  end  of  a  row  a  post  should  be  deeply  set  and  firmly  anchored  by 
brace  or  anchor  wire,  and  a  2x3  redwood  or  cedar  post  should  be  set  about 
every  20  feet  in  the  row  and  a  wire  stretched  on  each  side  about  three  feet  from 
the  ground.  These  wires  when  stretched  will  be  the  width  of  the  post  in  distance 
apart,  and  serve  to  keep  the  canes  erect  and  in  the  row  where  they  belong,  so 
that  cultivation  and  picking  will  not  destroy  the  tender  growth.  The  field 
should  be  gone  over  at  intervals  and  canes  drawn  up  between  the  wires  when 
long  enough. 

Behavior  of  varieties  under  pruning  varies  greatly.  Surprise  can  be  pruned 
to  advantage  when  dormant,  but  if  cut  back  when  sap  is  flowing  and  weather  is 
hot  they  often  die.  This  variety  will  bear  two  crops  if  handled  right  and  none 
at  all  if  abused.  A  variety  like  the  Idaho  needs  very  little  if  any  cutting  back, 
and  the  Superlative  likes  to  swing  gracefully  over  the  trellis.  The  good  old 
Cuthbert  should  be  cut  back  with  care,  leaving  as  much  cane  as  can  be  supported 
by  the  wires.  The  Red  Antwerp  is  much  like  the  Cuthbert.  The  Ruby,  Miller, 
London,  Herbert  and  St.  Regis  are  all  good  varieties  and  require  about  the 
same  care.  The  latter  variety  gives  out  an  abundant  sucker  growth,  which  is 
not  desirable  when  not  confined. 

Varieties  of  the  Raspberry. — The  old  varieties  have  been  largely 
replaced  by  the  Cuthbert,  which  is  the  universally  popular  and  most 
largely-planted  sort,  having  been  found  trustworthy  as  a  grower  and 
as  a  free  and  constant  bearer.  The  good  points  of  the  Cuthbert,  as 
representing  the  experience  of  many  California  growers,  include  the 
following:  A  profuse  grower,  with  healthy  and  rich  foliage,  which 
protects  fruit  from  sunburn ;  an  excellent  bearer  with  the  fruit  well  dis- 
tributed through  the  bush;  the  fruit  comes  off  easily,  and  does  not 
crumble,  is  of  fine  flavor,  arjjd  ships  well.  The  Hansel  and  Red  Ant- 
werp and  several  newer  varieties  are  grown  to  a  limited  extent ;  and  the 
Barter,  a  renamed  variety,  the  identity  of  which  is  unknown,  has  always 
retained  a  degree  of  popularity  in  the  foothill  region  of  Placer  County, 
where  it  first  appeared. 

The  Black  Cap  varieties  thrive  fairly  in  most  parts  of  the  State  but 
do  not  sell  well  in  the  markets,  and  are  only  grown  for  home  use.  The 
golden  or  yellow  raspberries  are  also  out  of  favor  because  they  are  shy 
bearers  and  cut  no  figure  in  the  California  product. 

Blackberry-Raspberry  Hybrids. — Two  crosses  of  California  ori- 
gin have  been  widely  distributed  and  have  demonstrated  great  value. 

The  Loganberry  was  originated  by  Judge  J.  H.  Logan  of  Santa 
Cruz,  and  is  a  cross  between  the  California  wild  blackberry  and  a  red 
raspberry,  thought  to  be  the  Red  Antwerp.  It  was  a  chance  hybrid  de- 
veloped by  growing  plants  from  the  seed  of  the  wild  blackberry  in  1881. 
The  plant  was  multiplied  by  its  originator  and  fruited  for  more  than 
ten  years,  plants  being  meantime  given  to  Mr.  James  Waters,  of  Wat- 
sonville,  who  grew  it  on  a  commercial  scale  and  was  gratified  at  the 
results  of  his  marketing  of  the  fruit.  The  variety  was  first  given  to  the 


418  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW   TO  GROW  THEM 

public  through  the  University  of  California  in  1893  and  has  since  then 
been  propagated  by  nurserymen  and  sold  in  large  quantities.  It  has 
proved  a  most  valuable  fruit  in  all  parts  of  California,  and  has  com- 
manded the  attention  of  pomologists  and  growers  all  over  the  world. 
The  Loganberry  is  an  exceedingly  robust  grower,  and  has  unique  foli- 
age and  cane  growth  as  well  as  fruit.  The  fruit  is  strikingly  large  and 
handsome;  sometimes  an  inch  and  a  quarter  long,  with  the  shape  of  a 
blackberry,  and  sometimes  the  hue  of  a  dark  red  raspberry.  Its  flavor 
is  unique  and  peculiar,  and  gives  to  many  tastes  suggestions  oithe  com- 
bination of  blackberry  and  raspberry  flavors.  The  culture  of  the  Lo- 
ganberry is  like  that  of  the  dewberry — both  in  growth  and  propagation, 
rooting  readily  from  cane  tips  without  covering,  unless  many  plants  are 
desired  and  then  a  covered  cane  will  root  at  each  joint. 

The  Phenomenal  is  a  hybrid  which  has  recently  been  largely  grown 
for  a  trade  which  prefers  a  less  sharp  acid  than  that  of  the  Loganberry. 
It  is  one  of  the  notable  achievements  of  Mr.  Luther  Burbank,  of  Santa 
Rosa,  and  is  a  cross  between  the  California  dewberry  and  a  red  rasp- 
berry. It  is  exceedingly  large,  bright  crimson,  very  productive  and  of 
delicious  flavor.  The  fruit  comes  in  large  clusters  and  single  berries 
have  weighed  four  to  the  ounce.  In  shipping  it  holds  shape  and  color 
well.  The  Phenomenal  is  counted  about  one  week  later  than  the  Logan- 
berry. 

Trellising  for  Hybrid  Berries. — The  discussion  and  methods  for 
training  the  trailing  blackberries,  already  given  at  much  length  in  this 
chapter,  apply  also  to  the  Loganberry  and  Phenomenal.  A  special  ar- 
rangement commended  for  the  Loganberry  is  the  following : 

Plant  the  rows  eight  feet  apart  and  vines  four  feet  apart  in  the  row.  Use 
common  fence  posts  for  trellising,  setting  them  sixteen  or  twenty  feet  apart, 
four  feet  high  after  they  are  set ;  then  measure  from  top  of  post  one  foot  down 
and  nail  a  two-foot  crosspiece ;  use  three  wires,  stapling  one  to  the  top  of  the 
posts  and  one  on  each  side  to  the  end  of  the  crosspieces.  This  gives  a  nice  oval 
surface  with  three  times  the  room  as  having  the  wires  one  above  the  other  on 
the  post.  In  the  spring  raise  the  vines  and  distribute  them  evenly  and  tie  them 
firmly  to  the  wires. 

THE  STRAWBERRY 

"Strawberries  all  the  year  round"  is  the  trite  expression  by  which 
the  charms  of  the  California  climate  are  characterized.  It  is  no  fiction, 
for  in  the  wonderfully-even  climate  of  regions  adjacent  to  the  coast  and 
in  thermal  belts  in  the  interior,  the  strawberry  plant  blooms  and  bears 
almost  continuously,  providing  proper  moisture  conditions  are  main- 
tained in  the  soil.  There  are,  however,  more  or  less  well-defined  crops, 
and  "strawberries  all  the  year"  does  not  mean  a  uniform  supply ;  nor 
does  it  mean  that  everywhere  in  California  can  one  expect  such  constant 
fruiting.  In  the  very  hot  interior  situations  the  plant  rebels  against  the 
atmospheric  conditions  of  midsummer,  even  though  the  ground  be 
moist;  and  in  frosty  places  the  plant  becomes  dormant  during  the 
wintry  portion  of  the  year.  The  conditions  of  constant  growth  and 
bearing  are  moderation  of  temperature  and  of  atmospheric  and  soil 
moisture  throughout  the  year. 


GROWING    THE    STRAWBERRY  419 

Situations  and  Soils  for  the  Strawberry. — Bearing  in  mind  the 
conditions  described,  the  strawberry  can  be  grown  anywhere  in  Cali- 
fornia. The  native  species,  as  mentioned  in  Chapter  V,  flourish  from 
the  sand  of  the  ocean  beach  to  the  rich  valleys  of  the  Sierra,  just  below 
the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  and  the  deduction  is  that  wherever  fertile 
soil  and  sweet  water  can  be  brought  together  in  California,  the  straw- 
berry will  reward  the  grower. 

Strawberries  do  well  on  a  variety  of  soils,  but  as  a  rule  a  deep, 
moist,  loamy  soil  will  yield  best  results.  Boggy  or  swampy  spots  should 
be  avoided  unless  drainage  is  provided,  and  in  this  way  most  excellent 
strawberry  ground  may  sometimes  be  secured.  Land  which  will  pro- 
duce good  potatoes  or  corn  will  generally  yield  good  results  with  straw- 
berries, provided  irrigation  is  furnished.  In  many  regions  the  plants 
will  hardly  survive  the  summer  without  irrigation  and  everywhere  a 
succession  of  crops  during  the  season  depends  upon  irrigation.  It  is  the 
common  experience  that  light,  warm  soils  yield  the  earliest  and  highest- 
flavored  berries,  and  heavy  soils  the  later  and  larger  ones ;  but  the  size 
of  the  berry  depends  more  upon  the  supply  of  available  moisture,  and 
immense  fruit  can  be  produced  on  loose,  open  soils  by  free  irrigation. 
And  yet  the  heavier  soil,  both  because  of  its  usually  superior  fertility 
and  retention  of  moisture,  is  preferred  for  the  strawberry.  The  largest 
producing  regions  for  the  San  Francisco  market  in  the  Santa  Clara 
and  Pajaro  Valleys  are  comprised  mainly  of  low-lying,  heavy  valley 
soils,  naturally  moist  and  rich,  and  furnished  with  abundant  water  sup- 
ply for  irrigation.  And  yet  in  southern  California  the  chief  market 
crops  are  produced  upon  light  sandy  loams  with  water  equal  to  the 
needs  of  the  plants  upon  such  a  footing.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
the  strawberry  is  a  shallow-rooting  plant  and  must  have  moisture  re- 
tained near  the  surface.  Some  loose  soils,  especially  on  uplands,  are 
almost  out  of  the  question  for  strawberry  growing.  They  are  so  leachy 
that  they  will  not  hold  moisture  near  the  surface  though  one  should 
stand  with  a  hose  and  almost  continually  pour  it  on.  The  plants  would 
also  dry  up  though  the  water  were  running  near  by  in  a  ditch.  To  grow 
strawberries  it  is  often  an  advantage  to  have  a  shallow  loam  over  a  clay 
or  hardpan,  for  then  the  tight  layer  below  will  prevent  the  escape  of  the 
water  below  the  reach  of  the  roots.  If  this  can  not  be  had,  the  best 
way  to  grow  strawberries  on  leachy  soils  for  home  use  is  to  mulch  and 
sprinkle. 

Propagation  of  the  Strawberry. — Seedlings  undertaken  in  the 
hope  of  originating  valuable  new  varieties  are  easily  grown  by  taking 
off  the  outside  layer  of  the  choicest  berries,  which  carries  with  it  the 
small,  yellow  seeds.  Wash  these  from  the  skin  and  cover  them  slightly 
in  a  sandy  soil  partially  shaded  and  kept  moist  by  sprinkling,  or  a  light 
mulch,  and  the  plants  are  readily  grown.  As  with  seedlings  of  other 
fruits,  few,  if  any,  will  be  found  superior  to  the  parent  variety. 

Plants  for  setting  out  are  secured  by  taking  off  the  small  growth? 
rooted  from  runners.  The  strongest  plants  are  those  nearest  to  the 
parent  plant.  When  these  are  allowed  to  root  in  small  pots  plunged 
into  the  soil,  they  are  called  "pot-grown,"  and  are  superior  for  plant- 
ing out,  but  they  are  not  largely  used  in  this  State.  When  plants  of 


420  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

any  variety  are  desired  for  new  beds  or  fields,  a  row  or  more  are 
allowed  to  send  out  runners,  during  the  summer,  and  these  are  fit  for 
taking  up  and  replanting  the  following  winter  or  spring. 

Laying  off  Ground  for  Strawberries. — The  essentials  are  deep 
and  thorough  pulverization  of  the  soil  and  grading  of  the  surface  so 
that  water  will  flow  slowly  in  the  ditches.  Suggestions  as  to  location 
of  grade  lines  may  be  found  in  Chapter  XV.  The  inclination  which 
answers  for  water  distribution  may  be  very  slight ;  about  two  inches  to 
the  hundred  feet  answers  on  the  level  lands  of  the  Pajaro  Valley,  while 
in  the  foothills  much  greater  fall  is  made  use  of,  and  on  hillsides  rows 
are  located  on  contour  lines  and  not  in  straight  lines.  A  grade  of  three 
and  three-quarters  inches  to  the  hundred  feet  is  sometimes  used.  The 
triangle  described  in  Chapter  XV  can  be  used  to  fix  the  grades. 

Of  course,  in  grading  the  field  it  is  often  necessary  to  give  adjacent 
blocks  opposite  inclinations  to  provide  for  the  return  of  the  water.  On 
hillsides,  where  the  water  is  carried  down  a  ridge  to  a  flume,  it  is  usual 
to  keep  the  water  always  running  away  from  the  flume,  and  only  enough 
is  taken  out  to  reach  the  ends  of  the  small  ditches.  A  grade  of  six 
inches  to  the  rod  is  practicable  for  hillside  irrigation,  but  of  course  only 
a  small  flow  of  water  is  employed. 

There  are  various  ways  of  laying  out  strawberry  beds  and  planta- 
tions. Some  give  flat  cultivation  and  lay  out  in  single  rows  two  and  a 
half  to  three  and  a  half  feet  apart,  and  in  some  districts  flat  culture  is 
unquestionably  the  best.  Others  lay  out  in  double  rows  a  foot  and  one- 
half  to  two  feet  apart,  and  between  each  pair  of  rows  the  soil  from  the 
center  is  drawn  up  to  each  side,  making  a  low  ridge  or  level  a  little 
higher  than  the  surface  on  which  the  plants  are  set.  This  levee  serves 
as  a  walk  between  the  beds  and  holds  back  the  water  upon  the  bed 
when  irrigated  by  flooding.  Another,  and  generally  adopted  plan,  is  to 
have  the  plants  in  double  rows  on  a  slight  ridge,  while  between  the 
beds  is  a  furrow  which  serves  as  a  walk  and  for  irrigation.  This  is 
accomplished  by  throwing  up  the  soil  with  the  plow  into  ridges  about 
two  feet  wide,  with  a  double  furrow  between.  On  the  sides  of  these 
ridges  the  plants  are  set,  and  often  on  the  top  of  the  ridge  between  the 
rows  of  strawberries  a  single  row  of  onions  or  lettuce,  or  some  other 
vegetable,  is  grown  the  first  year.  In  irrigation  the  water  is  drawn  up 
from  the  trenches  by  the  roots  and  by  capillary  attraction,  and  the  upper 
surface  does  not  bake  as  it  would  by  flooding  if  the  soil  be  heavy.  In 
hoeing  out  weeds  and  in  fruit  gathering,  the  workman  walks  in  the  ditch 
and  does  not  pack  the  soil  around  the  plant  by  tramping.  This  is  the 
best  method  for  laying  out  for  large  plantations.  The  rows  are  a  uni- 
form distance  apart  across  the  field,  whether  the  space  between  be  a 
ridge  or  a  ditch.  The  method  of  making  the  beds  a  little  lower  than 
the  general  surface  of  the  ground,  answers  best  on  free,  open  soils  with 
perfect  drainage.  Cultivation  can  be  reduced  by  covering  the  depressed 
surface  of  the  bed  with  mulch  of  fine,  clean  litter,  such  as  chaff,  cut 
straw,  etc.  This  retains  moisture  and  gives  the  berry  a  clean  surface 
to  rest  on.  Such  a  bed  is  an  excellent  arrangement  for  the  home  garden. 

In  all  arrangements  the  plants  are  set  at  less  distances  in  the  rows 
than  the  rows  are  from  each  other.  Probably  the  prevailing  distance  is 


PLANTING    STRAWBERRIES  421 

one  foot  between  the  plants ;  the  range  is  from  eight  to  eighteen  inches 
in  the  practice  of  different  growers,  and  determined,  of  course,  largely 
by  the  habit  of  the  variety.  A  vine  like  the  Sharpless,  with  a  spreading 
growth  and  long  fruit  stem  needs,  perhaps,  sixteen  inches  which  some 
growers  give  it,  while  the  smaller,  more  compact,  Longworth  Prolific, 
may  do  well  with  half  that  distance. 

Planting  Strawberries. — Strawberry  plants  are  set  out  either  in 
spring  or  fall,  or  at  any  time  in  the  winter  when  the  ground  is  warm 
or  in  good  condition.  Fall  planting  usually  gives  a  fuller  spring  crop 
though  planting  as  late  as  February  has  brought  two  crops  the  follow- 
ing spring  and  summer,  and  planting  in  April  has  secured  fruit  the 
same  year,  but  it  is  better  to  prevent  it  and  induce  more  growth.  Spring 
planting  is  in  April  and  May.  In  the  drier  parts  of  the  State,  early  fall 
or  winter  planting  is  more  essential  than  elsewhere.  If  the  ground  is 
dry,  water  should  always  be  used  in  planting.  This  may  be  given  by 
thorough  irrigation  of  the  ground  before  planting,  or  a  little  water  may 
be  used  in  setting  each  plant.  At  planting  it  is  usually  best  to  remove 
all  leaves  from  the  plant,  shorten  the  roots  to  three  inches  or  less,  and 
be  sure  the  plants  do  not  dry  while  planting  progresses.  As  with  han- 
dling rooted  grape-vines,  it  is  advisable  to  carry  around  the  plants  in  a 
vessel  which  has  water  in  it.  If  the  plants  have  been  received  by  mail 
they  are  invigorated  by  soaking  in  water  a  few  hours  before  planting. 

In  setting  the  plants,  scoop  out  a  little  excavation  with  the  hand  or 
a  trowel,  spread  the  roots  well,  cover  with  fine  soil,  being  sure  that  the 
crown  of  the  plant  shall  not  be  below  the  surface  when  the  soil  is  leveled. 
Too  many  strawberry  plants  are  buried,  not  planted.  Some  plant  very 
rapidly  by  using  a  dibble  to  make  a  hole,  into  which  the  roots  are 
dropped  and  soil  pressed  around  them  by  using  the  dibble  alongside; 
others  set  the  plants  on  the  side  of  the  furrow,  trusting  to  the  next  fur- 
row to  complete  the  covering.  Nearly  all  ways  succeed  if  the  plant  is 
not  set  too  deeply  and  the  ground  is  moist  at  planting  and  not  allowed 
to  dry  out  afterwards — providing  good,  strong  plants  are  used.  In 
buying  plants  it  is  often  poor  economy  to  buy  the  cheapest. 

Staminate  and  Pistillate. — In  associating  varieties  be  sure  the 
pistillate  varieties  are  not  set  by  themselves.  Some  sorts  have  perfect 
flowers  and  are  self-fertilizing;  others  have  only  the  pistillate  element 
in  the  bloom  and  must  have  the  staminate  adjacent  in  another  variety. 
Several  varieties  largely  grown  in  California  have  perfect  flowers, 
though  some  pistillate  sorts  have  been  locally  approved.  This  matter 
should  be  looked  into  before  planting  a  variety.  Pistillate  varieties 
should  have  staminate  kinds  in  every  fourth  row. 

Care  of  the  Strawberry  Plantation. — Herein  lies  the  secret  of  suc- 
cess with  the  strawberry :  Neglect  has  led  to  disappointment  and  con- 
demnation of  the  strawberry,  where  intelligent  care  would  have  ren- 
dered it  a  constant  delight.  The  cheap  elements  of  proper  care  may 
be  thus  enumerated : 

Retention  of  moisture  very  near  the  surface  by  careful,  shallow 
cultivation  or  by  mulching,  persistent  destruction  of  weeds,  and  com- 
pensation for  summer  evaporation  by  frequent  irrigation.  The  plants 


422  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

during  the  bearing  season  should  never  be  allowed  to  show  any  leaf- 
shriveling  from  drouth.  Frequency  of  irrigation  depends  upon  local 
conditions.  Irrigation  at  intervals  of  four  to  ten  days,  according  to  the 
soil,  are  the  outlines  of  prevailing  practice. 

Constant  removal  of  runners  from  all  plants  except  those  it  is  de- 
sired to  multiply  to  furnish  new  plants  or  to  fill  the  rows.  Pinching  of 
runners  should  always  accompany  picking  or  hoeing  of  weeds,  and  on 
the  garden  bed  there  can  be  no  excuse  for  neglect  in  this  respect.  The 
young  plants  should  be  faithfully  freed  from  runners  to  strengthen  them 
up  for  bearing. 

Though,  as  already  stated,  strawberries  may  in  some  locations  be 
had  all  winter,  it  is  better  practice,  as  a  general  rule,  to  lay  the  plants 
away  for  a  rest.  The  market  season  in  the  regions  supplying  the  San 
Francisco  market  extends  from  April  to  December,  and  fruit  is  con- 
tinuously shipped  during  that  period.  At  the  approach  of  winter  in  the 
last-named  month,  it  is  usual  to  go  over  the  beds  with  a  sickle,  cutting 
off  the  old  crops  of  leaves  close  to  the  root  crown,  carefully  cleaning 
up  the  plantation  for  the  heavy  rains.  In  most  cases  it  will  be  a  great 
advantage  then  to  cover  over  all  with  a  light  coat  of  good  manure, 
which  the  winter  rains  will  leach  down  into  the  soils.  The  result  of  the 
fall  clipping  and  enriching  will  be  an  early  and  strong  start  of  the  plant 
in  the  spring,  and  a  most  abundant  fruitage. 

Duration  of  the  Plantation. — Strawberry  plants  well  cared  for 
and  not  visited  by  insect  pests,  have  a  long,  productive,  and  profitable 
life  in  California.  Twelve-year-old  plants  are  sometimes  reported  as 
still  producing  abundantly.  It  is  customary  to  count  from  five  to  eight 
years  as  the  profitable  life  of  a  plant,  though  some  growers  replant  after 
two  bearing  years.  The  effective  duration  depends  directly  upon  pre- 
venting growth  of  plants  and  too  close  matting  of  the  rows. 

Varieties  of  the  Strawberry. — Though  all  new  varieties  are  tried 
by  California  growers,  and  quite  a  number  may  be  considered  success- 
ful either  for  market  or  for  home  use,  only  a  very  few  may  be  said  to 
be  widely  grown.  In  the  Watsonville  district,  which  largely  supplies 
San  Francisco,  the  Melinda,  which  some  growers  hold  to  be  indis- 
tinguishable from  the  Dollar,  is  chiefly  grown,  with  Brandywine  as  a 
distant  second.  In  the  southern  Alameda  County  district  the  Banner  is 
grown  exclusively  by  some  large  growers.  In  the  Florin  district,  near 
Sacramento,  growing  berries  to  ship  all  through  the  northern  States  of 
the  coast  and  eastward  to  Colorado,  the  Dollar  is  grown  almost  ex- 
clusively, with  a  few  Jessies  for  extra  early.  Other  varieties  which  do 
well  in  the  interior  valley  are :  Longworth,  Lady  Thompson,  and  Ten- 
nessee Prolific.  In  the  Fresno  district,  Marshall  and  Jessie  are  chiefly 
grown. 

In  the  districts  near  Los  Angeles,  the  Brandywine  prevails.  It  is 
best  for  shipping  and  is  held  to  be  sweeter  than  at  the  east ;  and  next  to 
it,  in  the  commercial  fields  at  the  south,  are  Excelsior  and  Klondike. 
The  Arizona  Everbearing  is  declining  in  popularity  although  still 
favored  by  some  growers  in  Southern  California. 

Three  old  kinds  which  still  hold  favor  for  home  use  and  local  sale 
are  the  Longworth  Prolific,  the  Sharpless,  and  the  Monarch  of  the 


ETTERSBURG    STRAWBERRIES  423 

West.  The  Sharpless  is  the  most  widely  grown;  the  Monarch  shows 
better  size  and  color  in  southern  California  and  on  the  Sierra  foothills 
than  in  the  regions  adjacent  to  San  Francisco,  although  it  is  still  grown 
therein  to  some  extent.  The  Longworth  is  an  old  favorite,  early,  pro- 
ductive and  hardy,  and  its  style  has  become  very  popular  in  the  markets. 
Wilson's  Albany  also  holds  favor. 

It  has  been  demonstrated  that  varieties  show  marked  difference  in 
behavior  in  different  soils  and  situations.  In  planting  for  market  or 
home  use  the  planter  will  be  safer  in  making  his  largest  plantations  of 
the  varieties  commended  by  leading  growers  and  well  informed  nursery- 
men, and  at  the  same  time  he  should  put  out  experimental  plants  of 
other  varieties. 

The  most  notable  work  for  new  varieties  in  California  is  being 
pursued  by  Albert  F.  Etter,  of  Briceland,  Humboldt  County.  He  is 
crossing  cultivated  varieties  with  local  wild  species  and  is  thus  in- 
troducing factors  not  employed  hitherto  with  results  which  promise 
to  be  notable.  His  first  named  variety  is  Rose  Ettersburg,  which  is 
a  cross  of  a  third  generation  Sharpless  x  Parry  with  a  novel  type 
of  Fragaria  Chiloensis.  It  has  remarkable  drouth  resistance  and 
thrift  on  poor  soils.  The  blossoms  are  often  as  large  as  a  silver 
dollar,  the  berries  large,  often  \y2  inches  in  diameter,  and  bluish 
pink  in  color.  Single  stocks  from  sets  18  months  out  measured  22 
inches  high  and  over  10  feet  in  circumference.  Mr.  Etter's  work  is 
described  in  detail  in  the  Pacific  Rural  Press  for  August  22  and  29 
and  September  5  and  19,  1908 ;  May  18,  October  5  and  November  2, 
1912,  and  is  very  interesting.  The  variety,  Ettersburg  No.  80,  was 
distributed  by  this  journal  in  February,  1913,  and  has  already  dis- 
closed very  important  characteristics. 


PART  SEVEN:  NUTS 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 
NUT  GROWING  IN  CALIFORNIA 

Two  nuts  have  risen  to  large  commercial  importance  in  Cali- 
fornia: The  English  walnut  and  the  almond.  Other  nuts  than 
these,  except  peanuts,  have  never  attained  great  acreage,  although 
several  have  succeeded  and  promise  to  become  popular. 

The  commercial  production  of  almonds  and  walnuts  in  Cali- 
fornia during  the  last  nineteen  years  has  been  estimated  by  the  trade 
as  follows,  in  tons  of  2,000  Ibs. : 


Year 

Almonds 

Walnuts 

1895  

825 

2,310 

1896  

1,605 

4,115 

1897  

2,375 

3,985 

1898  

450 

5,660 

1899  

2,320 

5,530 

1900  

2,740 

5,430 

1901  

1,560 

6,910 

1902  

3,270 

8,520 

1903  

3,200 

5,500 

1904  

800 

7,590 

1905  

2,125 

5,750 

1906  

900 

6,1-25 

1907  

750 

6,500 

1908  

2,900 

8,500 

1909  

1,500 

8,000 

1910  

3,300 

9,600 

1911  

1,700 

12,500 

1912  

3,000 

11,250 

1913  

1,100 

11,750 

The  walnuts  are  chiefly  grown  in  Santa  Barbara,  Ventura,  Los 
Angeles  and  Orange  counties  in  southern  California.  The  almonds 
are  from  interior  counties  in  the  central  regions  of  the  State. 
Reasons  for  the  extreme  fluctuations  in  production  of  the  almond 
will  be  suggested  in  the  discussion  of  that  nut  which  will  follow. 


THE  ALMOND 

The  almond  has  an  interesting  history  in  California,  but  it  can  be 
outlined  in  a  few  sentences.  The  importation  of  the  best  European 
varieties  began  very  early,  and  a  number  of  them  had  been  planted 
in  1853.  They  proved  irregular  bearers,  though  the  trees  grew 
thriftily  and  in  some  cases  showed  fruit  very  soon  after  planting. 

424 


REQUIREMENTS    OF    THE   ALMOND  425 

The  barren  almond  trees  were  largely  grafted  into  prunes  or  made 
into  firewood  and  the  conclusion  was  reached  that  to  secure  regu- 
larity and  abundance  in  fruiting,  locations  for  almond  orchards  must 
be  sought  with  the  utmost  care,  and  that  the  secret  of  success  lay 
in  the  location.  After  that  local  seedlings  seemed  to  demonstrate 
their  value  in  regular  crops,  and  in  characteristics  and  qualities 
superior  to  foreign  kinds.  Large  planting  was  then  undertaken  on 
the  ground  that  the  choice  of  soil  and  situation,  and  the  selection  of 
trustworthy  varieties,  are  both  factors  of  success,  but  that  possibly 
more  lay  in  the  choice  of  variety  than  of  location.  This  belief  led 
to  the  wide  planting  in  locations  now  seen  to  be  unfitted  by  reason 
of  frosts  and  losses  were  again  encountered.  Now  it  seems  to  be 
fully  demonstrated  that  no  matter  what  variety  is  planted  locations 
for  the  almond  must  be  selected  with  great  care.  It  has  also  been 
demonstrated  that  association  of  varieties  promotes  pollination  and 
satisfactory  bearing. 

Situations  and  Soils  for  the  Almond. — Almonds  are  now  doing 
best  on  the  higher  lands  in  coast  valleys,  free  from  fogs  and  pro- 
tected from  direct  winds,  but  subject  to  tempered  breezes;  also  at 
various  points  in  the  interior  valleys  and  foothills.  The  general 
proposition  that  low  lands  in  small  valleys  should  be  avoided,  and 
bench  or  hillside  situations  preferred,  seems  to  be  a  safe  one.  Lands 
directly  upon  the  coast  have  not  proved  satisfactory.  In  the  large 
interior  valleys  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin,  almonds  are 
successfully  grown  on  flat  valley  lands  but  little  lifted  above  sea 
level  and  from  such  plains  the  chief  product  comes.  Why  almonds 
are  safer  on  the  low  lands  of  a  great  valley  than  of  a  small  valley  is 
explained  by  the  discussion  on  page  16. 

The  almond  prefers  a  loose,  light,  warm  soil,  and  heavy,  poorly- 
drained  soils  should  be  avoided.  Though  they  need  moisture  enough 
to  make  good,  thrifty  growth  they  will  produce  good  crops  on  soils 
that  are  too  light  or  dry  to  grow  satisfactory  peaches,  apricots,  nec- 
tarines, cherries,  or  similar  pulpy  fruits.  The  almond  is,  however,  a 
very  deep-rooting  tree,  and  may  succeed  by  reaching  deeply  for 
moisture  rather  than  by  denying  itself,  as  some  think.  The  tree 
certainly  suffers  and  is  barren  from  drouth  in  some  cases,  and  a 
certain  amount  of  irrigation  in  midsummer  is  very  desirable.  Al- 
monds are  doing  well  in  alfalfa  with  irrigation — the  alfalfa  making 
a  good  growth  and  still  leaving  soil-moisture  enough  to  cause  the 
nuts  to  open  their  hulls  better  than  on  drier  ground  with  clean  cul- 
tivation. 

Propagating,  Planting,  and  Pruning. — The  almond  is  propagated 
from  seedlings  grown  as  described  in  Chapter  VIII,  and  budded  as 
described  in  Chapter  IX.  The  almond  root  is  preferred,  though  the 
peach  answers  well.  The  apricot  root  should  be  avoided. 

For  planting  out,  trees  in  dormant  bud  are  very  successful  if  given 
proper  care.  Yearling  trees  are,  on  the  whole,  best  and  usually  those 
which  have  made  a  moderate  instead  of  a  very  large  growth  are  to  be 
preferred.  The  almond  makes  a  comparatively  large  tree  and  should 


426  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

have  plenty  of  room — not  less  than  twenty- four  feet  apart  (though 
some  plantations  are  made  at  twenty  feet),  and  thirty  feet  is  better. 

Old  almond  trees  are  readily  worked  over  to  other  varieties  by 
grafting  and  by  budding  into  new  shoots  forced  out  by  cutting  off  large 
branches.  Methods  with  the  peach  described  in  page  242  are  applicable 
to  the  almond. 

The  pruning  of  the  almond  is  very  simple.  The  tree  should  be 
headed  low  and  pruned  during  the  first  three  years,  as  described  in 
Chapter  XII,  to  secure  a  shapely,  strong  tree.  After  the  third  year 
little  pruning  is  required  except  to  thin  out  objectionable  branches  by 
winter  pruning.  Suckers,  or  rank  new  growth,  in  the  center  of  the  tree 
should  be  removed,  unless  more  branches  are  needed;  such  growth 
bears  little  and  takes  away  strength  from  bearing  wood.  There  is  dan- 
ger of  allowing  the  trees  to  become  too  dense.  Shortening  in,  as  prac- 
ticed with  the  peach,  is  sometimes  proposed  for  the  almond,  for  the 
thrift  of  the  tree  and  the  size  of  the  nut,  but  growers  have  not  had 
courage  enough  to  assume  the  increased  cost  of  production  which  would 
be  involved. 

The  cultivation  of  the  almond  orchard  is  the  same  as  commended 
for  other  fruit  trees,  and  as  the  trees  are  often  planted  in  naturally  dry 
soils,  the  greater  care  in  cultivation  is  needed  to  retain  sufficient 
moisture  to  give  good  size  to  the  nuts.  In  certain  locations,  of  course, 
irrigation  will  be  necessary,  but  usually  a  light  rainfall  will  answer  if 
good  cultivation  is  given. 

Gathering,  Hulling,  and  Bleaching. — Almonds  are  gathered  by 
spreading  canvas  under  the  tree  and  jarring  the  branches  separately 
with  a  side  stroke  from  a  soft  wood  pole ;  the  few  nuts  remaining  can 
be  displaced  by  striking  with  a  light  stick.  The  gathering  should  be 
done  after  the  hulls  have  burst  open,  but  should  not  be  delayed  until  the 
nuts  are  badly  discolored.  Discoloration  of  the  nut  depends  upon  local 
atmospheric  conditions  and  is  worst  in  regions  subject  to  moist  winds 
or  fogs  from  the  ocean,  and  they  often  extend  considerable  distances 
into  the  interior  valleys.  On  the  dry  plateaux  adjacent  to  the  Mojave 
Desert  perfectly  bright  almonds  are  produced  naturally,  but  at  these 
elevations  frost  injuries  are  frequent  and  notable. 

For  the  greater  part  of  the  almond  product,  bleaching  is  apparently 
demanded  by  market  requirements,  but  it  must  be  carefully  done  as 
described  on  the  following  page.  Various  home-made  contrivances  are 
used  for  bleaching,  such  as  piling  up  several  of  the  slat-bottom  trays  one 
upon  another,  placing  around  them  sides  made  of  boards  so  as  to  hook 
together  at  the  corners,  cover  the  top  with  a  damp  canvas,  and  burn  the 
sulphur  in  a  hole  in  the  ground  below  the  bottom  tray. 

Webster  Treat,  formerly  a  large  grower  of  almonds,  describes  his 
sulphuring-house  for  almonds : 

My  bleaching  house  is  about  twenty-five  feet  by  eight  feet,  and  I  generally  put 
in  about  four  thousand  pounds  of  almonds  and  expose  them  to  sulphur  fumes 
for  three  or  four  hours.  The  house  is  boarded  with  tongue  and  groove  flooring, 
inside  and  out,  and  roofed  with  well-laid  shingles,  and  has  a  flue  about  two  feet 
high  on  the  apex,  to  help  draft  the  sulphur  smoke  up.  The  floor  is  of  one-by- 
three-inch  stuff,  set  up  edgewise,  three-eighths  of  an  inch  apart,  or  just  wide 
enough  to  admit  the  fumes  from  the  sulphur  burning  below,  and  narrow  enough 


HARVESTING   ALMONDS.  427 

to  prevent  the  nuts  from  falling  through.  The  floor  is  about  two  and  one-half 
feet  above  the  ground,  and  the  lower  space  is  boarded  up  with  tongue  and  groove 
also  and  fitted  with  small  doors  every  five  feet,  so  that  the  sulphur  pans  can  be 
placed  underneath  the  floor. 

Sulphur  fumes  are  applied  until  the  nuts  are  of  a  light  yellowish 
color;  the  proper  shade  is  to  be  learned  by  securing  approved  samples 
from  some  trustworthy  dealer. 

The  following  explicit  account  of  handling  almonds  on  a  large 
scale  is  by  Mr.  J.  P.  Dargitz,  of  Acampo,  San  Joaquin  county : 

"When  the  hulls  on  the  nuts  are  loose  from  the  shell,  as  will  be 
indicated  by  their  bursting  open,  it  is  time  to  begin  gathering  if  you 
wish  to  hull  them.  If  they  get  too  dry  you  will  have  to  wet  them 
before  hulling  or  you  will  break  the  shells.  If  you  wish  to  shell  them 
then,  the  drier  they  get  the  better.  It  will  not  pay  to  begin  until  the 
nuts  about  the  crotches  of  the  trees  are  ready  and  they  will  be  the  last 
to  ripen.  When  they  are  all  ready  you  can  get  all  at  one  gathering. 
Have  some  sheets  made  of  heavy  unbleached  sheeting  or  light  duck  or 
sail  cloth.  Mine  for  large  trees  are  15x30  feet,  handled  by  two  men  to 
a  sheet  and  two  sheets  to  a  tree.  Spread  the  sheets  under  the  tree,  one 
on  each  side,  lapping  the  edges  where  they  join.  Then  the  men  take 
willow  or  bamboo  poles  and  by  jarring  the  limbs  cause  the  nuts  to 
fall  on  the  sheets.  Always  strike  the  limbs  sideways,  for  if  you  strike 
a  glancing  blow  down  the  limb,  you  will  reduce  next  year's  crop. 
The  object  is  to  get  the  nuts  and  disturb  the  foliage  as  little  as  possible. 
When  the  nuts  are  all  off  the  tree,  the  men  toss  their  poles  to  the  next 
tree  and  then  gather  up  the  sheets,  one  man  at  each  end  of  each  sheet 
and,  lifting  them,  carry  them  to  the  next  tree  where  the  process  is 
repeated.  When  enough  nuts  are  in  sheets  to  fill  several  lug  boxes, 
the  boxes  are  placed  on  the  ground  side  by  side,  and  the  sheets  are 
emptied  into  them.  These  boxes  are  then  stacked  up  so  as  to  be  easily 
seen,  and  the  teamster  hauls  them  to  the  sheds  where  machines  for 
hulling  are  located.  In  the  very  small  orchards  the  hulling  is  usually 
done  by  hand  at  an  expense  of  about  2  cents  per  pound.  For  orchards 
slightly  larger  there  are  small  hullers  in  the  market  at  from  $100  to 
$300,  which  can  be  operated  by  hand  or  by  a  small  gasoline  engine  or 
electric  motor.  For  larger  orchards,  machines  costing  up  to  $800, 
which  can  hull  up  to  two  or  three  tons  per  day,  are  in  the  market. 

After  the  hulling  more  or  less  hand  sorting  is  required,  as  the 
small  machines  do  no  sorting,  while  the  larger  machines  do  more  or 
less  perfect  sorting  of  the  hulls  from  the  nuts. 

Bleaching. — After  this  hand  sorting,  the  nuts  are  spread  out  in 
the  sun  to  be  thoroughly  cured  before  bleaching.  After  they  are 
cured  so  that  the  kernel  will  break  without  bending,  they  are  ready 
for  bleaching.  The  bleaching  requires  the  dampening  of  the  shells. 
This  is  accomplished  by  immersing  quickly  in  water  or  by  a  fine  spray 
from  a  hose  nozzle,  or  by  putting  on  trays  and  running  in  the  sulphur 
house  and  then  introducing  low-pressure  steam — not  more  than  30 
pounds — into  the  sulphur  house  for  15  to  30  minutes.  The  moisture 
from  this  low-pressure  steam  heats  or  dampens  the  outer  portion  of  the 
shell,  and  then  while  they  are  both  hot  and  damp — the  steam  being 


428  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

shut  off — the  sulphur  fumes  from  burning  sulphur  is  introduced  in 
the  sulphur  house  for  perhaps  15  to  30  minutes  and  gives  the  required 
brightening  to  the  shell.  If  the  almonds  have  been  immersed  before 
bleaching  it  will  be  necessary  after  bleaching  to  spread  them  out  in  the 
sun  for  several  hours  and  stir  them  occasionally  to  get  rid  of  the  excess 
moisture.  If  they  have  been  dampened  by  a  fine  spray  hose  they  may 
or  may  not  need  this  drying,  but  they  must  be  perfectly  dry  before 
being  sacked.  However,  if  the  steam  process  is  used,  the  nuts  can 
be  taken  immediately  from  the  sulphur  house  and  sacked,  and  the  heat 
that  is  in  the  shell  will  evaporate  the  small  amount  of  moisture  in  the 
process  of  sacking. 

The  steam  process  costs  only  about  one-half  as  much  as  the  other 
process  of  bleaching.  If  the  shell  is  wet  through,  or  if  the  kernels  are 
not  well  cured,  or  if  the  shells  are  open  and  the  nuts  immersed  and 
there  is  more  or  less  water  inside  the  shells,  the  sulphur  will  materially 
injure  the  kernels  and  they  will  not  keep  well,  but  will  soon  become 
rancid. 

Almonds  that  are  to  be  shelled  for  commercial  purposes  should 
not  be  bleached  under  any  circumstances,  as  the  only  object  to  be 
accomplished  in  bleaching  is  the  brightening  of  the  shell,  and  for 
shelling  purposes  the  shells  are  not  marketed. 

Pollination  and  Late  Blooming. — The  advantages  of  cross  pollina- 
tion between  different  varieties  and  the  surer  bearing  of  late  blooming 
varieties  are  related  subjects  which  are  worthy  of  close  attention.  Mr. 
J.  P.  Dargitz,  whose  harvesting  method  has  just  been  given,  has 
pointed  out  that,  according  to  his  observation  as  a  rule  all  the  paper- 
shells  are  deficient  in  pollen,  and  will  not  bear  well  if  planted  alone  and 
he  concludes  that  the  only  two  which  warrant  planting  in  his  section 
are  the  Nonpareil  and  the  Ne  Plus  Ultra.  The  latter  is  not  so  good, 
a  nut,  and  needs  much  more  moisture  than  the  other.  The  Nonpareil 
will  give  good  results  if  planted  with  some  other  variety  as  pollenizer. 
It  is  one  of  the  very  best  of  nuts  and  is  well  worth  planting.  Mr. 
Dargitz  regards  the  Texas  Prolific  the  very  best  pollenizer,  and  when 
planted  in  alternate  double  rows  with  the  Nonpareil  will  cause  it  to 
set  fruit  freely  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  Nonpareil  begins  blooming 
two  weeks  earlier  than  the  Texas  but  still  has  bloom  to  catch  the  Texas 
pollen  when  it  is  ready. 

This  late  blooming  of  the  Texas  places  it  in  the  same  class  for 
surety  with  Drake's  Seedling.  Both  nuts  are  medium  soft  shell  and 
small  but  are  being  largely  chosen  because  of  sure  bearing  and  large 
product.  As  to  the  relative  return  per  sack,  Mr.  Dargitz  says : 

The  Nonpareil  at  14  cents  per  pound,  the  Drake  Seedling  at  11  cents  per 
pound,  and  the  Texas  Prolific  at  10  cents  per  pound,  will  each  bring  about  $10.50 
per  standard  sack,  the  IXL  at  13  cents  per  pound  about  $9  per  sack,  and  the  Ne 
Plus  Ultra  at  12  cents  per  pound  about  $8.50  per  sack. 

The  relative  values  of  varieties  is  also  shown  by  the  prices  fixed 
by  the  California  Almond  Growers'  Exchange  at  Sacramento  for  the 
opening  sales  of  the  1913  crop  as  follows:  Nonpareil,  19c;  IXL, 
lNe  Plus  Ultra,  I7l/2c',  Drakes,  14>^c;  all  f.  o.  b.  warehouses. 


POPULAR    KINDS    OF   ALMONDS  429 

Varieties  of  the  Almond. — Almonds  should  bear  well  every  year, 
hull  easily,  have  clean,  thin,  soft  shells,  and  a  smooth,  bright,  and 
plump  kernel.  Almonds  with  long,  single  kernels  are  preferred  in 
general  to  those  which  have  double  ones.  These  are  the  characters 
which  ruled  in  the  selection  of  new  varieties  by  the  pioneer  propagator 
of  new  almonds,  A.  T.  Hatch,  formerly  of  Suisun.  In  1878  Mr.  Hatch 
planted  out  about  two  thousand  five  hundred  seedling  almond  trees 
grown  from  the  bitter  almond  seed.  He  afterward  budded  all  the  seed- 
lings but  about  three  hundred  which  were  left  to  bearing  age  unbudded. 
The  fruit  of  these  seedlings  was  of  all  degrees  of  excellence.  A  few  of 
the  best  of  them  were  selected  for  propagation  and  naming,  and  they 
constitute  the  chief  part  of  the  acreage  which  is  now  bearing  almonds, 
but  other  late  bloomers  and  sure  bearers  are  being  preferred  in  current 
planting. 

Excellent  seedling  almonds  have  also  been  produced  by  other 
growers.  The  following  list  includes  the  sorts  most  widely  grown — 
the  following  being  chiefly  approved  by  growers,  in  the  order  given : 
Nonpareil,  Drake's,  IXL,  Ne  Plus  Ultra,  Texas  Prolific,  Languedoc, 
Peerless : 

IXL. — Tree  a  sturdy,  rather  upright  grower,  with  large  leaves;  nuts  large 
with,  as  a  rule,  single  kernels ;  hulls  easily,  no  machine  being  needed,  nor  is  any 
bleaching  necessary;  shell  soft,  but  perfect;  largely  discarded  for  shy  bearing, 
but  desirable  in  some  places. 

Ne  Plus  Ultra. — Large  and  very  long  in  shape ;  heavy  and  regular  bearer ;  soft 
shell;  hull  free. 

Nonpareil. — First  called  Extra.  Of  a  weeping  style  of  growth;  smaller  foli- 
age than  the  IXL,  but  still  forms  a  beautiful  tree.  An  extraordinarily  heavy 
and  regular  bearer,  with  very  thin  shell,  of  the  Paper  Shell  type.  Ripens  early 
and  can  be  gathered  before  other  varieties  are  ready. 

Lewelling's  Prolific. — Originated  with  the  late  Mr.  John  Lewelling;  "tree  a 
great  bearer;  of  drooping  habit;  nut  large  and  good;  soft  shell;  hull  free." — 
Leonard  Coates. 

Harriott's  Seedling  (or  Commercial). — From  Visalia,  where  it  is  a  surer  crop- 
per than  elsewhere ;  shell  softer  than  the  Languedoc ;  nut  long,  of  peculiar  shape, 
quite  large ;  kernel  sweet. 

King's  Soft  Shell. — Originated  in  San  Jose;  shell  very  thin  and  soft;  regular 
and  abundant  bearer. 

Princess. — The  finest  of  the  Paper  Shell  class ;  long,  oval,  kernel  large,  white 
and  sweet. 

Languedoc. — Nut  large ;  shell  thin ;  kernel  sweet ;  condemned  for  irregular 
bearing. 

Paper  Shell. — Medium  size ;  shell  very  tender,  easily  broken  between  the  finger 
and  thumb;  kernel  large,  white  and  sweet. 

Drake's  Seedling. — Originated  with  Mr.  Drake,  of  Suisun,  of  the  Languedoc 
class ;  very  prolific,  and  a  regular,  abundant  bearer.  A  late  blooming  variety. 

Golden  State. — Originated  by  Webster  Treat.  A  large  soft  shell,  somewhat 
longer  than  the  Languedoc,  with  a  full,  smooth-skinned  meat;  parts  from  the 
hull  readily.  An  early  variety,  but  in  less  favor  than  formerly. 

Peerless. — Resembling  IXL:  Popular  in  Yolo  County  for  regular  and  heavy 
bearing. 

Texas  Prolific. — Brought  from  Texas  by  Robert  Williamson,  of  W.  R.  Strong 
&  Co.,  of  Sacramento,  about  1891,  as  a  seedling  originated  at  Dallas,  and  the 
only  almond  which  would  bear  there.  Planted  at  Acampo  by  Robert  Adams,  who 


430  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

had  charge  of  the  company's  nurseries  at  that  place;  fully  discussed  by  J.  P. 
Dargitz,  of  Acampo,  and  described  by  the  introducer  as  resembling  Languedoc 
in  tree  and  nut,  but  with  softer  shell,  which  is  filled  with  very  sweet  kernel. 
Blooms  two  weeks  later  than  Drake.  Mr.  Dargitz  reports  fifteen  years  without 
failure  to  bear  and  usually  prolific. 

^  Jordan  Almond.— This  long,  hard-shelled  almond,  notable  because  of  its  long, 
slim  kernel  for  "salted  almonds"  and  imported  at  high  cost  for  that  purpose,  has 
been  introduced  both  through  government  distribution  and  private  enterprise, 
notably  that  of  the  late  John  Rock,  of  the  California  Nursery  Co.,  of  Niles.  Too 
little  has  yet  been  seen  to  determine  the  value  of  the  variety  in  local  production. 
It  is  especially  favored  to  the  Coachella  Valley. 


THE  CHESTNUT 

The  chestnut  is  not  yet  produced  in  large  amount  in  California, 
and  certain  quantities  of  the  nuts  are  annually  imported,  the  American, 
Italian,  or  Spanish  and  Japanese  all  being  found  in  the  San  Francisco 
markets.  Of  chestnuts  grown  in  California,  the  Italian  predominates, 
and  the  Japanese  is  more  common  than  the  American,  which  is  slow 
of  growth  and  late  in  fruiting,  as  compared  with  the  other  kinds. 
Judging  the  success  of  the  Italian,  it  may  be  said  that  a  large  area  of 
California  is  well  suited  for  the  growth  of  the  chestnut,  as  there  are 
bearing  trees  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  State.  The  chestnut  succeeds 
on  heavy,  clayey  soil,  even  if  it  be  rocky. 

Chestnut  trees  are  readily  grown  from  the  seed,  and  thus  grown 
come  into  bearing  from  six  to  eight  years,  though  the  Japanese  some- 
times bear  sooner.  The  growth  of  chestnuts  from  the  seed  is  described 
in  Chapter  VIII.  In  growing  from  seed  of  the  improved  varieties, 
there  is  a  tendency  toward  reversion,  and  budding  and  grafting  may 
be  resorted  to ;  and  can  be  done  by  the  methods  described  in  the  chap- 
ter on  the  fig.  The  chestnut  can  also  be  grafted  with  the  ordinary 
cleft  graft.  Buds  or  scions  should  be  taken  from  trees  which  are 
fruiting  satisfactorily,  and  in  this  way  seedlings  which  have  a  tendency 
to  bear  empty  burs  can  be  turned  to  good  account.  Chestnuts  can  be 
grown  in  the  nursery  until  several  years  old,  providing  they  are  lifted 
at  the  end  of  the  first  year,  the  tap-root  cut  off,  and  the  trees  reset, 
giving  them  rather  more  room  than  during  their  first  year's  growth. 
In  permanent  plantings  the  trees  should  have  plenty  of  room,  as  they 
ultimately  attain  great  size.  Trees  at  Grass  Valley,  Nevada  county, 
when  about  twenty  years  old,  fifteen  inches  in  diameter  of  trunk,  and 
forty  feet  high,  and  reported  to  bear  a  barrel  of  nuts  to  the  tree  regu- 
larly. Felix  Gillet  of  Nevada  City,  has  for  many  years  made  a  speci- 
alty of  propagating  a  large  collection  of  the  improved  French  varieties 
of  the  chestnut,  known  as  Marrons,  which  were  distributed  to  some 
extent.  The  chestnut  chiefly  grown  is  the  Italian  but  it  has  not 
attained  any  considerable  product  as  yet.  The  chestnut,  aside  from  its 
desirability  as  an  orchard  tree,  can  be  commended  as  a  tree  for  hill- 
sides or  a  shade  tree  for  waysides  of  pastures,  and  should  be  more 
widely  planted  in  California.  The  chief  product  is  in  the  foothill 
district  east  of  the  San  Joaquin  valley. 


FILBERTS    AND   PEANUTS  431 

THE  FILBERT 

The  best  English  cob-nuts  have  been  quite  widely  tried  in  Cali- 
fornia without  successful  results.  Improved  Spanish  and  French 
varieties  of  the  filbert  were  early  introduced  by  Felix  Gillet,  of  Nevada 
City,  and  have  been  favorably  reported  by  him  as  to  growth  and  bear- 
ing. A  few  other  growers  in  foothill  situations  have  reported  success, 
but  as  a  rule  disappointment  has  attended  ventures  with  the  filbert. 
The  most  favorable  regions  for  farther  experiment  are  apparently  the 
north  slopes  of  the  Coast  Range,  from  Santa  Cruz  northward,  and 
other  cooler  and  moister  situations,  as  well  as  at  an  elevation  on  the 
Sierra  foothills  where  Mr.  Gillet  found  them  satisfactory. 

THE  PEANUT 

During  the  last  few  years  the  peanut  product  of  California  has 
notably  increased,  and  the  crop  is  a  popular  one  in  some  parts  of  the 
San  Joaquin  Valley  and  southern  California.  The  nuts  are  consider- 
ably grown  between  the  rows  in  young  orchards  and  vineyards,  as 
well  as  upon  ground  wholly  given  to  them.  The  following  explicit 
directions  are  given  by  R.  M.  Hargrave,  a  grower  in  Orange  county. 
Some  slight  modifications  in  practice  may  be  needed,  according  to 
locality,  as,  for  example,  in  time  of  planting,  which  is  usually  a  little 
earlier  than  the  date  given : 

Planting. — The  best  time  to  plant  peanuts  is  about  the  middle  of  May,  say, 
10th  to  15th,  in  rows  about  three  to  four  feet  apart  and  sixteen  to  twenty  inches 
the  other  way,  and  not  cover  too  deep — three  to  four  inches.  Peanuts  planted 
the  middle  of  May  ripen  evenly  and  are  of  uniform  size.  Very  early  peanuts 
ripen  unevenly,  and  the  first  nuts  that  set  on  get  so  ripe  they  turn  to  a  pink  color, 
and  if  the  land  is  a  little  sandy  the  stems  get  soft,  lose  their  strength,  and  will 
not  lift  the  nuts  from  the  ground. 

It  takes  about  thirty  pounds  of  the  California  or  White  Virginia,  and  fifty 
pounds  of  the  Tennessee  Reds  to  plant  an  acre.  Tennessee  peanuts  can  be  planted 
much  closer  in  the  rows.  The  California  peanut  is  the  best  to  plant,  as  it  yields 
three  or  four  times  as  much  as  the  Tennessee  Reds  do,  and  has  more  ready  sale. 

The  Quality  of  Land. — Peanuts  require  a  rich  sandy  soil  loam  that  is  known 
as  upland.  Damp  land  gives  the  nuts  a  straw  color,  and  they  are  not  as  good 
probably  as  those  raised  on  higher  land.  They  require  no  irrigation,  except  on 
very  sandy  land,  where  some  have  found  it  profitable ;  but,  as  a  usual  thing,  when 
irrigated  the  ground  is  liable  to  get  hard,  making  the  nuts  crooked,  ill-shaped, 
and  many  times  coloring  them. 

Cultivation. — Peanuts  should  be  cutivated  about  the  same  as  corn,  not  allow- 
ing any  weeds  to  grow  in  them,  keeping  the  ground  loose  and  mellow,  and  when 
the  spikes  begin  to  form,  they  should  not  be  disturbed.  If  they  are,  it  causes  the 
nuts  to  blight  or  not  fill  out.  The  blooms  do  not  require  to  be  covered. 

Harvesting. — Peanuts  should  be  harvested  when  ripe,  and  not  allowed  'to 
stand  too  long,  in  hopes  that  the  last  ones  set  out  will  fill  out  and  ripen,  as  you 
lose  more  than  you  gain.  The  little  ones  spoil  the  sale  of  the  crop,  and  many  are 
left  in  the  ground  that  get  over-ripe.  Peanuts  should  be  cut  or  plowed  out  and 
thrown  into  windrows,  nuts  down,  and  let  lie  a  week  or  ten  days,  and  then  sacked, 
as  the  best  nuts  are  cured  in  that  way,  and  they  do  not  mold  so  badly,  and  cure 
a  better  color.  They  must  not  be  allowed  to  get  wet.  The  tops  are  good  feed  if 
stored  away  in  a  shed  for  winter  use.  All  kinds  of  stock  like  them,  and  small 
nuts  can  be  left  on  the  vines.  They  make  the  best  chicken  feed.  An  average 
yield  is  about  twenty-five  to  thirty  sacks  to  the  acre,  forty  pounds  to  a  sack,  but 
many  have  raised  fifty  sacks,  with  extra  care  and  good  land  well  adapted  to 


432  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW   TO  GROW  THEM 

peanuts.  The  price  for  picking  is  from  30  to  35c  per  grain  sack  holding  from  40 
to  45  pounds.  The  nuts  are  cleaned  in  revolving  drums,  and  followed  with  a 
grain  fanning  mill  which  blows  out  the  light  ones. 

Concerning  the  peanut  situation  in  California  in  1914,  Mr.  C.  E. 
Utt  of  Santa  Ana,  who  has  been  the  largest  grower  in  the  State  for 
many  years,  gives  the  following  specific  statement.* 

My  experience  in  growing  peanuts  in  this  State  covers  a  period  of  many  years. 
The  last  two  years  I  was  in  the  business  I  planted  400  acres  each  year.  They 
netted  me  a  tidy  little  loss,  wiping  out  all  the  profits  I  had  ever  made  growing 
peanuts,  for  occasionally  the  crop  has  proven  profitable. 

A  few  peanuts  have  been  grown  in  California  in  a  great  many  localities  for 
perhaps  fifty  years,  and  most  of  the  attempts  to  produce  them  have  proven  un- 
profitable and  been  abandoned.  At  one  time  Orange  County  produced  something 
like  twenty  carloads  annually,  now  not  more  than  one  carload  a  year,  and  it  is 
perfectly  safe  to  say  that  peanuts  will  never  be  grown  in  the  Pacific  States  to 
any  appreciable  extent,  because  the  cost  of  production  is  so  much  higher  here 
than  in  Japan.  At  one  time  the  Pacific  Coast  market  was  supplied  by  peanuts 
from  Virginia.  About  twenty  years  since  the  Japanese  began  importing  and  now 
sell  over  95  per  cent  of  the  unshelled  peanuts  used  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Virginia  still  supplying  the  bulk  of  the  shelled  Spanish  nuts.  The  price  at  which 
Japanese  nuts  are  laid  down  on  the  wharf  at  San  Francisco,  tariff  paid,  ranges 
from  three  cents  to  four  and  one-half  cents  per  pound.  The  cost  of  producing 
peanuts  at  any  of  the  Pacific  States  will  range  from  three  cents  up,  probably 
averaging  now  about  six  cents.  The  price  of  labor  in  Asia  will  probably  always 
enable  them  to  undersell  us  in  the  market. 

Mr.  Utt  gives  the  following  cultural  hints :  Peanuts  require  sandy 
sediment  to  give  the  best  results.  It  is  better  to  shell  the  seed  and  plant 
one  kernel  in  a  hill,  18  inches  apart  in  the  rows  which  are  three  feet 
apart.  Plant  the  seed  two  or  three  inches  deep,  in  good  moist  earth  so 
as  to  insure  germination.  Plant  as  soon  as  frosts  are  over,  in  April  or 
May,  as  they  need  about  six  months  to  complete  their  growth.  There  is 
very  little  land  that  will  produce  crops  without  irrigation.  If  irrigation 
is  necessary,  it  must  be  by  the  furrow  method,  and  no  flooding  must  be 
permitted. 

THE  PECAN 

The  pecan,  by  rapid  growth,  early  fruiting,  and  general  thrift, 
seems  to  be  the  member  of  the  hickory  family  best  fitted  for  California 
conditions.  A  tree  grown  from  a  nut  planted  by  J.  R.  Wolfskill,  on 
Putah  Creek,  in  1878,  was,  when  twenty-five  years  old,  over  fifty  feet 
high,  with  a  trunk  twelve  inches  in  diameter,  growing  luxuriantly  and 
bearing  freely.  Still  older  trees,  also  very  satisfactory  in  growth  and 
bearing,  are  to  be  seen  at  Chico  and  Visalia.  The  pecan,  though  grown 
for  thirty  years  by  different  parties  around  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco, 
either  does  not  bear  or  keeps  the  nuts  hanging  on  until  sometimes  they 
sprout  on  the  tree.  The  wider  extremes  in  temperature  or  in  humidity 
in  the  interior  seem  to  teach  the  tree  better  habits  of  growth  and  rest, 
and  moist  lowlands  in  the  great  valleys  seem  best  for  pecan  planting. 
As  yet,  California  has  no  marketable  product  of  pecans  but  the  total 
number  of  trees  in  the  State  is  insignificant. 

Pecan  trees  grow  readily  from  the  nuts  if  these  are  fresh.  Plant- 
ers should  secure  nuts  of  selected  varieties  (for  there  is  a  great  differ- 

*Rural   Californian,  March,   1914. 


THE    ENGLISH    WALNUT  433 

ence  in  size  and  quality)  direct  from  growers  in  the  Southern  States, 
and  plant  as  soon  as  received,  in  the  early  winter,  or  if  conditions  are 
not  favorable  for  planting,  the  nuts  should  be  stored  as  described  in 
Chapter  VIII.  Nuts  planted  in  good  nursery  ground  in  rows  as  there 
suggested,  and  covered  about  two  inches  or  a  little  deeper  in  dry,  loose 
soil,  and  then  mulched  to  retain  moisture,  will  germinate  freely.  The 
trees  should  be  transplanted  to  permanent  place  at  the  end  of  the  first 
year  and  then  usually  the  tap-root  can  be  retained,  as  some  growers 
deem  very  desirable ;  if  the  trees  are  to  be  put  in  permanent  place  later 
they  should  be  transplanted  in  the  nursery  and  the  tap-root  cut  off. 
The  nuts  can,  of  course,  be  planted  at  once  in  permanent  place  if  one 
will  take  the  extra  trouble  necessary  to  properly  care  for  them. 

Pecans  are  polished  by  putting  them  in  a  revolving  barrel  only 
partly  filled,  so  that  as  the  barrel  turns  they  fall  upon  and  rub  each 
other  producing  a  beautifully  smooth  surface.  When  it  is  desired  to 
give  an  artificial  color,  a  little  "Spanish  brown"  dry  paint  is  put  into 
the  barrel.  If  the  natural  coloring  is  desirable,  a  little  sharp  sand 
put  into  the  barrel  assists  in  the  scouring  and  produces  the  desirable 
uniformity  of  color.  This  barrel  is  rigged  up  like  a  revolving  churn, 
with  a  side  door  in  the  staves  and  a  gudgeon  on  each  head  which  is 
fitted  into  proper  bearing  on  two  posts ;  proper  arrangement  being 
made  for  a  pulley  or  crank  by  which  the  apparatus  is  turned  either 
by  hand  or  motor  power. 

THE  PISTACHIO 

The  pistachio  nut  (Pistachio,  vera)  was  introduced  a  number  of 
years  ago  but  no  results  have  been  reported.  The  species  upon  its 
own  root  makes  a  low  shrub  and  is  slow  of  growth.  We  have  also 
imported  the  Pistachio,  terebinthus,  from  which  is  derived  the  "chio 
turpentine,"  the  stock  the  true  pistachio  is  grafted  upon  in  Europe  and 
which  is  growing  thriftily  at  several  points  in  the  State.  The  pistachio 
needs  more  time  to  declare  its  California  career. 


THE  ENGLISH, OR  PERSIAN  WALNUT 

The  nut  which  is  signified  in  California  when  the  term  walnut  is 
used,  is  the  English  walnut  or  Madeira  nut  (Juglans  regia)  and  its 
many  varieties.  This  tree  makes  a  grand  growth  in  California.  Speci- 
mens are  seen  here  and  there,  which,  at  about  twenty  years  of  age, 
are  from  fifty  to  sixty  feet  in  height,  with  a  spread  of  branches  of 
forty  to  sixty  feet,  and  in  some  cases  bearing  four  to  eight  hundred 
pounds  of  nuts.  Much  larger  and  older  trees  can  be  found  in  the 
coast  and  interior  valleys  of  central  California  where  the  nut  was  first 
planted,  although,  as  has  already  been  stated,  the  nut  has  thus  far 
been  produced  in  large  quantities  only  in  regions  adjacent  to  the  coast 
in  southern  California.  The  equable  temperature  and  moisture  of  the 
southern  coast  seems  to  specially  favor  the  nut,  but  it  must  not  be 
inferred  that  success  can  only  be  attained  in  such  situations.  A  num- 
ber of  French  varieties,  which  have  been  widely  enough  distributed  to 


434  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

test  their  growth,  have  been  found  to  thrive  in  many  situations  where 
the  old  Los  Angeles  variety  is  a  failure,  and  there  is  at  present  quite 
a  disposition  to  larger  plantings  of  the  walnut  in  all  California  valleys, 
either  as  a  sole  occupant  of  the  land  or  as  border  trees  around  fruit 
orchards.  At  the  South  the  walnut  area  has  largely  increased  in 
those  situations  where  the  tree  shows  most  satisfactory  bearing  qual- 
ities, and  newer  varieties  of  California  origin,  like  the  Improved  Soft 
Shell,  constitute  most  of  the  present  area.  In  all  untried  places,  or  in 
all  places  where  the  old  Los  Angeles  Walnut  has  failed,  trial  should 
be  made  of  the  hardy  French  varieties,  which  will  be  described  farther 
on.  Recently  considerable  planting  has  been  done  in  the  coast  and 
interior  valleys  and  foothills  of  central  California  upon  the  quite  fully 
demonstrated  success  of  these  varieties.  It  is,  however,  very  desirable 
to  secure  satisfactory  depth  and  retentiveness,  without  excess  of  water, 
in  the  soil.  The  walnut,  on  its  own  seedling  root,  abhors  drouth  as 
well  as  standing  water. 

Soils  for  the  Walnut. — The  walnut  makes  most  rapid  growth 
upon  a  deep,  rich,  moist,  loamy  soil,  and  shows  its  appreciation  of  good 
things  of  the  earth  as  do  other  fruit  trees,  and  yet  it  attains  satisfactory 
size  and  bearing  in  less  favorable  situations.  Thriving  trees  can  be 
found  in  the  clays  and  decomposed  granite  soils  of  the  foothills,  as 
well  as  in  the  valley  silts  and  loams.  Adequate  moisture  must,  how- 
ever, be  had,  and  the  walnut  cannot  be  commended  for  dry,  neglected 
places  nor  for  soils  which  overlie  leachy  subsoils  described  on  page  33. 

Propagation. — The  walnut  tree  grows  readily  from  nuts  treated 
as  described  in  Chapter  VIII.  In  the  main  the  use  of  seedlings  has 
hitherto  prevailed,  and  the  nut  has  been  looked  upon  as  coming 
sufficiently  true  from  seed.  Recently,  however,  this  has  changed  rap- 
idly, and  budding  or  grafting  to  secure  a  high,  uniform  grade  and  to 
secure  fruitfulness  in  spite  of  the  blight  is  commanding  wide  atten- 
tion. In  growing  young  trees  it  is  being  considered  desirable  to  bud 
or  graft  rather  high  so  as  to  get  a  trunk  of  the  hardier  variety  which 
is  used  as  a  stock. 

Excellent  results  have  been  obtained  by  using  the  California  black 
as  a  stock  for  the  English  walnut,  and  in  that  case  budding  or  grafting 
must  be  resorted  to.  Many  instances  of  the  success  of  the  English 
walnut  on  our  native  stock  might  be  cited,  but  the  most  notable  tree 
known  to  the  writer  is  to  be  seen  on  the  grounds  of  John  R.  Wolfskill, 
on  Putah  Creek,  in  Solano  county.  He  put  in  a  bud  in  1875  and  the 
tree  has  reached  immense  size  and  large  product.  Since  then  many 
large  native  black  walnuts  have  been  top-grafted  with  the  English 
walnut  with  notable  success,  not  only  in  orchards,  but  along  highways 
where  the  native  black  walnut  has  been  planted  for  shade  and 
ornament. 

Mr.  F.  S.  Leib,  of  San  Jose,  who  has  given  much  attention  to  stocks 
for  the  English  walnut,  believes  that  the  cross  of  the  California  black 
and  the  Eastern  black  walnuts,  and  the  California  black  walnut  straight, 
afford  the  best  seedlings  for  roots  for  the  English  walnut,  but  advises 
close  selection  to  secure  the  best  growth.  This  is  his  prescription : 


BUDDING   THE   WALNUT  435 

"The  Royal  hybrid  (every  cross  between  the  native  Eastern  black 
walnut  and  the  native  California  black  walnut  is  called  a  Royal  hybrid), 
is,  in  my  opinion,  the  most  magnificent  growing  tree  in  the  walnut  line, 
and  I  believe  that  in  the  future  some  Royal  hybrids  can,  by  persistent 
selection,  be  sufficiently  fixed  to  furnish  the  strongest  possible  roots  of 
substantial  uniformity  on  which  to  graft.  At  present  I  know  of  only 
one  tree,  picked  out  from  many  hundreds,  which  is  sufficiently  fixed  to 
grow  a  fair  percentage  of  seedlings  equal  to  itself.  Only  from  one  to 
two  per  cent  of  the  seedlings  of  most  Royal  hybrids  is  equal  to  the 
parent,  and  the  percentage  of  even  the  best  straight  California  is  only 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent,  and  the  poorest  give  less  than  one 
per  cent. 

"At  present,  we,  by  a  system  of  sprouting,  are  able  to  eliminate 
four-fifths  of  the  weakest  growing  nuts,  and  we  plant  the  remaining 
fifth  in  the  nursery.  Twenty-five  per  cent  of  such  remaining  nuts  from 
our  selected  trees  of  Royal  hybrid  blood,  and  fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent 
from  our  selected  California  trees,  grow  three  to  four  feet  in  the  first 
year.  The  three  to  four  foot  seedlings  in  the  nursery  are  grafted  when 
one  year  old,  and  the  remaining  smaller  trees  are  left  for  another  year ; 
and  for  this  reason  a  small  per  cent  make  a  disproportionately  large 
growth  of  root  compared  to  its  moderate  top  the  first  year,  and  make 
an  immense  growth  of  top  the  second  year. 

"All  Paradox  hybrids  (English  walnuts  crossed  with  California 
black),  make  a  large  root  and  but  a  moderate  top  the  first  year,  as  do 
many  seedlings  from  the  Royal  hybrid,  and  as  do  very,  very  few  from 
the  straight  California.  These  few  trees,  which  make  good  the  second 
year,  three  or  four  per  cent,  possibly,  of  the  trees  left  to  grow  another 
year  in  the  nursery,  are  grafted  at  the  end  of  the  second  year,  and  the 
balance  thrown  away  as  unworthy  to  be  grafted  and  given  a  chance 
in.  orchard  form;  for  a  tree  which  is  to  have  in  the  orchard  from 
sixteen  hundred  to  thirty-six  hundred  square  feet  can  not  be  too  good, 
either  as  a  root  or  top." 

Budding  the  Walnut. — In  working1  on  the  native  California 
seedling  stocks,  Mr.  Clowes,  of  Stockton,  buds  by  the  common  method, 
removing  the  wood  from  the  inside  of  the  plate  of  bark,  as  advised  for 
the  orange.  Twig  buds  as  used  with  the  olive  are  also  successful,  and 
ring  budding  works  well  on  shoots  of  a  year's  growth,  which  have  at 
least  attained  the  thickness  of  the  middle  finger.  Mr.  Gillet  advises 
that  the  buds  should  be  set  at  the  base  of  these  shoots  where  the  wood 
is  perfectly  round.  The  bandage  should  pass  above  and  below  the  bud 
so  that  the  bark  under  it  may  be  pressed  down  close  upon  the  stock, 
and  this  is  more  surely  gained  by  shaving  off  the  base  of  the  leaf 
stem,  below  the  bud,  about  to  the  point  where  it  would  separate  when 
the  leaf  naturally  falls  off. 

Mr.  A.  W.  Keith,  of  Selma,  has  hit  upon  a  very  interesting  method 
of  preparing  walnut  buds.  In  taking  a  fresh  bud  .from  the  new  growth 
of  the  walnut  he  found  the  large  leaf  stem  a  serious  impediment  in 
firmly  placing  a  shield  bud  upon  the  cambium  of  the  stock  and  binding 
it  there.  Shaving  it  away  with  a  knife  left  too  much  exposed  tissue. 
If  the  leaf  stem  would  drop  off  as  it  does  when  mature  and  leave  a 


436  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

healed-over  scar,  the  result  would  be  a  flat  surface  with  only  the  bud 
protruding,  and  this  could  be  easily  bound  in  place  so  as  to  exclude  the 
air.  He  tried  cutting  off  the  compound  leaf,  leaving  a  stub  of  an  inch 
or  so,  and,  was  delighted  to  find  that  a  stub  thus  left  became  dry  and 
parted  from  the  stem  just  as  a  mature  leaf  does  in  the  autumn.  By 
cutting  off  the  leaves  in  this  way  about  August  15,  the  stubs  part  read- 
ily before  September  1,  and  then  he  takes  off  clean,  flat  buds  and  uses 
them  just  as  he  does  in  budding  the  peach,  except  that  he  leaves  no 
wood  behind  the  bud.  He  takes  rather  a  large  shield  and  puts  in 
under  the  bark  of  the  stock  through  a  "T"  cut,  then  wraps  well  with 
a  strip  of  cheese  cloth  and  waxes  over  the  cloth  with  ordinary  grafting 
wax.  The  wrapping  is  applied  so  as  to  cover  most  of  the  bark  slit, 
everything  beyond  being  waxed  over.  The  bud  is  then  allowed  to 
remain  dormant  until  the  following  spring. 

Mr.  Pennington  of  Vacaville  has  been  very  successful  in  budding 
by  cutting  buds  in  the  regular  shield  form,  about  l1/^  inches  long,  cut 
from  branches  l/2  to  %  mch  in  diameter,  so  as  to  get  wide  buds  with 
but  little  wood  left  in  them.  He  also  prefers  to  have  stocks  large,  and 
considers  a  stock  l*/2  inches  in  diameter  not  too  large.  He  uses  ordi- 
nary budding  twine  for  tying,  but  does  not  use  wax  to  cover  the  inci- 
sions. He  says  it  is  best  to  put  off  budding  as  late  as  it  is  possible  to 
get  a  good  flow  of  sap,  as  then  the  weather  is  likely  to  be  cooler, 
which  is  an  important  factor,  and  the  growing  season  is  about  finished, 
which  will  allow  the  twine  to  be  left  in  place  all  winter,  which  he 
considers  advisable. 

Buds  are  more  apt  to  succeed  when  pushed  upward  from  the  cross- 
cut than  downward  from  it.  The  cuts  would  then  be  an  inverted  "T." 
No  preparation  of  the  budding  wood  is  made,  except  that  mature  buds 
are  taken.  About  90  per  cent  of  the  buds  placed  are  said  to  grow. 

Spring  budding  can  be  done  much  more  successfully  if  the  bud 
sticks  are  cut  while  dormant,  in  February,  and  kept  in  a  cool  place 
until  the  trees  begin  to  grow.  The  bud  sticks  will  have  also  shown 
life,  and  the  buds  can  be  taken  from  them  in  the  usual  manner  and 
inserted  in  the  growing  stocks.  These  buds  will  begin  to  grow  at 
once  and  frequently  make  a  growth  of  four  to  six  feet  during  the 
season.  As  soon  as  the  buds  show  they  have  united  with  the  stock, 
the  stock  should  be  cut  above  the  bud  and  waxed. 

Grafting  the  Walnut. — Grafting  into  black  walnut  seedling  root 
can  also  be  well  done  by  a  triangular  cut  into  the  edge  of  the  root 
stump,  as  described  for  grafting  into  grape-vine  stumps  in  Chapter 
XXVI.  In  the  case  of  the  walnut,  close  binding  with  a  wax  band  is 
desirable. 

Large  walnut  trees  can  be  worked  over  either  by  budding  or  graft- 
ing. If  by  budding,  the  large  limbs  are  cut  back  in  the  winter,  and  in 
autumn  following,  buds  are  put  in,  as  just  described,  on  as  many  of 
the  new  shoots  as  may  be  desired. 

In  grafting,  the  common  cleft  graft  is  used  with  a  degree  of  suc- 
cess, particularly  when  the  split  is  not  made  through  the  pith,  but  at 
one  side;  the  scion  should  be  whittled  so  as  to  show  as  little  pith  as 
possible.  This  is  done  by  cutting  down  to  a  point  at  one  side  and  not 


GRAFTING   THE    WALNUT  437 

in  the  center  of  the  scion.     Care  should  be  taken  to  cover  all  exposed 
surfaces. 

Grafting  over  is  desirable  either  for  substituting  a  better  variety  of 
English  walnut,  or  for  working  over  a  California  black  walnut  into  an 
English  variety,  and  as  much  attention  is  now  being  paid  to  blight 
resistant,  interest  is  sharpened  in  grafting  methods.  Mr.  J.  B.  Neff, 
of  Anaheim,  who  has  looked  into  the  subject  deeply  and  worked 
over  many  old  trees,  gives  the  following  practical  suggestions  on  this 
work: 

If  the  trees  are  from  three  to  five  inches  in  diameter  they  may  be  cut  off  at 
about  four  feet  above  the  ground  and  below  the  branches,  then  four  or  five  scions 
may  be  placed  in  one  stock,  or  three  or  four  of  the  branches  may  be  cut  back  to 
within  10  to  24  inches  of  the  trunk  and  two  or  three  scions  placed  in  each.  All 
the  other  branches  should  be  removed  from  the  trunk. 

Old  trees  of  from  12  to  20  years  should  have  the  branches  cut  at  places  where 
they  are  from  three  to  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  from  five  to  eight  stubs  left, 
which  will  be  from  three  to  six  feet  in  length  and  should  have  as  many  as  six 
scions  in  the  large  stubs,  the  other  branches  being  removed  before  the  scions  are 
put  in  place. 

In  sawing  large  branches  it  is  necessary  to  make  two  cuts,  the  first  being 
some  distance  above  or  outside  the  final  cut,  to  prevent  splitting  the  stub,  or  the 
trunk,  when  the  severed  part  falls. 

The  scion  should  always  be  of  solid,  mature  wood,  that  is,  with  as  small  pith 
as  can  be  had  readily,  and  must  have  good  living  buds.  Each  scion  should  be 
about  one-quarter  inch  in  diameter  and  have  at  least  two  buds.  The  growth 
having  buds  close  together  is  best,  as  shorter  scions  can  be  used. 

To  receive  the  scions  use  a  heavy  butcher  knife  and  mallet  to  split  the  stubs, 
placing  the  knife  across  the  stub  as  if  a  chip  one-half  to  five-eighths-inch  thick 
was  to  be  taken  off.  Then  depress  the  handle  of  the  knife  to  an  angle  of  30  to 
45  degrees  and  split  the  edge  down  to  2y2  to  3  inches,  allowing  the  knife  to 
reach  the  farther  side  of  the  stub,  but  not  making  the  split  entirely  across  the 
stub.  Open  the  cleft  with  an  iron  wedge  J4  to  5^-inch  wide  and  thickest  on  one 
edge,  placing  the  thickest  edge  toward  the  outside. 

Trim  the  cleft  in  the  stub  with  a  sharp  knife  so  it  will  be  smooth.  Then 
cut  the  scion  so  as  to  fit  perfectly  and  place  it  so  the  inner  bark  (the  cambium 
layer)  of  both  will  be  on  the  same  line,  or  at  least  will  cross  twice,  then  remove 
the  wedge  and  put  hot  wax  over  all  the  cuts  on  both  stock  and  scion  at  once. 

The  scions  should  be  examined  frequently  and  any  excessive  flow  of  sap 
wiped  off,  and  the  stub  re-covered  with  wax  as  soon  as  dry.  Excessive  flow  of 
sap  for  several  weeks  will  cause  the  loss  of  the  scions,  as  the  callus  can  not  form 
in  water.  This  may  be  controlled  by  boring  one-fourth  inch  holes  in  the  body  of 
the  tree  near  the  ground.  Three  or  four  holes  four  inches  deep  will  be  sufficient 
to  control  the  flow  of  the  largest  trees.  No  damage  is  done  to  the  body  of  the 
tree,  as  the  holes  soon  grow  over. 

The  last  two  wax  formulas  on  page  78  are  largely  used  in  walnut 
grafting.  For  grafting  in  the  stems  of  seedlings  or  in  the  smaller 
branches  of  young  trees  a  side  graft  as  described  on  page  80  is  success- 
fully used  as  are  also  several  styles  of  cleft  grafting.  One  which  is 
used  by  Mr.  R.  Wiltz  and  others  at  San  Jose  consist  in  splitting  a  short 
stub  of  a  small  branch  which  has  been  cut  about  four  inches  from  its 
attachment  to  a  larger  branch  of  stem.  In  this  case  the  split  can  only 
extend  to  the  closely  knit  wood  in  the  crotch  and  the  scion  is  pushed 
down  strongly  to  the  bottom  of  such  a  split  and  it  is  held  tightly.  The 
two  pieces  of  the  deep  split  are  not  cut  away  but  are  allowed  to  protect 
the  short  scion  which  is  between  them  and  if  buds  start  on  these  pieces 
they  are  allowed  to  grow  a  little  to  keep  the  stock  from  dying  back. 
When  the  scion  starts  well  they  are  removed. 


438  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

A  method  of  side  grafting  (so  called  because  the  stock  is  not  cut 
across  but  a  cleft  made  in  the  side  of  it)  has  been  very  successfully 
practiced  by  Mr.  Weinshank,  of  Whittier,  both  with  nursery  seedlings 
and  on  branches  of  large  trees.  His  work  has  shown  eighty  to  ninety 
per  cent  successful  in  the  nursery  and  even  more  on  branches  of  large 
trees.  The  following  is  a  condensed  description  of  the  method : 

The  scion  is  prepared  as  for  a  whip  graft  (page  81),  cutting  a  cross 
obliquely  and  making  another  cut  right  straight  down  with  the  grain 
in  the  scion.  Then,  instead  of  cutting  the  stock  completely  across  like 
the  scion,  just  simply  make  a  little  cut  on  the  side.  Do  not  cut  into  the 
pith  of  the  wood  at  all.  Then,  place  the  two  together  by  pushing  the 
tongue  of  the  scion  (made  by  the  cut  on  its  shorter  side)  into  the  lip 
cut  in  the  stock ;  tie  with  a  string  and  wax  over.  The  same  method  on 
larger  trees  is  performed  exactly  in  the  same  way,  except  that  the  lip 
of  course  on  the  larger  limbs,  which  are  three  or  four  inches  through, 
would  be  considerably  larger,  and  the  scion  instead  of  being  placed 
directly  in  the  middle  of  the  lip,  or  in  the  center,  would  be  placed  on 
the  side  so  as  to  have  the  cambium  of  the  scion  connecting  with  the 
cambium  on  the  stock  at  least  on  one  side.  Three  or  four,  or  sometimes 
five  scions  are  put  on  a  large  limb,  and  in  most  cases  three  or  four 
scions  would  grow.  After  the  scion  has"  reached  a  certain  stage  of 
growth,  this  string  will  commence  to  bind,  and  must  be  cut  down  right 
over  where  the  scion  is.  The  wax  on  either  side  will  tend  to  hold  the 
string,  but  as  the  wood  naturally  grows,  the  strings  will  draw  apart, 
and  it  will  not  bind  as  it  would  if  the  string  was  not  cut. 

Side  grafting  with  a  saw-cut,  as  described  for  the  peach  on  page 
243,  also  works  well  with  the  walnut. 

Treatment  After  Grafting. — A  fuller  account  of  the  protection 
of  scions  after  setting  and  during  their  early  growth  is  given  by 
Mr.  Edwin  Gower  of  Fowler,  Fresno  County,  thus  explicitly : 

Take  two  folds  of  burlap,  punch  holes  for  the  scions  to  pass  through,  making 
a  hood  inclosing  and  covering  the  entire  stump,  letting  it  extend  down  the  sides 
a  short  distance ;  tie  a  string  around  the  stump  to  hold  it  in  place ;  by  using 
this  method  the  wax  will  remain  in  perfect  condition.  In  valleys,  where  the  wax 
melts,  a  portion  of  the  stump  is  exposed  and  runs  down  the  crevices,  destroying 
the  tender  tissues  of  the  scion. 

After  the  scion  is  growing  rapidly,  cut  the  string;  do  not  remove  it.  This 
allows  the  scion  to  grow  without  the  string  cutting  it.  If  small  trees,  drive  a 
stake  down  to  tie  the  new  growth.  On  old  trees  nail  four  sticks  equal  distances 
apart  around  the  stump,  letting  the  sticks  extend  four  or  five  feet  beyond  the 
stump,  wrap  some  string  around  these  sticks;  this  acts  as  a  net  enclosing  the 
growth  of  the  scion,  which  grows  phenomenally  on  black  walnut.  I  have  seen 
instances  where  they  grow  fifteen  feet  in  one  year.  This  net  acts  as  a  support 
and  keeps  the  scion  from  either  breaking  or  splitting  off  by  the  winds.  It  is 
sometimes  advisable  to  nip  off  the  end  of  the  branches  to  check  the  growth.  Cut 
them  back  vigorously  for  two  or  three  years,  until  such  time  as  they  are  well 
attached  to  the  stump. 

I  have  used  the  bark  graft,  also  the  cleft  graft,  but  I  prefer  the  former,  as  the 
scion  seems  to  grow  more  rapidly  and  reach  maturity  sooner. 

Planting  Walnut  Orchards. — There  is  much  difference  in  prac- 
tice in  planting  out  walnut  trees  in  permanent  place.  Some  advocate 
the  use  of  trees  two  or  three  years  from  the  seed,  getting  as  much  of 
the  tap-root  as  possible;  others  allow  the  tree  to  remain  in  nursery 


PLANTING    THE    WALNUT  439 

until  it  throws  out  laterals,  which  is  usually  done  the  fourth  or  fifth 
year.  Two-year-old  trees  are  generally  preferred,  but  walnut  trees  of 
many  times  that  age  can  be  successfully  transplanted  if  the  work  is 
carefully  done.  Walnut  trees  are  usually  set  forty  feet  in  squares, 
though  some  give  the  large-growing  varieties  fifty  feet.  Planting  in 
hexagonals  at  forty-five  feet  distance  gives  very  satisfactory  results. 
Some  growers  plant  in  squares  at  thirty  feet  distance,  intending  to  re- 
move alternate  trees  as  they  crowd  each  other,  first  cutting  back,  for 
a  time,  the  trees  which  are  finally  to  be  removed. 

On  the  Bishop  Ranch  in  the  La  Patera  section  of  Santa  Barbara 
County  several  years  ago,  every  other  walnut  tree  was  cut  out  of  a 
twenty-five-year-old  grove,  the  trees  originally  being  set  twenty-five 
feet  apart.  The  advantages  were  at  once  apparent,  the  grove  yielding 
ten  per  cent  more  the  following  season  than  they  did  under  the  old 
system  and  the  crops  have  been  getting  better  ever  since.  Sixty  feet 
is  about  close  enough  for  mature  trees  in  a  walnut  grove  and  when  the 
ground  is  so  shaded  that  the  sun  and  air  cannot  penetrate  the  trees 
will  not  thrive. 

Intel-cultures  with  the  Walnuts. — In  the  southern  walnut  regions 
it  is  common  to  grow  beans,  squashes,  etc.,  between  the  rows  of  trees 
until  the  latter  reach  bearing  age;  root  crops  which  attract  gophers 
should  be  avoided.  Inter-planting  of  smaller,  early-fruiting  trees  is 
also  practiced  to  a  considerable  extent. 

Walnuts  in  Alfalfa.— Dr.  W.  W.  Fitzgerald,  of  Stockton,  an  ex- 
perienced propagator  and  planter  of  walnuts,  says : 

To  my  mind,  walnuts  and  alfalfa,  on  proper  soil,  are  a  very  desirable  com- 
bination. While  your  walnut  trees  are  growing  you  get  good  and  quick  returns 
from  your  alfalfa.  The  roots  of  the  alfalfa  loosen  up  the  soil,  carrying  nitrogen 
with  them  to  improve  its  condition.  But  on  light  soil,  which  is  best  for  alfalfa, 
the  walnuts  do  not  do  so  well,  and  on  heavier  ground  you  have  to  be  careful  to 
have  good  drainage.  One  should  by  all  means  use  the  Royal  Hybrid  root  when 
growing  walnuts  with  alfalfa. 

On  heavy  land  it  is  best  to  plant  the  trees  and  let  them  grow  one  year  before 
planting  alfalfa,  thus  avoiding  the  danger  of  waterlogging  the  roots  on  recently 
olanted  trees  in  irrigating  alfalfa.  A  strip  should  be  cultivated  on  each  side 
of  the  walnut  rows,  or  a  space  dug  round  the  trees  to  prevent  the  alfalfa  from 
growing  close  to  the  tree,  which  would  be  a  detriment. 

Before  planting  the  walnuts,  the  land  should  be  leveled  so  as  to  irrigate  nicely, 
and  more  especially  if  it  is  to  be  interplanted  with  alfalfa  or  berries.  With  alfalfa 
the  checks  should  be  spaced  at  the  distance  you  wish  to  plant  the  trees. 

Pruning  the  Walnut. — The  walnut  is  usually  headed  higher  than 
ordinary  orchard  trees,  but  preference  is  now  given  to  starting  the  first 
branch  at  about  four  feet  from  the  ground  instead  of  six  feet  as  for- 
merly. All  the  pruning  needed  is  in  shaping  the  tree  as  described  for 
the  fig.  Upward  trend  of  the  branches  should  be  secured,  sometimes 
by  cutting  out  the  shoots  which  grow  downward,  sometimes  by  tying 
them  up  for  a  time  to  the  central  stem  until  they  are  stiff  enough  to  re- 
tain this  position.  Placing  branches  on  the  stem  according  to  the  prin- 
ciples advanced  in  Chapter  XII,  should  be  borne  in  mind.  The  stem 
should  be  protected  from  sunburn  until  the  foliage  accomplishes  this. 
Whenever  shoots  are  killed  back  by  sunburn  or  frost,  they  should  be 
cut  off  cleanly  below  the  black  mark  which  shows  how  far  the  injury 


440  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

has  extended.  If  this  is  done,  the  die-back  down  the  branch  is  usually 
prevented.  As  the  trees  become  older,  removal  of  some  of  the  interior 
limbs  may  be  desirable  to  admit  more  light  to  encourage  inside  bearing. 

Cutting  Back  for  a  Strong  Start. — Dr.  Fitzgerald  gives  specific 
suggestions  for  starting  the  young  tree  by  cutting  back  at  planting, 
rather  than  trusting  to  the  growth  in  nursery,  as  follows : 

Previous  to  planting,  the  tops  of  the  trees  should  be  cut  off  from  12  to  15 
inches  above  the  ground,  according  to  the  number  of  buds  on  the  lowest  part  of 
the  trunk  of  the  tree,  and  the  cut  waxed.  After  these  buds  make  a  growth  of 
four  to  six  inches,  select  the  most  thrifty  one  to  make  the  butt  for  the  future 
tree  and  pinch  off  the  tops  of  each  of  the  other  limbs.  This  will  stop  their  growth 
and  leave  them  with  a  few  leaves  to  shade  the  butt  of  the  tree. 

When  cutting  trees  back  this  way,  it  is  absolutely  necessary,  especially  on 
the  strong-growing  hybrid  root,  to  sucker  your  trees  often  until  the  top  gets 
a  good  start.  You  should  dig  down  four  to  six  inches  around  the  tree  to  cut 
off  each  sucker  close  with  a  sharp  knife,  for  if  you  break  them  off,  adventitious 
buds  will  start  out  again  and  by  cutting  them  off  with  a  sharp  knife  you  will 
remove  all  these  buds.  This  should  be  done  the  first  time  just  as  soon  as  the 
buds  begin  to  swell  on  any  of  the  trees,  and  every  tree  should  be  suckered,  for  if 
you  allow  these  sucker  buds  to  start,  being  lower  than  those  of  the  graft,  they 
get  the  first  sap  and  oftentimes  prevent  the  buds  above  from  starting.  This 
suckering  should  be  done  about  once  every  ten  days,  or  just  as  sure  as  you  let  the 
suckers  grow,  they  will  keep  back  the  growth  abt>ve  the  graft  or  will  prevent  it 
starting  altogether. 

The  tree  will  probably  make  a  growth  of  four  to  twelve  feet  the  first  season. 
The  next  year  it  will  not  make  growth  in  height,  but  will  throw  its  side  branches. 
Some  think  it  necessary  to  cut  off  the  top  of  a  tree  to  make  it  branch  out,  but 
my  experience  has  been  that  if  you  will  leave  the  tree  alone  two  or  three  years, 
it  will  throw  out  its  side  limbs  and  make  a  perfect  tree.  The  only  pruning  that 
is  necessary  is  to  cut  off  the  limbs  that  are  too  low  and  any  limbs  that  cross  and 
would  chafe  against  each  other. 

After  the  tree  gets  older  and  is  bearing,  the  limbs  of  the  tree  should  be  pruned 
to  open  up  in  the  center,  allowing  the  sun  and  air  to  go  through  the  tree,  the  same 
as  with  other  fruit  trees.  With  some  trees  that  are  inclined  to  go  to  wood  and 
do  _not  throw  out  enough  fruit  buds,  you  may  cut  back  one-third  of  the  limbs, 
which  causes  them  to  throw  out  new  limbs  on  which  the  fruit  buds  form. 

Bloom  and  Bearing  of  the  Walnut. — The  walnut  has  its  stam- 
inate  and  pistillate  blooms  separate,  but  both  occur  on  the  same  tree. 
Successful  fruiting  depends  upon  the  appearance  of  these  two  forms 
of  bloom,  without  too  great  interval  of  time,  and  although  there  seems 
to  be  a  quite  a  retention  of  vitality,  the  lack  of  bearing  of  some  varieties 
has  been  found  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  catkins  disappear  too  long 
before  the  pistillate  bloom  was  sufficiently  developed  to  receive  the 
pollen. 

The  bearing  age  of  the  walnut  depends  upon  the  variety.  Some  of 
the  French  varieties  are  very  precocious  and  have  borne  fruit  in  nursery 
row  at  two  and  three  years  old,  but  the  pistillate  blooms  were  then 
fertilized  from  catkins  growing  on  older  trees.  The  practical  bearing 
age  of  the  seedling  English  walnut  in  this  State  may  be  rated  at  six  to 
eight  years,  according  to  the  variety.  Trees  grafted  with  scions  from 
bearing  trees  fruit  much  sooner. 

Harvesting  Walnuts. — Gathering  walnuts  is  done  in  different 
ways  ;  some  gather  them  from  the  ground  at  intervals  during  the  months 
of  September  and  October ;  others  use  poles  and  clean  the  trees  at  one 
operation ;  some  go  over  the  ground  three  times ;  first,  picking  up  what 


HARVESTING   WALNUTS  441 

have  fallen ;  second,  picking  up  what  have  fallen  and  striking  the  limbs 
lightly  to  dislodge  others  which  are  ripest ;  third,  picking  up  again  and 
then  knocking  off  all  that  remain  on  the  trees.  In  this  way  gathering 
lasts  a  month  or  six  weeks.  Walnuts,  after  gathering,  are  treated  by 
some  growers  as  described  by  F.  E.  Kellogg,  of  Santa  Barbara  County : 

As  fast  as  gathered  the  nuts  are  placed  in  slat-bottomed  trays,  6x3  feet,  by 
six  inches  deep,  about  fifty  pounds  in  a  tray,  being  thoroughly  shaken  up  once  or 
twice  a  day.  If  the  weather  is  very  hot,  they  should  be  dried  in  the  shade.  When 
the  nuts  are  dry  they  are  passed  through  an  inclined  revolving  grader,  making 
about  twelve  revolutions  per  minute,  having  a  one-inch  mesh  wire  screen,  and 
all  that  fall  through  this  are  called  "seconds."  The  lower  end  of  the  grader 
dips  into  vat  of  water,  thoroughly  wetting  the  nuts  and  washing  them  to  a 
certain  extent — entirely  sufficient  for  paper  shells  and  soft  shells,-  and  usually 
enough  for  hard  shells.  A  system  of  buckets  attached  to  the  drum  of  the  grader 
then  elevates  the  nuts  to  a  chute,  which  discharges  them  into  a  large  box  4x4x8 
feet  high,  with  an  inclined  slat  bottom  two  and  one-half  feet  above  the  ground. 
While  in  this  box  they  are  subjected  to  the  fumes  of  sulphur  for  twenty  to  thirty 
minutes  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  color.  The  second  grade  walnuts  are 
also  put  through  the  washing  and  sulphuring  process.  The  nuts  are  next  drawn 
off  from  the  bleachers  into  the  drying  trays,  piled  one  on  top  of  the  other,  to 
prevent  the  sun  from  shining  directly  on  the  nuts,  and  remain  there  for  ten  or 
twelve  hours,  until  the  nuts  are  thoroughly  dried  off.  The  trays  are  then  emptied 
into  a  hopper,  from  which  the  nuts  are  drawn  off  into  bags  containing  something 
over  one  hundred  pounds  each ;  the  bags  are  securely  sewed  up  and  stamped 
with  the  producer's  brand,  and  the  nuts  are  ready  for  shipment. 

Col.  A.  S.  Heath,  of  Carpinteria,  uses  a  moist  bleach  and  a  drier 
afterward,  as  follows : 

When  the  nuts  leave  the  rotary  washer  they  are  entirely  free  of  hulls  and 
clean.  They  are  taken  to  the  bleaching  boxes,  and  here  subjected  to  the  very 
minimum  amount  of  sulphur  necessary,  and  cold  steam,  being  in  the  bleachers 
about  one  hour.  From  the  bleachers  they  are  taken  to  the  steam  drier.  In  the 
drier  are  100  drawers,  each  capable  of  holding  40  to  50  pounds  of  walnuts.  These 
drawers  have  wire  bottoms  to  allow  the  heat  to  pass  through  them.  In  the 
basement  beneath  the  drier  Mr.  Heath  has  some  modern  furnaces  constructed, 
and  during  the  course  of  the  drying  about  130  degrees  of  heat  is  maintained. 
The  nuts  are  kept  under  this  heat  for  eight  hours.  During  the  drying  it  is  pos- 
sible to  watch  the  progress  by  pulling  out  drawers  for  inspection. 

J.  B.  Neff,  of  Anaheim,  describes  large  handling  of  walnuts  as 
follows : 

The  nuts  are  allowed  to  ripen  and  the  hulls  open  on  the  trees.  If  the 
trees  have  had  sufficient  irrigation  and  the  weather  is  normal,  a  large  part  of  the 
nuts  will  fall  clean  from  the  hulls  and  will  have  to  be  picked  off  the  ground  once 
a  week  in  dry  weather,  but  should  be  gathered  oftener  in  damp  weather.  The 
gathering  can  be  hastened  by  gently  jarring  the  branches  with  a  pole  which  has 
a  light  flat  steel  hook  on  the  end.  The  hook  is  passed  over  the  branch  and  pulled 
quickly  so  as  to  jar  the  branch  without  swinging  it.  Any  hulls  that  cling  to  the 
nuts  may  be  taken  off  by  hand.  The  nuts  are  placed  in  trays  made  of  sides  1  by  6 
in.  by  6  ft.  and  ends  1  by  6  in.  by  2  ft.  10  in.,  with  laths  y?.  inch  apart  for  bottoms. 
The  sides  are  allowed  to  project  for  handles,  and  the  tray  measures  3  to  5  feet. 
The  imperfect  nuts  are  picked  out  and  the  good  nuts  dried  in  the  shade  when  the 
weather  is  hot.  Damp  localities  require  some  artificial  heat,  but  care  must  be 
taken  to  have  only  a  mild  heat,  as  the  nuts  will  be  damaged  if  high  temperatures 
are  maintained. 

Grading  and  bleaching  is  usually  done  in  the  Association  warehouses,  as  con- 
siderable outlay  for  apparatus  is  required  and  some  experience  is  necessary  to 
get  the  best  results.  When  the  nuts  are  thoroughly  dried  they  are  passed 
through  a  revolving  screen  having  meshes  1/4  inch  square  at  the  upper  end  and 
1  inch  square  at  the  lower  end.  The  small  meshes  take  out  the  dirt,  and  the 


442  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

1-inch  meshes  take  out  the  small  nuts,  which  are  called  No.  2  nuts,  while  those 
going  over  the  screen  are  known  as  No.  1  nuts.  The  bleaching  is  done  either 
by  dipping  or  spraying,  using  a  solution  made  of  five  pounds  of  salt  in  100  pounds 
of  water  and  passing  the  solution  through  an  electric  cell  with  a  current  of  95 
to  110  volts  and  at  a  temperature  of  90  to  95°  F.,  the  variation  depending  on  the 
purity  of  the  salt. 

Varieties  of  the  Walnut.* — Of  walnuts  of  California  origin  there 
are  two  classes,  which  are  called  "hard"  and  "soft"  shell,  but  the  ac- 
cepted commercial  product  is  largely  composed  of  the  soft-shell  class. 
Several  varieties  of  French  walnuts  are  now  being  widely  distributed. 
An  attempt  will  be  made  to  give  some  of  the  distinctive  points  of  each 
variety  mentioned : 

Common  English  Walnut;  Los  Angeles  Nut,  etc. — This  is  the  ordinary  Eng- 
lish walnut  of  commerce.  It  was  planted  at  an  early  day  in  Los  Angeles  County, 
but  is  now  largely  replaced  by  the  Improved  Soft  Shell. 

Santa  Barbara  Soft  Shell;  Sexton's  Soft  Shell. — Originated  by  Joseph  Sex- 
ton, who  gives  this  account  of  its  origin  and  characteristics :  "The  winter  of  1867 
I  bought  in  San  Francisco  a  large  sack  of  English  walnuts.  I  raised  about  one 
thousand  trees  that  season,  and  planted  two  hundred  of  them  the  following 
spring,  in  orchard  form,  at  Goleta.  Sixty  of  them  proved  to  be  the  soft-shell 
variety.  The  soft  shell  is  a  little  later  in  starting  in  the  spring  than  the  common 
nut,  and  blooms  about  ten  days  later.  It  commences  to  fruit  at  six  years  old 
from  the  seed,  and  some  have  been  known  to  fruit  as  young  as  the  fourth  year. 
The  hard  shell  commences  to  fruit  about  the  ninth  year,  and  bears  full  crops 
alternate  years.  The  soft  shell  is  not  as  strong  a  grower  as  the  other  walnut;  it 
being  so  prolific,  retards  its  growth.  It  is  a  superior  nut;  the  kernel  is  white. 
The  shell  is  thin,  rendering  them  easily  broken  by  the  hand,  at  the  same  time 
strong  enough  to  bear  transportation  to  any  part  of  the  United  States." 

Ford's  Improved  Soft  Shell. — G.  W.  Ford,  of  Santa  Ana,  propagated  an  "Im- 
proved Soft  Shell,"  gained  by  selection  from  the  variety  of  Joseph  Sexton,  which 
has  been  largely  planted. 

Santa  Rosa. — A  seedling  by  Luther  Burbank,  which  has  been  distributed  quite 
widely;  but  by  variation  in  its  seedling,  its  character  is  somewhat  ill-defined  and 
the  name  is  applied  to  several  types,  some  of  which  are  less  desirable  than  the 
one  receiving  the  name. 

Proeparturiens. — Introduced  in  California  in  1871,  by  the  late  Felix  Gillet,  of 
Nevada  City,  and  afterward  by  other  parties,  and  widely  distributed.  Its  chief 
characteristic,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  early  bearing.  It  blooms  from  two  to 
four  weeks  later  than  the  common  Los  Angeles  seedling ;  it  shows  both  kinds  of 
bloom  simultaneously,  and  has  the  characteristics  of  ripening  its  wood  well,  and 
is  a  good  nut,  but  it  has  been  little  planted  recently  because  of  its  disposition  to 
run  to  small  sizes. 

Mayette. — This  variety  chiefly  constitutes  the  imported  Grenoble  walnuts.  It 
is  large,  roundish,  with  a  broad  base,  on  which  the  nut  will  sit  up ;  shell  thin  and 
white ;  kernel  full  and  rich ;  a  good  bearer  and  late  bloomer ;  local  Mayette  seed- 
lings are  being  named;  one  is  the  "San  Jose,"  by  R.  Wiltz,  of  San  Jose — a  fine 
nut,  believed  to  be  blight  resistant. 

Concord. — Seedling  of  Cluster :  of  the  Mayette  type,  grown  by  Messrs.  West- 
gate  and  Hutchinson  of  Concord  from  seedling  tree  by  Felix  Gillet.  Introduced 
by  Mr.  Leonard  Coates  in  1908.  Claimed  to  be  blight  resistant. 

Franquette. — This  French  variety  has  risen  to  great  favor  and  has  been 
largely  planted  upon  the  successful  experience  of  Mrs.  Emily  M.  Vrooman,  of 
Santa  Rosa,  and  the  extensive  effort  at  its  distribution  by  the  Oregon  Nursery 


*The  fullest  account  of  English  walnut  varieties  grown  in  California,  historical  and 
descriptive,  is  given  in  Bulletin  231,  University  Experiment  Station,  Berkeley,  by  R.  E. 
Smith.  Unfortunately  the  publication  is  out  of  print  and  must  be  consulted  in  libraries. 


WALNUTS    POPULAR    IN    CALIFORNIA  443 

Co.,  of  Salem,  Ore.  It  is  a  large,  elongate-oval  nut  with  shell  rather  thick  and 
kernel  of  high  quality.  It  is  a  late  bloomer,  and  escapes  blight  to  a  certain 
extent. 

Bijou  Seedlings. — Several  of  these  are  being  grown.  Willson's  Wonder,  in- 
troduced by  F.  C.  Willson,  of  Santa  Clara,  is  a  large,  smooth,  desirable  nut,  and 
the  tree  is  reported  an  early  and  prolific  bearer. 

Other  French  Varieties. — Other  French  varieties  introduced  by  Mr.  Gillet  and 
others  include  the  following:  The  Cluster,  which  fruits,  as  its  name  indicates, 
in  long  bunches,  sometimes  as  many  as  fifteen  in  a  bunch ;  otherwise  the  tree 
resembles  the  common  English  walnut.  The  Parisienne  is  a  beautiful  variety,  the 
nut  large,  broad,  and  shapely;  the  tree  blooms  very  late.  All  the  foregoing 
varieties  and  the  Franquette,  Serotina,  Barthere,  Mesange,  Gant  and  Chaberte, 
were  introduced  by  Mr.  Gillet  in  1871. 

Kaghazi. — A  variety  called  Kaghazi  was  grown  and  propagated  for  several 
years  by  the  late  James  Shinn,  of  Niles,  who  described  it  as  follows:  "Very 
much  larger  than  the  ordinary  kinds,  and  thinner  shelled.  The  tree  is  late  in 
putting  out  leaves  and  blossoms,  and  is,  therefore,  especially  good  for  places  that 
are  in  danger  of  late  frosts." 

Japanese  Walnut;  Juglans  Sieboldiana. — This  species,  native  of  the  north  of 
Japan,  was  introduced  to  California  about  1860,  and  a  tree  grown  from  seed 
planted  about  that  time  is  growing  at  the  Tower  House,  in  Shasta  County. 
Recently  the  good  points  of  the  tree  have  been  more  widely  recognized.  The 
following  excellent  description  is  by  Luther  Burbank,  of  Santa  Rosa:  "This 
species  is  found  growing  wild  in  the  mountains  of  northern  Japan,  and  is,  with- 
out doubt,  as  hardy  as  an  oak.  The  leaves  are  of  immense  size,  and  a  charming 
shade  of  green.  The  nuts,  which  are  produced  in  extreme  abundance,  grow  in 
clusters  of  fifteen  or  twenty,  have  a  shell  thicker  than  the  English  walnut,  but 
not  as  thick  as  the  black  walnut,  very  much  resembling  pecan  nuts.  The  meat  is 
sweet,  of  the  very  best  quality,  flavor  like  butternut,  but  less  oily,  and  much 
superior.  The  trees  grow  with  great  vigor,  assume  a  very  handsome  form,  need 
no  pruning,  mature  early,  bear  young,  and  are  more  regular  and  productive  than 
the  English  walnut."  The  nut  has  an  exceedingly  hard  shell  and  does  not  rate 
commercially  with  the  popular  varieties  of  the  English  walnut. 

Varieties  Popular  in  California. — Since  the  walnut  blight  in- 
vaded the  commercial  orchards  and  resisted  all  remedies  tried  against 
it,  great  interest  has  arisen  in  particular  trees  which  bore  well  in  spite 
of  the  disease.  As  California  has  such  a  large  acreage  of  seedling 
trees  there  was  a  full  opportunity  for  the  full  manifestation  of  such  re- 
sistance and  a  wide  field  in  which  to  exercise  the  art  of  selection.  The 
result  is  that  many  trees  were  found  which  were  profitable  even  when 
the  blight  is  worst,  and  such  trees  are  being  given  distinct  varietal 
names.  The  progress  of  this  work  should  be  watched  in  the  publica- 
tions of  the  University  Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley,  for  the  experts 
at  its  branch  laboratory  and  trial  grounds  in  the  walnut  region  of 
southern  California,  at  Whittier,  Los  Angeles  County,  have  been  largely 
engaged  in  this  work.  Individual  growers  are  alert  at  selection  within 
their  own  orchards  and  the  prospect  is  that  a  general  escape  from  the 
blight  and  the  establishment  in  our  local  pomology  of  a  group  of 
especially  desirable  varieties  will  ere  long  be  attained.  This  proposition 
is  fully  discussed  in  Bulletin  231  by  Prof.  R.  E.  Smith,  as  already  cited. 
Briefly  it  may  be  stated  that  these  six  are  now  most  popular,  according 
to  reports  of  planters  : 

Eureka,  Franquette,  Mayette,  Concord,  Placentia  Perfection,  El 
Monte. 


444  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Bulletin  231  says,  "The  Eureka  comes  very  close  to  satisfying  the 
requirements  of  an  ideal  walnut  for  California.  It  is  a  fine  large  nut 
of  strikingly  handsome  appearance,  extra  full  meat  and  weight,  per- 
fectly sealed,  light  colored  meat,  fine  flavor,  marked  immunity  to  dis- 
ease, a  strong,  vigorous  grower  and  ultimately  a  heavy  producer." 

Of  varieties  named  above  as  most  popular  the  order  of  excellence, 
without  regard  to  bearing  habit  of  the  tree,  is  as  follows:  1.  Eureka. 
2.  Franquette.  3.  El  Monte.  4.  Disher's  Prolific.  5.  San  Jose.  6. 
Chase.  7.  Concord.  The  first  three  were  about  on  a  par  and  well  ahead 
of  the  others.  Placentia  Perfection  is  an  elegant  nut,  but  is  very  subject 
to  blight,  though  still  in  high  favor  with  some  planters. 


PART  EIGHT:   FRUIT  PRESERVATION 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 
FRUIT  CANNING,  CRYSTALLIZING,  AND  DRYING 

The  preservation  of  fruit  in  various  ways  for  home  use  and  distant 
shipment,  is  one  of  the  leading  industries  of  California,  employing  a 
large  amount  of  capital  and  labor,  and  distributing  a  vast  amount  of 
money  among  our  people.  These  facts  can  be  best  emphasized  by 
statements  of  the  product  of  1913,  in  the  leading  methods  of  preserva- 
tion, by  canning  and  drying: 

Canned  Fruit  Product  of  1913. 

Cases. 

Table  fruits,  2^-lb.  cans,  24  per  case 4,204,070 

Pie  fruits,  1-gal.  cans,  12  per  case 629,830 


Total  equal  to  122,571,560  2^-lb.  cans,  or 4,833,900 

The  relative  use  of  different  fruits  is  as  follows : 

Cases. 

Apples 80,250 

Apricots 898,005 

Cherries,  black   56,720 

Cherries,  white  295,175 

Grapes 46,915 

Pears 874,200 

Peaches,  freestone  583,800 

Peaches,  clingstone   1,630,255 

Plums 175,290 

Strawberries , 34,470 

Raspberries 9.090 

Blackberries 103,005 

Loganberries    21,370 

Miscellaneous  (figs,  nectarines,  quinces,  currants,  gooseberries) 2,290 


THE  CANNING  INDUSTRY 

California  stands  first  in  the  United  States  in  the  value  of  canned 
and  dried  fruits  produced  and  in  the  amount  of  money  as  wages  paid 
for  labor  in  fruit  canning  and  curing  establishments.  In  point  of 
capital  invested  therein  California  is  credited  by  the  United  States 
census  office  in  1905  with  a  total  of  ten  and  one-quarter  million  dollars; 
thus  standing  second  only  to  New  York,  which  has  ten  and  one-half 
millions.  The  style  and  capacity  of  the  establishments  is  characteristic- 
ally Californian,  because  California's  ten  millions  are  invested  in  184 

445 


446  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

concerns,  while  New  York  has  565  concerns ;  only  a  quarter  of  a  million 
more  value  in  three  times  as  many  outfits. 

Fruit  canning  began  in  California  over  fifty  years  ago,  but  during 
the  last  three  decades  has  attained  its  greatness,  and  is  still  promising 
much  wider  extension.  The  process  is  simple,  and  yet  is  attended  at 
every  point,  from  the  purchase  of  the  fruit,  to  the  sale  of  the  product, 
with  operations  which  require  experience,  wisdom  and  good  judgment. 
It  will  be  obviously  impossible  to  give  in  print  a  guide  to  the  pursuit 
of  such  an  industry.  The  principles  involved  in  the  process  of  com- 
mercial canning  are,  of  course,  the  same  as  rule  in  the  old  kitchen  pro- 
cesses, but  to  secure  uniformity  and  cheapness  of  product  a  vast  number 
of  manipulations  and  labor ;  saving  appliances  have  been  devised.  These 
begin  with  the  manufacture  of  cans  and  attend  the  product  to  the  end, 
and  the  realization  of  the  commercial  and  uniform  production  which 
they  assure  involves  the  employment  of  large  capital  and  the  keenest 
business  ability.*  The  canning  interest  has,  therefore,  segregated  itself 
more  and  more  widely  from  the  growing  interest.  Orchard  canning 
on  a  small  scale,  which  was  once  thought  feasible,  has  passed  out  of 
sight  except  as  it  is  seen  to  lie  in  the  foundations  of  a  few  of  the 
smaller  canneries  which  have  been  built  upon  it.  It  seems  clear  now 
that  as  a  rule  the  fruit  grower's  duty  to  the  canning  interest  ceases  with 
the  production  of  acceptable  fruit  unless  individuals  or  associations  can 
command  capital  enough  to  enter  the  field  on  equal  vantage  with  the 
large  commercial  canneries.  Capital  is  flowing  toward  the  business ; 
the  field  for  the  product  seems  to  be  constantly  expanding,  and  canning 
centers  are  multiplying  throughout  the  State  wherever  ample  supplies 
of  good  fruits  and  vegetables  are  available. 

Varieties  for  Canning. — The  table  previously  given  showing  the 
fruits  which  enter  in  various  amounts  into  the  canned  product  gives 
a  general  idea  of  what  fruits  should  be  planted  to  minister  to  the  can- 
ner's  demand.  As  to  varieties,  it  is  not  easy  to  make  a  general  pre- 
scription, because  the  choice  differs  somewhat  with  different  localities. 
It  is  a  good  idea  for  the  new  planter  to  consult  with  owners  of  adja- 
cent bearing  orchards  and  to  secure  from  the  nearest  canneries  lists  of 
varieties  which  are  acceptable  to  them. 


CRYSTALLIZED  FRUITS 

Progress  is  being  continually  made  in  the  production  of  candied, 
crystallized,  or  glace  fruits,  but  the  product  is  not  a  large  one.  Special 
establishments  are  now  doing. this  work  in  Los  Angeles,  San  Jose  and 
San  Francisco.  They  have  processes  which  are  the  result  of  consider- 
able experimentation,  and  they  do  not  make  them  public.  To  others 
the  way  lies  open  to  similar  experimentation.  The  general  theory  and 
an  outline  of  practice  as  given  by  J.  J.  Pratt,  an  experienced  processor, 
is  as  follows : 

The  theory  is  to  extract  the  juice  from  the  fruit,  and  replace  it  with  sugar 
syrup,  which,  upon  hardening,  preserves  the  fruit  from  decay,  and  at  the  same 

*A  detailed  account  of  the  operations  and  outfit  of  a  typical  California  cannery  is  given 
in  the  Pacific  Rural  Press  of  March  22  and  29,  1913. 


CRYSTALLIZED  AND  DRIED  FRUITS  447 

time  retains  the  natural  shape  of  the  fruit.  All  kinds  of  fruit  are  capable  of 
being  preserved  under  this  process.  Though  the  method  is  very  simple,  there  is 
a  certain  skill  required  that  is  acquired  only  by  practice.  The  several  successive 
steps  in  the  process  are  about  as  follows : 

First,  the  same  care  in  selecting  and  grading  the  fruit  should  be  taken  as  for 
canning;  that  is,  the  fruit  should  all  be  of  one  size,  and  as  near  the  same  ripe- 
ness as  possible.  The  exact  degree  of  ripeness  is  of  great  importance,  which  is  at 
that  stage  when  fruit  is  best  for  canning;  peaches,  pears,  etc.,  are  pared  and  cut 
in  halves,  as  for  canning ;  plums,  cherries,  etc.,  are  pitted.  The  fruit,  having  thus 
been  carefully  prepared,  is  put  into  a  basket,  or  a  bucket  with  a  perforated  bot- 
tom, and  immersed  in  boiling  water.  The  object  of  this  is  to  dilute  and  extract 
the  juice  of  the  fruit.  The  length  of  time  the  fruit  is  immerced  is  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  the  process.  If  left  too  long,  it  is  overcooked,  and  becomes  soft; 
if  not  immersed  long  enough,  the  juice  is  not  sufficiently  extracted,  which  pre- 
vents a  perfect  absorption  of  the  sugar. 

After  the  fruit  has  been  thus  scalded  and  allowed  to  cool,  it  can  again  be 
assorted  as  to  softness.  The  next  step  is  the  syrup,  which  is  made  of  white 
sugar  and  water.  The  softer  the  fruit,  the  heavier  the  syrup  required.  Ordi- 
narily about  seventy  degree,  Ballings'  saccharometer,  is  about  the  proper  weight 
for  the  syrup. 

The  fruit  is  then  placed  in  earthen  pans,  and  covered  with  the  syrup,  where 
it  is  left  to  remain  about  a  week.  The  sugar  enters  the  fruit  and  displaces  what 
juice  remained  after  the  scalding  process. 

The  fruit  now  requires  careful  watching,  as  fermentation  will  soon  take  place, 
and  when  this  has  reached  a  certain  stage,  the  fruit  and  syrup  are  heated  to  a 
boiling  degree,  which  checks  the  fermentation.  This  heating  process  should  be 
repeated  as  often  as  necessary  for  about  six  weeks. 

The  fruit  is  then  taken  out  of  the  syrup,  and  washed  in  clean  water,  and  it  is 
then  ready  to  be  either  glaced  or  crystallized,  as  the  operator  may  wish.  If  glaced, 
the  fruit  is  dipped  in  thick  sugar  syrup  and  left  to  harden  quickly  in  the  open  air. 
If  it  is  to  be  crystallized,  dip  in  the  same  kind  of  syrup,  but  allow  to  cool  and 
harden  slowly,  thus  causing  the  sugar  which  covers  the  fruit  to  crystallize.  The 
fruit  is  now  ready  for  boxing  and  shipping.  Fruit  thus  prepared  will  keep  in 
any  climate  and  stand  transportation. 

Thus  far  the  crystallized  fruit  produced  in  California  has  sold  well. 
There  is  a  considerable  importation  of  French  fruit  to  the  United 
States,  which  may  be  displaced  by  the  California  product,  and  the  busi- 
ness commends  itself  to  those  who  have  ingenuity,  patience,  and  capital 
enough  to  enable  them  to 'experiment  and  wait  for  future  success.  The 
California  producer  has  the  advantage  of  an  abundance  of  very  fine 
fruit  at  a  low  price,  but  he  carries  a  handicap  in  the  high  cost  of  trans- 
portation and  of  labor. 


CALIFORNIA  DRIED  FRUIT  INDUSTRY 

A  special  census  of  the  fruit-preserving  manufactures  of  the  United 
States  in  1905  shows  not  only  that  California  stands  first  in  the  dried 
fruit  industry,  but  that  the  product  (excluding  raisins)  was  in  that 
year  valued  at  about  fourteen  million  dollars  and  was  over  eighty-eight 
per  cent  of  the  whole  national  product.  An  adjacent  tabulation  com- 
piled from  the  records  of  the  California  State  Board  of  Trade  gives 
interesting  details  of  this  product  for  a  number  of  years. 

As  suggested  on  page  21  it  is  the  function  of  the  sunshine  and  dry 
air  of  California  not  only  to  bring  vigorous  growth  to  the  tree  and 
vine,  and  carry  the  fruit  of  both  to  fullness  of  size,  beauty  and  quality, 
but  to  continue  its  beneficent  action  until  the  fruit,  which  is  not  required 


448 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


by  the  trade  in  fresh  ripeness,  is  given  imperishable  form,  in  which  its 
beauty,  flavors,  aromas  and  nutritive  qualities  remain  available  to  de- 
light and  nourish  mankind  until  the  following  year's  sunshine  wins 
from  the  earth  another  supply  of  fresh  ripeness.  There  are  many  parts 
of  the  earth  where  good  fruit  is  grown :  there  are  few  where  conditions 
producing  such  fruit  continue  to  accomplish  its  preservation,  as  they 
do  in  California,  and  this  climatic  endowment  of  the  State  yields  an 
annual  income  of  something  like  twenty  millions  of  dollars,  as  the  years 
run. 

Product  of  California  Cured  Fruits  in  Tons — 1900-1913. 


Year 

Peaches 

Apricots 

Apples 

Pears 

Plums 

Nec- 

Grapes 

Figs 

Prunes 

Raisins 

tarines 

1900 

17,170 

14,000 

3,150 

7,275 

1.950 

435 

240 

2,000 

87,000 

47,16J 

1901 

14,755 

7,776 

3,225  - 

3,290 

1,725 

3J7 

180 

3,260 

40,000 

37,125 

1902 

25,210 

18,762 

4,875 

2,625 

1,280 

455 

188 

3,625 

98,500 

54,375 

1903 

16,075 

10,500 

1,800 

2,325 

1,435 

317 

205 

3,000 

82,500 

60,000 

1904 

11,500 

8,500 

1,500 

1,750 

1,150 

210 

170 

2,850 

67,500 

37,500 

1905 

17,500 

19,250 

3,250 

1,750 

930 

185 

193 

3,625 

37,500 

43,750 

1906 

11,250 

3,250 

2,750 

3,500 

1,100 

170 

200 

3,375 

90,000 

47,500 

1907 

12,000 

1,500 

1,500 

500 

750 

137 

188 

3,000 

40,000 

60.000 

1908 

22,500 

19,000 

3,000 

1,200 

1,000 

350 

1,500 

3,000 

25,000 

60,000 

1909 

20,000 

14,500 

2,500 

1,200 

500 

375 

325 

3,500 

77,500 

70.000 

1910 

25,000 

16,000 

3,100 

1,000 

375 

250 

350 

3,775 

45,000 

56,000 

1911 

14,000 

11,000 

3,500 

1,500 

250 

200 

119 

5,500 

95,000 

65,000 

1912 

18.000 

10.000 

2,000 

1,000 

200 

200 

100 

5,000 

102,000 

100  000 

1913 

20,000 

9,000 

2,000 

1,000 

600 

200 

120 

6,000 

45,000 

60,000 

In  connection  with  this  notable  factor  of  our  horticultural  produc- 
tion, certain  facts  of  its  utilization  and  its  significance  should  be  clearly 
understood  not  only  by  those  who  actually  employ  it  in  their  business, 
but  by  those  who  desire  to  properly  appreciate  the  industrial  resources 
of  the  State. 

First.  Cured  fruits  in  California  are  a  primary  and  not  a  secondary 
or  by-product.  It  is  true,  of  course,  that  curing  fruit  does,  to  a  limited 
extent,  save  from  loss  fruit  which  shippers  and  canners  are  not  at  the 
time  paying  profitable  prices  for,  and  it  is  true  also  that  the  recourse  to 
curing  frees  growers  from  helpless  dependence  upon  fresh  fruit  buyers. 
But  this  does  not  mean  that  curing  is  a  way  of  getting  something  from 
refuse  fruit,  not  suited  for  other  purposes.  It  should  be  taken  as  evi- 
dence that,  for  the  most  part,  grades  of  fruit  which  are  cured  are  the 
same  which  are  also  available  for  shipping  and  canning  when  prices 
are  right.  It  is  very  important  in  many  ways  to  have  it  clearly  under- 
stood that,  except  to  an  insignificant  extent,  California  fruit  drying  is 
not  undertaken  to  save  wastes  or  to  get  something  from  fruit  which  is 
not  suited  to  higher  uses. 

Second.  As  our  cured  fruits  are  a  primary  and  not  a  by-product, 
it  becomes  intelligible  why  such  free  investment  is  made  in  acres  of 
well-made  trays ;  in  tramways  and  turntables  for  their  movement  from 
the  shelter  of  convenient  cutting  or  dipping  and  spreading  houses ;  in 
capacious  apartments  and  mechanical  devises  for  giving  the  cut  fruit 
its  bath  in  sulphur  fumes  to  preserve  natural  colors  and  to  prevent 
fermentation  and  insect  invasion;  in  the  carefully  prepared  drying 


Plate  XXI.— The  Loganberry. — (See  page  417.) 


CURED   FRUITS   NOT   A   BY-PRODUCT  449 

floors;  in  well-fitted  packing  houses.  Such  investment  has  reached 
millions  of  dollars  in  the  aggregate,  and  the  standing  of  cured  fruits 
as  primary  products  is  the  justification  of  such  outlay. 

Third.  The  provision  of  such  equipment  is  not  alone  evidence  of 
the  standing  of  the  industry ;  it  constitutes  an  obligation  upon  producers 
to  put  out  a  product  which  shall  be  true  to  its  opportunity  as  a  primary 
product,  and  not  merely  a  makeshift  to  prevent  loss  or  waste.  Thirty 
years  ago  California  dried  fruit  was  a  makeshift,  and  a  disgracefully 
poor  one.  As  enterprise  and  investment  proceeded  it  was  soon  seen  that 
style  and  quality  alone  could  requite  them.  Next  it  was  discerned  that 
fruit  for  curing,  to  command  profitable  prices,  must  be  as  good  as  fruit 
for  any  other  high  purpose,  as  has  been  suggested.  It  was  then  be- 
lieved that  to  secure  handsome  cured  fruit  which  should  only  be  re- 
lieved of  its  excess  of  water  and  still  retain  color,  flavor  and  winning 
beauty,  could  only  be  produced  in  machine-evaporators  with  artificial 
heat,  and  a  few  years  were  given  to  invention,  purchase  and  rejection 
of  all  such  devices  except  as  occasional  refuges  when  the  California 
climate  forgets  itself.  When  the  demonstration  came  that  with  proper 
pre-treatment  California  sunshine  and  dry  air  would  produce  notably 
fine  evaporated  fruits  without  houses  and  furnaces,  cured  fruits  entered 
upon  their  career  as  primary  products,  and  planting  to  produce  them 
began. 

Fourth.  The  obligations  upon  producers,  to  make  their  output 
worthy  of  such  standing,  extended  to  the  whole  process  of  growing 
and  curing.  The  fruit  must  be  well  grown,  and  fruit  for  curing  should 
have  size  and  quality  which  make  it  first  class  for  other  purposes,  with 
the  added  excellence  of  being  somewhat  more  mature,  because  it  is  not 
required  to  stand  hauling  and  shipment.  It  should,  however,  be  care- 
fully handled  to  escape  bruising,  because  discolorations  are  blemishes. 
It  must  be  cleanly  cut  for  removal  of  pit  or  core,  because  trimness,  neat- 
ness and  shapeliness  are  all  essential  to  beauty.  Before  it  reaches  ex- 
posure to  the  protecting  fumes  of  sulphur,  it  must  be  often  saved  from 
darkening  by  handling  in  water,  when  the  nature  of  the  fruit  is  such 
as  to  require  it.  It  must  be  carefully  and  evenly  spread  upon  the  trays, 
especially  if  it  be  a  cut  fruit,  so  that  no  interference  can  prevent  each 
piece  from  reaching  its  best  estate.  Sulphuring  must  be  adequate,  and 
yet  not  excessive,  for  sulphuring  is  a  protecting  and  not  a  resurrecting 
process ;  it  is  not  to  improve  bad  fruit,  but  to  keep  good  fruit  from  be- 
coming bad.  The  fruit  must  be  sufficiently  dried  and  yet  not  over-dried, 
and  during  the  process  must  be  protected  from  dust  by  the  situation 
and  character  of  the  ground  used,  even  if  such  protection  costs  trouble 
and  outlay. 

Although  the  sun  drying  of  fruit  may  be  a  simple  process,  so  many 
little  arts,  methods  and  appliances  are  continually  being  introduced  to 
facilitate  work  or  improve  the  product,  that  one  can  learn  much  by 
visiting  the  different  fruit  regions  during  the  drying  season.  Such  a 
course  is  commended  to  growers  who  contemplate  large  drying  opera- 
tions, for  suggestions  of  great  economic  importance  can  be  secured. 
The  notes  of  practice  which  can  be  given  in  this  connection  must  be 
brief  and  general. 


450  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Trays  for  Drying. — The  greater  part  of  the  fruit,  including 
raisins,  is  placed  upon  trays  for  exposure  to  the  sun.  There  is  great 
variation  in  the  size  of  the  trays.  The  common  small  tray  is  made  of 
one-half  inch  sugar-pine  lumber  two  feet  wide  and  three  feet  long,  the 
boards  forming  it  being  held  together  by  nailing  to  a  cleat  on  each 
end,  one  by  one  and  a  quarter  inches,  and  a  lath  or  narrow  piece  of 
half-inch  stuff  is  nailed  over  the  ends  of  the  boards,  thus  stiffening 
the  tray  and  aiding  to  prevent  warping.  A  cross-section  of  such  a  tray 
is  shown  at  A. 

A  large  tray  which  is  used  by  some  growers  is  four  feet  square, 
and  is  made  of  slats  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  and  one  and  a  half 
inches  wide,  the  slats  being  nailed  to  three  cross  slats  three-eighths  of 
an  inch  thick  and  three  inches  wide,  and  the  ends  nailed  to  a  narrow 
strip  one-half  inch  thick  by  three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide  on  the 
other  side.  A  cross-section  of  this  tray  is  shown  at  B. 


Cross-sections  of  drying  trays. 

Since  large  drying  yards  have  been  supplied  with  tramways  and 
trucks  for  moving  the  fruit  instead  of  hand  carriage,  larger  trays,  three 
feet  by  six  or  three  feet  by  eight,  have  been  largely  employed.  These 
tramways  lead  from  the  cutting  sheds  to  the  sulphur  boxes  and  thence 
to  various  parts  of  the  large  drying  grounds,  making  it  possible  to 
handle  large  amounts  of  fruit  at  a  minimum  cost. 

Protecting  Fruit  from  Dew. — In  the  interior  there  are  seldom 
any  deposit  of  dew  in  the  drying  season,  but  occasionally  there  are 
early  rains  before  the  drying  season  is  over.  The  fruit  is  then  pro- 
tected by  piling  the  trays  one  upon  another,  in  which  operation  the  thick 
cleats  serve  a  good  purpose.  In  dewy  regions  the  trays  are  piled  at 
night,  or  cloth  or  paper  is  sometimes  stretched  over  the  fruit,  thus  re- 
ducing the  discoloration  resulting  from  deposits  of  moisture  upon  it. 

Drying  Floors. — For  the  most  part  the  trays  are  laid  directly  on 
the  ground,  but  sometimes  a  staging  of  posts  and  rails  is  built  to  support 
them,  about  twenty  inches  from  the  ground.  The  drying  trays  are 
sometimes  distributed  through  the  orchard  or  vineyard,  thus  drying 
the  fruit  with  as  little  carrying  as  possible.  Others  clear  off  a  large 
space  outside  the  plantation  and  spread  the  trays  where  full  sunshine 
can  be  obtained.  Drying  spaces  should  be  selected  at  a  distance  from 
traveled  roads,  to  prevent  the  deposit  of  dust  on  the  fruit. 

Spaces  used  for  drying  are  often  idle  the  rest  of  the  year  and  are 
weed-covered  and  unsightly  during  the  rainy  season,  or  are  cultivated 
for  grain-hay  which  loosens  the  surface  and  deepens  the  dust.  When 
one  has  water  for  irrigation  it  is  often  practicable  to  reduce  dust  and 


SULPHURING   AND  DRYING  451 

secure  an  amount  of  desirable  feed  or  hay  by  putting  the  piece  down 
in  alfalfa.  Mr.  P.  T.  Gannon  of  Yolo  County  proceeded  in  this  way. 
He  lowered  the  tramway  tracks  to  the  ground  level,  and  turned  up  a 
furrow  on  the  sides  to  hold  the  water  from  flooding  the  adjacent 
ground.  In  the  fall,  after  the  fruit-drying  was  over,  he  flooded  the 
space,  which  is  a  little  over  half  an  acre  (125  by  225  feet).  Then  it 
was  disked  both  ways  and  leveled  and  harrowed  and  planted  to  alfalfa 
before  the  rains.  The  land  was  moist  at  the  time  and  the  seed  came 
up  and  the  plants  grew  more  or  less  through  the  winter.  In  April  he 
cut  the  first  crop.  Just  before  the  space  is  needed  for  a  drying  yard, 
make  another  cutting,  about  June  20th,  cutting  it  down  close  and  raking 
it  clean.  The  yard  is  then  ready  for  the  trays  and  fruit.  When  the 
drying  season  is  over  the  yard  is  cleared,  and  the  space  then  is  as  clean 
as  a  clay  floor,  from  being  used  so  much.  In  three  weeks  the  top  of  the 
ground  is  green  all  over,  and  before  the  rains  come  there  is  another, 
cutting  crop,  making  three  crops  a  year,  a  ton  at  each  cutting.  So 
something  is  made  from  the  space  and  the  dust  problem  is  solved,  which 
means  clean  fruit  and  better  prices. 

Grading. — It  is  of  great  advantage  in  drying  to  have  all  the  fruit 
on  a  tray  of  approximately  the  same  size,  and  grading  before  cutting 
is  advisable.  Machines  are  now  made  which  accomplish  this  very 
cheaply  and  quickly.* 

Cutting-Sheds. — Shelter  of  some  kind  is  always  provided  for  the 
fruit-cutters.  Sometimes  it  is  only  a  temporary  bower  made  of  poles 
and  beams  upon  which  tree  branches  are  spread  as  a  thatch ;  sometimes 
open-side  sheds  with  boarded  roof,  and  sometimes  a  finished  fruit-house 
is  built,  two  stories  high,  the  lower  story  opening  with  large  doors  on 
the  north  side,  and  with  a  large  loft  above,  where  the  dried  fruit  can 
be  sweated,  packed,  and  stored  for  sale.  The  climate  is  such  that 
almost  any  shelter  which  suits  the  taste  of  the  purse  of  the  producer 
will  answer  the  purpose. 

Sulphuring. — The  regulations  promulgated  under  the  pure  food 
law  enacted  by  Congress  in  1906  established  an  arbitrary  limit  to  the 
percentage  of  sulphur  compounds  in  evaporated  fruits,  which  was 
shown  by  producers  to  be  destructive  to  their  industry,  and  otherwise 
unwarranted  and  ureasonable.  As  a  result  of  their  protest  the  enforce- 
ment of  such  regulations  was  indefinitely  postponed,  pending  the  results 
of  scientific  investigation  which  began  in  1898. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  California  producer  it  must  be  held 
that  before  the  employment  of  the  sulphur  process,  California  cured 
fruits  were  suitable  only  to  the  lowest  culinary  uses.  They  were  of 
undesirable  color,  devoid  of  natural  flavor,  offensive  by  content  of  insect 
life.  They  had  no  value  which  would  induce  production  and  discern- 
ible future.  Placing  the  trays  of  freshly  cut  fruit  in  boxes  or  small 
"houses,"  with  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur,  made  it  possible  to  pre- 
serve its  natural  color  and  flavor  during  the  evaporation  of  its  surplus 
moisture  in  the  clear  sunshine  and  dry  air  of  the  California  summer. 
It  also  prevented  souring,  which  with  some  fruits  is  otherwise  not  pre- 

*See  under  plums  and  prunes,"  page  456. 


452  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  :  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

ventable  in  such  open  air  drying,  and  it  protected  the  fruit  from  insect 
attack  during  the  drying  process.  By  the  use  of  sulphur  and  by  no 
other  agency  has  it  been  possible  to  lift  the  production  of  cured  fruits 
of  certain  kinds  from  a  low-value  haphazard  by-product  to  a  primary 
product  for  which  Californians  have  planted  orchards,  constructed 
packing  houses  and  made  a  name  in  the  world's  markets. 

The  action  of  sulphuring  is  not  alone  to  protect  the  fruit,  it  facili- 
tates evaporation  so  that  about  one-half  less  time  is  required  therefor. 
Not  the  least  important  bearing  of  this  fact  is  the  feasibility  of  cur- 
ing fruits  in  larger  pieces.  The  grand  half-peaches,  half-apricots,  half- 
pears  of  the  California  cured  fruits  are  the  direct  result  of  the  sulphur 
process.  Without  it  the  fruit  must  be  cut  into  small  sections  or  ribbons, 
which  in  cooking  break  down  into  an  uninviting  mass,  while,  with  the 
sulphuring,  it  is  ordinary  practice  to  produce  the  splendid  halves  with 
their  natural  color  so  preserved  that  they  lie  in  cut  glass  dishes  in 
suggestive  semblance  to  the  finest  product  of  the  canners,  and  are 
secured  at  a  fraction  of  the  cost. 

There  are  various  contrivances  for  the  application  of  sulphur  fumes 
to  the  freshly-cut  fruit.  Some  are  small  for  hand  carriage  of  trays ; 
some  are  large  and  the  trays  are  wheeled  into  them  upon  trucks.  The 
most  common  is  a  bottomless  cabinet  about  five  or  six  feet  high,  of  a 
width  equal  to  the  length  of  the  tray  and  a  depth  a  little  more  than  the 
width  of  the  tray.  The  cabinet  has  a  door  the  whole  width  of  one  side, 
and  on  the  sides  within  cleats  are  nailed  so  that  the  trays  of  fruit  slip 
in  like  drawers  into  a  bureau.  Some  push  in  the  trays  so  that  the  bottom 
one  leaves  a  little  space  at  the  back,  the  next  a  little  space  at  the  front, 
and  so  on,  that  the  fumes  may  be  forced  by  the  draft  to  pass  between 
the  trays  back  and  forward.  The  essentials  seem  to  be  open  holes  or 
dampers  in  the  bottom  and  top  of  the  cabinet  so  that  the  fumes  from  the 
sulphur  burning  at  the  bottom  may  be  thoroughly  distributed  through 
the  interior,  and  then  all  openings  are  tightly  closed.  To  secure  a  tight 
chamber  the  door  has  its  edge  felted  and  the  cabinet  is  made  of  matched 
lumber.  The  sulphur  is  usually  put  on  a  shovel  or  iron  pot,  and  it  is 
ignited  by  a  hot  coal,  or  a  hot  iron,  or  it  is  thrown  on  paper  of  which 
the  edges  are  set  on  fire,  or  a  little  alcohol  is  put  on  the  sulphur  and 
lighted,  etc.  The  sulphur  is  usually  burned  in  a  pit  in  the  ground  under 
the  cabinet.  The  application  of  sulphur  must  be  watchfully  and  care- 
fully made,  and  the  exposure  of  the  fruit  should  only  be  long  enough 
to  accomplish  the  end  desired.  The  exposure  required  differs  from 
different  fruits,  and  with  the  same  fruits  in  different  conditions,  and 
must  be  learned  by  experience. 

Grading  and  Cleaning. — After  the  fruit  is  sufficiently  dried  (and 
it  is  impossible  to  describe  how  this  point  may  be  recognized  except  by 
the  experienced  touch),  it  is  gathered  from  the  trays  into  large  boxes 
and  taken  to  the  fruit  house.  Some  growers  put  it  into  a  revolving 
drum  of  punctured  sheet  iron,  which  rubs  the  pieces  together  and 
separates  it  from  dust,  etc.,  which  falls  out  through  the  apertures  as  the 
drum  revolves.  Others  empty  the  fruit  upon  a  large  wire-cloth  table 
and  pick  it  over,  grading  it  according  to  size  and  color,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  dust  and  small  particles  of  foreign  matter  fall  through  the  wire 


HANDLING   CURED   FRUITS  453 

cloth.  The  fanning  mill  for  cleaning  grain  may  also  be  used  for  rapid 
separation  of  dirt,  leaves,  etc.,  with  proper  arrangement  of  metal 
screens. 

Sweating. — All  fruit,  if  stored  in  mass  after  drying,  becomes 
moist.  This  action  should  take  place  before  packing.  To  facilitate  it, 
the  fruit  is  put  in  piles  on  the  floor  of  the  fruit-house  and  turned  occa- 
sionally with  a  scoop  shovel ;  or,  if  allowed  to  sweat  in  boxes,  the  fruit 
is  occasionally  poured  from  one  box  to  another.  The  sweating  equal- 
izes the  moisture  throughout  the  mass.  Some  large  producers  have 
sweat-rooms  with  tight  walls,  which  preserve  an  even  temperature. 
No  fruit  should  be  packed  before  "going  through  the  sweat."  If  thi? 
is  not  done,  discoloration  and  injury  will  result. 

Dipping  Before  Packing. — All  fruits  except  prunes  can  be  packed 
in  good  condition  without  dipping,  provided  the  fruit  is  not  over-dried. 
Efforts  should  be  made  to  take  up  the  fruit  when  it  is  just  sufficiently 
cured  to  prevent  subsequent  fermentation.  If  taken  from  the  trays  in 
the  heat  of  the  day  and  covered  so  that  the  fruit  moth  can  not  reach 
it  there  is  little  danger  of  worms.  The  highest  grades  of  fruit  are  made 
in  this  way.  If,  however,  the  fruit  has  been  over-dried  or  neglected, 
it  can  be  dipped  in  boiling  water  to  kill  eggs  of  vermin  and  to  make  the 
fruit  a  little  more  pliable  for  the  press.  The  dipping  should  be  done 
quickly,  and  the  fruit  allowed  to  drain  and  then  lie  in  a  dark  room, 
carefully  covered,  for  twenty-four  hours  before  packing. 

Packing. — To  open  well,  packages  of  dried  fruit  should  be 
"faced."  The  many  fine  arts  of  paper  lining,  etc.,  must  be  learned  by 
observation.  Flatten  some  fair  specimens  of  the  fruit  to  be  packed 
(and  reference  is  especially  made  to  such  fruits  as  apricots,  peaches 
and  nectarines)  by  running  them  through  a  clothes  wringer  or  similar 
pair  of  rollers  set  to  flatten  but  not  crush  the  fruit.  Do  not  face  with 
better  fruit  than  the  package  is  to  contain.  It  is  a  fraud  which  will 
not  in  the  end  be  profitable.  Lay  the  flattened  fruit  (cup  side  down) 
neatly  in  the  bottom  of  the  box.  Fill  the  box  until  it  reaches  the 
amount  the  box  is  to  contain,  and  then  apply  the  press  until  the  bottom 
can  be  nailed  on.  Invert  the  box  and  put  on  the  label  or  brand;  the 
bottom  then  becomes  the  top. 

Many  different  kinds  of  boxes  are  used.  A  very  good  size  is  made 
of  seasoned  pine,  six  inches  deep  by  nine  inches  wide  by  fifteen  inches 
long,  inside  measurements,  and  it  will  hold  twenty-five  pounds  of  fruit. 


METHODS  WITH  DIFFERENT  FRUITS 

As  already  intimated,  it  will  be  impossible  to  enter  minutely  into 
the  operations  of  drying  and  packing  on  a  commercial  scale,  or  even 
to  notice  all  the  small  and  ingenious  arts  by  which  the  work  is  facil- 
itated. Any  one  who  contemplates  production  on  a  large  scale  should 
personally  visit  leading  regions  and  inform  himself  by  inquiry  and 
observation.  Such  an  education  will  save  mistakes,  which  may  cost 
many  times  more  than  the  expense  of  getting  it.  California  producers 


454  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

are  usually  quite  willing  to  show  visitors  the  methods  they  employ. 
Though  this  is  the  better  way  of  proceeding,  a  few  general  hints  will 
be  given  of  methods  with  different  fruits. 

Apples. — There  seems  little  use  of  drying  apples  unless  a  very 
light-colored,  handsome  product  can  be  turned  out.  This  can  be  done 
by  sulphuring  as  soon  as  cut,  and  sun  drying  in  a  dry  region,  or  by  the 
use  of  a  machine  evaporator  in  regions  of  greater  atmospheric  humidity. 
Recently  the  product  has  largey  increased  in  such  large  producing 
regions  as  the  Pajaro  Valley,  and  new  labor  saving  devices  are  being 
continually  introduced. 

Apricots. — Apricots  for  drying  should  be  fully  ripe  but  not  soft 
enough  to  be  mushy.  By  the  use  of  sulphur  and  sun  heat,  an  amber- 
colored,  semi-translucent  fruit  is  obtained.  The  prevailing  method  of 
gathering  is  to  shake  down  the  fruit  upon  sheets,  but  the  best  product 
is  hand  picked.  Pit  the  fruit  by  a  clean  cut  completely  around  in  the 
suture;  do  not  cut  part  way  around  and  then  tear  apart — a  clean-cut 
edge  is  essential.  Put  on  the  trays  with  the  skin  down,  or  with  the 
cut  up,  as  it  is  sometimes  described ;  sulphur,  and  then  put  in  the  sun. 
About  three  days  of  interior  valley  sunshine  will  finish  the  apricots. 
Apricots  will  yield  on  the  average  about  one  pound  of  dried  fruit  to 
five  pounds  of  fresh. 

Mr.  Joseph  T.  Brooks,  of  San  Jose,  describes  sulphuring  of  apricots 
as  follows: 

The  fruit  is  cut  in  half  and  pitted,  then  spread  upon  the  trays  and  put  into 
an  airtight  sulphur  house.  These  are  made  just  large  enough  so  that  the  trays 
may  be  slid  in  one  over  the  other  so  that  the  sulphur  fumes  can  permeate  every 
part  of  the  house.  About  one  pound  of  powdered  sulphur  is  poured  into  a  hole 
in  the  ground  and  set  fire,  and  as  long  as  there  is  any  oxygen  left  in  the  house, 
this  sulphur  will  continue  to  burn  and  pour  forth  its  volume  of  dense  smoke. 
This  process  gives  the  apricots  a  very  pretty  golden  appearance.  The  apricots, 
if  dried  without  being  sulphured,  have  a  dark  uninviting  appearance,  and  are 
inclined  to  get  wormy,  although  by  dipping  them  in  a  strong  solution  of  salt 
and  hot  water  the  possibility  of  infection  might  be  overcome.  Dried  apricots  are 
treated  to  a  steam  bath  to  make  them  pliable,  and  packed  in  boxes  similar  to 
prunes. 

Berries  and  Cherries. — These  fruits  are  only  dried  in  the  sun 
in  small  quantities  for  local  sale,  and  ordinary  farm-house  methods  are 
employed. 

Figs*. — The  fruit  may  be  carefully  picked  from  the  tree  so  as  to 
secure  the  whole  of  the  stem,  when  the  fruit  is  fully  ripe,  as  is  known 
by  the  seaming  or  slight  shriveling  of  the  skin.  In  drying  the  common 
black  fig  from  large  trees,  however,  the  fruit  is  generally  gathered  from 
the  ground,  which  is  cleaned  and  smoothed  before  the  crop  ripens.  In 
drying  black  figs  the  fruit  is  placed  on  trays  and  in  most  cases  exposed 
to  the  sun,  but  some  foothill  growers  maintain  the  advantage  of  drying 
in  the  shade.  This  is  also  practiced  by  some  growers  in  the  Fresno 
district,  who  stack  the  trays  as  soon  as  filled  and  thus  cure  by  the  natural 
movement  of  dry  air  instead  of  direct  sunshine.  The  figs  should  not  be 
allowed  to  dry  hard.  When  sufficiently  cured,  put  in  sweat-boxes  for 

*A  special  illustrated  account  of  handling  dried  figs  in  California  is  given  in  "The 
Smyrna  Fig  at  Home  and  Abroad,"  by  George  C.  Roeding,  Fresno,  Cal. 


METHODS   OF  DRYING   FRUITS  455 

several  days,  and  when  ready  to  pack  dip  in  boiling  salt  water,  or,  as 
is  the  practice  of  some  producers,  dip  in  a  thin  syrup,  boiling  hot.  In 
either  method  a  good  pliable  condition  and  handsome  color  are  ob- 
tained. In  drying  white  figs  many  sulphur  the  fruit  from  fifteen 
minutes  to  an  hour  before  putting  out  on  the  trays.  Figs  which  dry 
slowly  have  to  be  turned  several  times  during  the  drying,  and  those 
which  are  apt  to  run  juice  are  placed  so  that  the  eye  is  raised  a  little 
until  the  juice  is  thickened.  The  white  figs  are  also  put  in  sweat-boxes 
and  dipped  in  hot  salt  water  before  packing.  In  packing,  the  figs  are 
often  flattened  and  drawn  out  by  the  hand.  Such  manipulation  gives  the 
fig  a  lighter  and  more  translucent  appearance.  The  time  required  in 
drying  figs  is  usually  from  five  to  eight  or  ten  days,  according  to  loca- 
tion and  weather.  The  fruit  does  not  cure  evenly,  and  those  which  are 
finished  (as  determined  by  sight  and  touch — to  be  learned  by  experi- 
ence) are  picked  from  the  trays,  and  others  given  more  time. 

Mr.  Henry  Markarian,  of  Fresno,  a  large  producer  of  dried  figs, 
handles  the  fruit  this  way : 

He  has  a  cement  tank,  half  filled  with  salt  water  and  immerses  by  means  of 
a  wire  basket  a  ton  of  figs  at  a  time  for  from  ten  minutes  to  a  half  hour.  The 
figs  are  hoisted  and  emptied  through  a  feeder  into  trays,  which  are  stacked  in 
the  drying  yard  till  the  fruit  is  of  uniform  quality.  This  takes  about  ten  days, 
and  is  far  superior  and  cheaper  to  the  quicker  sun  drying.  They  are  then  poured 
into  sweat-boxes  like  raisins  and  taken  to  the  packer,  culls  being  removed.  The 
Adriatics  are  not  dipped,  but  sulphured. 

Culls  are  mostly  splits.  There  are  more  some  years  than  others;  cool,  damp 
weather  being  especially  bad.  Irregular  weather,  or  very  hot  weather,  will  also 
develop  culls,  and  rains  will  sour  a  good  many,  though  Adriatics  suffer  worse 
than  the  others.  In  good  years  culls  amount  to  only  about  two  per  cent.  In  bad 
years  they  will  amount  to  eight  and  ten  per  cent. 

Birds  will  do  big  damage.  One  year  they  destroyed  eight  tons  of  fruit.  After- 
wards a  few  boys  with  guns  were  kept  busy,  and  one  summer  killed  4,000  birds, 
and  there  was  hardly  a  bird  picked  fruit  in  the  lot  as  a  result. 

The  orchard  on  the  best  soil,  and  best  attended  to  will  give  the  finest  fruit. 
However,  the  average  Smyrna  crop  will  run  about  20  to  25  per  cent  extra  fancy, 
about  the  same  amount  fancy,  45  per  cent  choice  and  5  per  cent  cooking  fruit,  sold 
to  bakers  and  pastry  manufacturers.  The  choice  fruit  is  split  and  packed  in 
bricks  as  seen  at  fruit  stands  and  grocers.  The  larger,  finer  figs  can  be  sold 
whole,  packed  solid. 

Pears. — The  dried  pear  product  is  increasing,  and,  as  with 
apples,  only  a  light-colored  product  is  profitable.  These  are  made  by 
sulphuring  and  sun  drying,  or  by  the  use  of  the  machine  drier.  For 
sun  drying  the  fruit  of  medium  size  is  halved,  the  large  fruit  being 
quartered. 

Peaches. — Peaches  are  sun  dried  in  much  the  same  way  as  apri- 
cots, already  described.  Take  the  fruit  when  it  is  fully  ripe,  but  not 
mushy ;  cut  cleanly  all  around  to  extract  the  pit  and  put  on  trays  CUP 
side  up;  get  into  the  sulphur  box  as  soon  as  possible  after  cutting. 
Peaches  are  dried  both  peeled  and  unpeeled,  but  drying  without  peeling 
is  chiefly  done.  Peling  is  done  with  the  small  paring  machines  or  with 
a  knife.  Peeling  with  lye  has  been  generally  abandoned  because  of 
discoloration  of  the  fruit  after  packing,  although  it  can  be  successfully 
done  by  frequently  changing  the  lye  and  using  ample  quantities  of 
fresh  water  for  rinsing  after  dipping. 


456  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Clingstone  peaches  are  successfully  handled  with  curved  knives  and 
spoon-shaped  pitters  in  conjunction  with  ordinary  fruit  knives.  Differ- 
ent styles  are  carried  at  the  general  stores  in  the  fruit  districts,  and 
individuals  differ  widely  in  their  preferences. 

The  weight  of  dried  peaches  which  can  be  obtained  from  a  certain 
weight  of  fresh  fruit,  depends  upon  the  variety;  some  varieties  yield 
at  least  a  third  more  than  others,  and  clings  yield  more  than  freestones 
as  a  rule.  Dry-fleshed  peaches,  like  the  Muir,  yield  one  pound  dry  from 
four  or  five  pounds  fresh,  while  other  more  juicy  fruits  may  require 
six  or  seven  pounds. 

Nectarines. — Nectarines  are  handled  like  peaches;  the  produc- 
tion of  translucent  amber  fruit  in  the  sun  depends  upon  the  skillful  use 
of  sulphur. 

Plums  and  Prunes. — Our  pitted  plums,  which  are  an  acid  fruit, 
are  meeting  with  more  favor  than  formerly,  and  the  product  is  increas- 
ing. Pitting  is  done  by  hand  or  by  the  use  of  foot-power  "pitters." 
More  rapid  and  capacious  machines  are  being  brought  out  by  inventors. 

Prunes  are  one  of  our  greatest  and  most  promising  products. 
Several  varieties  which  dry  sweet  with  the  pit  in  are  used  in  making 
prunes,  as  already  stated  in  Chapter  XXIII,  but  the  prevailing  variety 
is  the  Prune  D'Agen. 

Prunes  are  gathered  by  shaking  from  the  trees,  usually  upon 
sheets  spread  beneath.  Several  gatherings  are  made  by  light  shakings 
which  cause  only  the  ripe  specimens  to  fall.  Some  growers,  however, 
hand-pick  the  fruit — going  over  the  trees  several  times  only  shak- 
ing for  the  final  gathering.  A  superior  cured  prune  is  secured  by  this 
extra  effort  to  secure  full  and  even  ripening,  but  the  cost  is  greater. 

Prunes  are  usually  graded  before  drying,  and  various  homemade 
contrivances  are  employed.  Some  use  inclined  planes  of  adjustable 
slats,  the  grader  being  thus  available  for  other  fruits  than  prunes ;  the 
large  fruit  rolls  along  into  receptacles  at  the  bottom,  while  the  small 
fruit  falls  through  into  other  receptacles.  Other  grading  devices  are 
made  with  wire  screens  or  riddles  of  different  sizes  of  mesh.  Some  of 
them  work  on  the  principle  of  a  fanning  mill,  three  to  four  riddles, 
placed  above  one  another,  each  with  a  slight  incline  and  a  spot  on  the 
side  where  each  grade  drops  into  a  box.  Some  have  a  long  riddle,  say 
twelve  feet  long,  with  three  different  sizes  of  wire  screen  on  it.  This 
riddle  is  hung  upon  four  ropes  with  an  incline ;  the  prunes  are  thrown 
in  the  higher  end,  and  by  shaking  it  they  roll  down  and  fall  through 
the  holes  into  boxes  underneath.  The  first  piece  of  screen  should  be 
small,  to  let  only  stems  and  dirt  through,  and  no  prunes.  This  long 
hanging  screen  is  also  used  to  grade  prunes  after  drying.  There  are 
now  several  excellent  manufactured  fruit  graders  on  sale  in  this  State. 
Their  work  is  very  satisfactory,  and  they  have  largely  displaced  home- 
made contrivances. 

The  next  step  in  the  process  is  dipping  in  lye  to  thin  and  crack 
the  skin,  which  facilitates  the  escape  of  moisture  in  the  drying  process. 
In  the  large  caldron  lye  is  made  with  one  pound  of  concentrated  lye 
to  each  thirty  gallons  of  water,  and  kept  boiling  hot.  The  fruit  is  put 
into  wire  baskets  or  galvanized  pails  with  perforated  sides  and  bottoms, 


Plate  XXII. — Strawberry  patch  with  cane  windbreak  (see  page  421);  also 
almond  trees  in  bloom  (page  425). 


METHODS    OF   DRYING    PRUNES  457 

and  dipped  in  the  boiling  lye  for  about  a  minute,  or  until  the  skin  has 
a  wrinkled  appearance,  then  the  basket  is  plunged  into  clean  cold  water 
to  rinse  off  the  lye.  This  rinsing  water  must  be  frequently  changed, 
for  it  soon  becomes  very  alkaline.  Some  begin  with  a  stronger  lye 
solution,  one  pound  to  ten  gallons  of  water,  claiming  that  a  very  short 
dip  in  stronger  lye  is  better  than  long  exposure  in  a  weaker  solution. 
After  this  dipping,  the  prunes  are  placed  on  trays.  In  the  sun  the 
prune  dries  sufficiently  in  from  one  to  two  weeks,  according  to  the 
situation  and  weather. 

A  process  of  puncturing  the  skin  of  the  prunes  by  causing  them 
to  roll  over  needle  points  has  also  been  employed  to  some  extent. 
There  are  now  manufactured  very  capacious  appliances  for  continuous 
dipping,  rinsing,  puncturing  and  spreading  on  the  trays  so  that  the  fruit 
is  handled  in  large  quantities  at  a  minimum  cost.  In  no  branch  of  our 
fruit  industry,  perhaps,  has  there  been  greater  advance  in  labor-saving 
devices  than  in  prune  handling. 

When  sufficiently  dried  the  prunes  are  put  through  the  "sweat," 
which  takes  from  several  days  to  two  or  three  weeks,  and  then  are 
ready  for  grading,  finishing,  and  packing.  In  grading,  the  prunes  are 
separated  by  the  use  of  a  grader,  as  already  described,  into  a  number 
of  grades,  the  largest,  forty  prunes  to  the  pound,  and  so  on,  fifty,  sixty, 
etc.,  to  the  smallest,  which  may  run  one  hundred  or  more  to  the  pound. 
Finishing  consists  in  exposing  to  steam,  in  dipping  in  clear  hot  water, 
or  hot  sugar  syrup,  or  in  dipping  in  boiled  juice  of  ripe  prunes,  or 
peaches  or  apples,  etc.  Although  there  is  a  great  variety  of  materials 
used  for  "glossing"  prunes  by  different  producers,  the  prevailing  prac- 
tice is  to  rely  upon  hot  water,  to  which  purd  glycerine  is  added  at  the 
rate  of  one  pound  to  twenty  gallons.  Some  growers  also  add  a  little 
brine  (having  first  dissolved  the  salt  and  skinned  off  the  impurities). 
This  final  hot  dip  kills  insect  eggs,  and  the  fruit,  after  drying  off  away 
from  the  access  of  insects,  should  be  packed  tightly  in  boxes,  usually 
holding  twenty-five  pounds,  though  thirty-eight  to  fifty-pound  boxes 
are  used  in  foreign  trade. 

The  following  explicit  hints  on  the  curing  of  prunes  are  based 
upon  wide  experience  and  observation  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley: 

Be  sure  to  allow  the  prunes  to  obtain  all  of  the  sugar  they  can  from  the 
trees  by  hanging  until  they  drop  of  their  own  accord.  Do  not  pick  up  until 
prunes  are  soft  to  the  touch.  These  two  rules  are  productive  of  nice  black 
prunes.  They  may  not  be  black  when  gathered  in  the  bins  but  will  color  with 
age,  without  any  foreign  coloring  m.atter. 

Do  not  keep  prunes  in  boxes  over  night.  They  go  through  a  sweat,  and  do 
not  make  a  first  quality  of  dried  fruit,  and  take  much  longer  to  dry.  It  is  better 
to  let  the  prunes  lie  on  the  ground  under  the  tree  for  several  days  than  to  let  the 
picked  prunes  lie  in  the  boxes  over  one  night. 

The  dipping  fluid  must  be  kept  at  the  boiling  point  and  no  prunes  put  in  unless 
it  is  boiling.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  how  strong  the  lye  is,  but  how  hot  is  the 
water.  On  the  trays  prunes  will  either  dry  or  ferment.  Unless  the  dip  is  hot 
enough  the  prune  will  not  immediately  commence  to  dry,  but  will,  in  a  few  days, 
become  a  chocolate  color  and  refuse  to  dry,  sometimes  a  few  on  a  tray,  often 
half  and  sometimes  nearly  all.  If  the  water  is  at  the  boiling  point  all  through 
the  dip,  two  pounds  of  lye  to  the  100  gallons  of  water,  may  be  sufficient.  If  the 
water  is  not  boiling,  ten  pounds  of  lye  to  the  100  gallons  of  water  may  be  re- 
quired. 


458  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Weather  conditions  govern  the  time  prunes  should  remain  on  the  trays.  Grasp 
a  handful  of  prunes  and  give  them  a  gentle  squeeze  and  open  the  hand  quickly, 
if  the  prunes  separate  they  are  ready  to  stack  the  trays  and  the  fruit  should  be 
placed  in  the  bin  before  it  rattles  on  the  trays. 

When  the  prunes  are  sufficiently  dry  put  them  in  a  dry  place  where  it  will 
not  rain  on  them,  but  do  not  prevent  the  air  from  getting  to  them.  Let  the  wind 
have  free  access  until  the  rains  set  in  then  close  doors  and  make  the  house  as 
snug  as  you  can.  In  making  bins,  be  sure  the  boards  are  dry  and  the  bins  well 
above  ground,  or  you  will  have  trouble.  Do  not  let  prunes  get  damaged  by  rain. 

For  dipping  before  packing,  some  use  a  brine  dip — about  five  pounds  of  salt 
to  100  gallons  of  water  is  about  right.  This  salt  dip  can  be  used  more  safely  for 
prunes  than  for  peaches  or  other  pitted  fruit,  as  in  some  instances  it  has  attracted 
moisture  and  caused  mold.  As  to  the  respective  results  of  a  sal  solution  and 
glycerine  solution,  the  salt  seems  to  be  a  cleansing  process,  which  leaves  the  skin 
of  the  fruit  in  a  bright,  clear  condition  and  brings  out  the  blue  bloom,  which  is 
desirable.  The  glycerine  is  more  of  a  syrupy  or  glossy  nature,  and  on  prunes 
that  are  inclined  to  be  reddish  this  solution  can  be  used  to  advantage.  A  com- 
mon method  of  treating  prunes  is  to  use  the  small  prunes  and  suspend  them  in 
the  steam-heated  tank  of  the  Anderson  dipper,  where  they  can  not  come  in  con- 
tact with  the  steam  (which  causes  the  skin  and  meat  of  the  prune  to  turn  dark), 
dissolve  out  the  juice,  thus  forming  a  dip  liquor,  and  this  is  quite  extensively 
used. 

Raisins. — The  varieties  of  grapes  used  for  raisins  are  described 
in  Chapter  XXVIII.  The  production  of  raisins  has  reached  such  an 
extent,  and  employs  so  much  skill  and  capital,  that  the  processes 
employed  to  facilitate  the  curing  and  packing  are  so  various  that  a 
description  of  them  cannot  be  attempted.  Besides  an  excellent  special 
treatise  has  been  written  on  this  subject.*  However,  in  beginning  the 
commercial  production  of  raisins,  one  should  visit  the  raisin  farms  and 
packing-houses  during  the  harvest.  The  following  description  by  T.  C. 
White,  of  Fresno,  gives  an  outline  of  practice  in  the  vineyard : 

In  Fresno  picking  commences  about  the  first  of  September,  although  there 
have  been  seasons  when  it  occurred  as  early  as  the  20th  of  August.  The  grapes 
under  no  circumstances  should  be  picked  for  raisins  until  they  are  ripe.  There 
are  three  ways  by  which  to  ascertain  this :  First,  by  the  color,  which  should  be  a 
light  amber;  second,  by  the  taste;  and  third,  by  the  saccharometer,  which  is  by  far 
the  most  accurate.  A  grape  may  be  ripe,  and  not  have  the  proper  color,  when 
grown  entirely  in  the  shade.  The  juice  of  the  grape  should  contain  at  least 
twenty-five  per  cent  saccharine,  to  produce  a  good  raisin. 

The  method  of  drying  is  with  trays  placed  upon  the  ground.  The  almost 
entire  absence  of  dew  in  our  locality  greatly  facilitates  this  method.  The  trays 
are  usually  twenty-four  by  twenty-six  inches,  which  hold  about  twenty  pounds 
of  fruit,  and  should  produce  from  six  to  seven  pounds  of  raisins.  The  product 
of  a  vineyard  depends  largely  upon  its  age  and  favorable  conditions,  varying 
from  two  to  nine  tons  of  grapes  per  acre. 

The  trays  are  distributed  along  the  sides  of  the  roads,  from  which  they  are 
taken  by  the  pickers  as  they  are  needed.  As  the  grapes  are  picked  from  the 
vines,  all  imperfect  berries,  sticks,  and  dead  leaves  are  removed  from  the  bunches, 
which  are  then  placed  upon  the  trays,  right  side  up.  A  cluster  has  what  is  called 
a  right  and  a  wrong  side,  the  wrong  side  having  more  of  the  stems  exposed 
than  the  right  side.  Great  care  should  be  used  in  picking,  so  as  to. handle  the 
bunches  only  by  the  stem.  If  the  berries  come  in  contact  with  the  hands,  some 
of  the  bloom  will  be  removed,  which  will  injure  the  appearance  of  the  raisins. 
The  trays  are  placed,  after  filling,  between  the  vines,  one  end  being  elevated  so 
that  the  grapes  may  receive  the  more  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

Too  rapid  drying  is  not  desirable.  The  grapes  are  left  upon  the  trays  until 
about  two-thirds  dry,  which,  with  us,  will  be  from  six  to  eight  days.  They  are 
then  turned.  This  is  accomplished  by  placing  an  empty  tray  on  top  of  the  one 

*The  Raisin  Industry  by   Gustav  Eisen,   San   Francisco. 


METHOD   OF   CURING   RAISINS  459 

filled  with  partially-dried  raisins,  and  turning  them  both  over.  Then  take  off 
the  upper  or  original  tray,  and  you  have  the  raisins  turned  without  handling  or 
damage.  After  turning,  curing  will  proceed  more  rapidly,  and  frequently  is  com- 
pleted in  four  or  five  days.  During  this  time  they  should  be  carefully  watched 
to  prevent  any  from  becoming  too  dry.  When  it  is  found  they  are  dry  enough, 
the  trays  are  gathered  and  stacked  one  upon  another  as  high  as  convenient  for 
the  sorting  which  follows.  This  protects  them  from  the  sun  and  prevents  over- 
drying.  Stacking-  should  be  attended  to  early  in  the  morning,  while  the  stems 
and  berries  are  slightly  moist  and  cool  from  the  night  air,  as  they  will  retain 
this  moisture  after  being  transferred  to  the  sweat-boxes,  and  assist  in  quickening 
the  sweating  process. 

As  the  raisins  are  taken  off  the  trays,  some  of  the  berries  on  the  bunch  will 
be  dry  enough  and  a  few  will  not  be  sufficiently  cured.  To  remove  the  moist 
ones  would  destroy  the  appearance  of  the  cluster,  and  to  leave  them  out  longer 
would  shrivel  the  dry  ones,  hence  the  sweat-box.  The  moisture  is  diffused 
through  the  box,  some  being  absorbed  by  the  dry  raisins,  and  the  stems  also 
taking  their  share  are  thus  rendered  tough  and  pliable  and  easily  manipulated 
when  ready  for  packing. 

Sorting  and  grading  require  great  care  and  judgment,  and  although  a  tedious 
process,  it  greatly  facilitates  rapid  packing.  The  sweat-box  is  a  little  larger  than 
the  tray  and  about  eight  inches  deep,  and  contains  about  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  pounds  of  raisins.  Heavy  manila  paper  is  used  in  the  sweat-boxes, 
one  sheet  being  placed  in  the  bottom,  and  three  or  four  more  at  equal  distance 
as  the  filling  progresses.  The  object  of  the  paper  is  to  prevent  the  tangling  of 
the  stems  and  consequent  breaking  of  the  bunches  when  removed  for  packing. 

The  sorters  have  three  sweat-boxes,  one  for  the  first,  second  and  third  quali- 
ties, as  the  grade  will  justify.  The  bunches  should  be  handled  by  the  stem  and 
placed  carefully  in  the  sweat-boxes  to  avoid  breaking  the  stems ;  thereby  de- 
stroying the  symmetry  of  the  clusters.  Any  found  to  be  too  damp  are  returned 
to  the  trays  and  left  a  day  or  two  longer  in  the  sun.  To  ascertain  if  the  fruit 
is  perfectly  cured,  take  a  raisin  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger  and  roll  it 
gently  until  softened,  when  either  jelly  or  water  will  exude  from  the  stem  end — 
if  water,  it  requires  further  drying.  When  the  boxes  are  filled,  they  are  taken  to 
the  equalizer.  This  should  be  built  of  brick  or  adobe,  and  as  near  air-tight  as 
possible,  but  provided  with  windows  to  allow  ventilation  when  necessary.  The 
windows  should  have  shutters  to  keep  it  dark.  The  filled  boxes  are  placed  one 
exactly  above  another  to  a  convenient  height,  and  should  remain  from  ten  to 
twenty  days  or  more,  when  they  will  have  passed  through  the  sweating  process. 
When  the  raisins  are  sufficiently  equalized,  the  sweat-boxes  are  removed  to  the 
packing-room,  which  is  provided  with  tables,  presses,  scales,  etc. 

The  foregoing  relates  to  the  preparation  of  the  standard  clusters. 
Loose  raisins  are  now  being  produced  in  increasing  quantities.  Loose 
Muscatels  are  prepared  by  being  put  through  the  stemmer  and  grader. 
The  stemmer  removes  the  berries  from  the  stems,  and  the  grader,  by 
separating  according  to  size,  determines  the  grade.  During  the  last 
few  years  the  seeding  of  raisins  has  increased  rapidly,  and  large  estab- 
lishments for  this  work,  with  every  ingenious  machinery,  have  been 
erected.  Seeded  raisins  constitute  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
product. 

A  considerable  quantity  of  dipped  raisins  are  also  made  of  the 
Sultana  and  Thompson  seedless  grapes  and  of  loose  or  inferior  Mus- 
catels. A  lye  dip  of  about  one  pound  of  potash  to  twelve  gallons  of 
water  is  used,  and  the  solution  is  kept  boiling  hot.  The  ripe  fruit  is 
dipped  for  an  instant,  then  plunged  in  fresh  water  for  a  thorough 
rinsing,  and  then  placed  on  the  trays.  During  warm,  dry  weather  in 
the  interior,  the  raisins  are  dried  in  the  shade  by  leaving  the  trays  in 
piles,  but  if  cooler,  moister  weather  prevails,  the  trays  must  be  spread 
out.  The  product  is  a  handsome  amber  color. 


460  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

An  oil  dip  has  been  profitably  used  with  Thompson's  Seedless : 
One  quart  of  olive  oil ;  24  P°und  Greenbank  soda  and  3  quarts 
water  are  made  into  an  emulsion,  and  then  reduced  with  10  gallons 
water  in  the  dipping  tank,  adding  more  soda  to  get  lye-strength  enough 
to  cut  the  skins,  and  more  soda  has  to  be  added  from  time  to  time  to 
keep  up  the  strength.  The  grapes  are  dipped  in  this  solution  and 
sulphured  to  the  proper  color. 

Mr.  Hecke's  Way  With  Dipped  Raisins. — Much  experimenta- 
tion has  been  undertaken  by  California  growers  to  improve  the  process 
of  making  dipped  raisins.  The  following  is  the  method  devised  and 
largely  used  by  Mr.  G.  H.  Hecke  of  Woodland,  Yolo  County,  in 
handling  Thompson  and  Sultana  raisins : 

Before  drying  they  are  dipped  in  a  solution  of  sodium  bicarbonate,  which  just 
takes  the  bloom  off,  but  does  not  cut  the  skin.  This  reduces  the  time  of  drying 
about  half,  so  what  it  costs  in  one  way  it  saves  in  part  in  another.  A  crew  of 
seven  men  can  keep  two  vats  going  and  turn  out  1,600  trays  a  day,  500  trays  per 
ton  of  raisins. 

The  stock  solution  of  bicarbonate  is  a  pound  to  a  gallon  of  water.  It  is  diluted 
about  3  to  1,  the  proportion  varying  with  the  effect  on  the  grapes,  more  of  the 
stock  solution  being  added  as  desired.  The  grapes  are  dipped  in  wire  trays  in 
this  warm  solution  and  about  four  wire  trays  are  needed  to  a  vat.  A  thin  layer 
of  olive  oil  is  kept  on  the  surface  of  the  solution,  a  trace  of  which  touches  the 
surface  of  the  grapes  as  they  come  out  and  gives  them  the  right  color  and 
quality.  Only  a  tablespoonful  of  oil  is  added  at  a  time  and  the  actual  amount  of 
oil  used  is  very  small — about  one  gallon  to  500  trays. 

This  method  of  bleaching  is  held  to  be  vastly  superior  to  sulphur  drying.  It 
gives  as  fine  a  looking  raisin  as  the  sulphured,  the  raisin  has  a  natural  flavor 
that  is  very  attractive,  and  is  better  in  other  ways.  The  raisins  are  sun  dried  in 
eight  to  ten  days,  the  trays  being  stacked  if  rain  threatens,  artificial  drying  not 
being  necessary.  The  total  cost  of  making  raisins  is  about  $25  per  ton,  including 
harvesting. 

GRAPE  SYRUP 

The  manufacture  of  grape  syrup,  which  was  formerly  of  consider- 
able prominence  as  a  means  of  disposing  of  wine  grapes,  has  recently 
received  less  attention  because  of  low  prices  in  competition  with  the 
vast  amount  of  syrup  available  from  the  sugar  refineries. 


MACHINE  EVAPORATION 

Although  California  summer  conditions  of  adequate  heat  and  dry 
air  favor  open-air  evaporation  to  such  an  extent  that  nearly  all  our 
product  of  cured  fruit  is  secured  in  that  way,  there  are  some  parts  of 
the  State  where  artificial  heat  would  be  a  safer  recourse  and  there  are 
late  fruits  which  sometimes  collide  with  early  rains  in  a  way  to  cause 
losses  even  in  our  best  sun-curing  regions. 

It  is  interesting,  therefore,  to  describe  a  machine  evaporator  con- 
structed upon  true  principles  and  having  capacity  sufficiently  large 
to  encourage  its  use.  Mr.  L.  W.  Parsons  of  Campbell,  Santa  Clara 
county,  has  given  most  of  his  life  to  the  design  and  construction  of 
fruit  evaporators,  and  secured  patents  thereupon  which  have  expired 
and  are  now  public  property.  In  the  Pacific  Rural  Press  of  June  19 


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462  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

and  26,  1909,  he  gave  his  conclusions  on  the  desirability  of  machine 
evaporation  and  a  design  for  the  construction  of  an  evaporator  which 
embodied  all  his  best  work  in  this  line.  The  accompanying  drawings 
and  description  are  from  Mr.  Parson's  writings : 

A  fruit  drying  chamber  capable  of  holding  about  two  tons  is  about  as  large 
as  one  heater  can  well  handle.  Wire  trays  two  feet  wide  by  five  feet  long  are 
as  large  as  one  strong  man  can  conveniently  handle;  he  might  prefer  them 
shorter ;  in  fact,  if  the  smaller  tray  would  give  a  drier  of  sufficient  capacity  to 
to  meet  the  demands  of  the  owner,  he  could  make  the  trays  two  by  four  feet, 
with  a  narrower  furnace,  to  correspond.  Where  two  men  are  always  available, 
trays  three  by  six  feet  have  been  found  to  work  well. 

A  drier  five  feet  wide  and  twenty-four  feet  long,  having  ten  trays  in  its  length 
and  twelve  trays  high,  holds  120  trays  2  by  5  feet,  or  a  total  drying  surface  of 
1,200  square  feet,  which  at  the  rate  of  3  pounds  per  foot  give  a  total  of  3,600 
pounds  at  one  time :  that  is,  it  would  take  that  much  gross  weight  of  fruit  before 
cutting  to  fill  the  trays.  Large  fruit  would  amount  to  more,  and.  small  fruit  or 
culls  might  not  go  above  two  pounds  to  the  foot. 

By  making  the  drier  one  or  two  trays  longer  and  higher,  and  a  foot  or  so 
wider,  the  capacity  may  be  materially  increased.  But  if  much  more  capacity  is 
desired,  it  would  be  better  to  build  another  drier,  or  several  of  them,  alongside  of 
it,  which  would  work  satisfactorily. 

The  fruit  drying  chamber  rests  on  top  of  the  hot  air  chamber,  which  is 
surrounded  by  brick  or  cement  walls  about  eight  inches  thick,  and  is  as  long  and 
wide  as  the  fruit  chamber  above.  The  height  of  these  walls  depends  on  the  size 
and  shape  of  the  heater  enclosed  by  them.  The  furnace  is  a  very  important 
factor:  it  must  be  strong,  not  easily  burned  out,  smoke-tight  in  all  its  joints  and 
flues,  with  caps  or  covers  so  placed  to  facilitate  cleaning  out  soot  and  ashes. 
There  must  be  room  between  the  sides  of  the  furnace  and  the  side  walls  to  allow 
for  circulation  of  the  air  to  be  heated. 

Fresh  air  enters  this  hot  air  chamber  through  openings  about  a  foot  square 
at  the  bottom  in  front  between  the  furnace  and  the  side  walls;  passes  along  on 
the  sides  and  top  of  furnace  and  flues  until  it  reaches  the  back  end  of  the  hot 
air  chamber,  where  it  passes  up  through  an  opening  into  the  fruit  chamber  above, 

The  next,  and  perhaps  the  most  critical,  part  in  the  construction,  is  the  sheet 
iron  floor  which  covers  the  furnace  and  flues  and  separates  them  from  the  fruit 
chamber  above.  This  iron  floor  is  made  of  either  black  or  galvanized  iron,  not 
thinner  than  No.  24;  thicker  would  be  better.  It  rests  on  rods  or  bars  of  angle 
or  T  iron  stretched  from  wall  to  wall,  with  ends  built  into  the  walls.  These 
rods  are  spaced  about  two  feet  apart.  The  sheets  of  iron  should  be  riveted  or 
bolted  together.  The  edges  of  this  iron  floor  should  project  into  and  be  imbedded  in 
the  brick  walls  in  front  and  along  the  two  side  walls  as  far  back  as  the  floor 
goes  to  the  other  end  of  the  drier.  Cover  this  floor  with  an  inch  or  so  of  sand 
or  fine  earth,  so  as  to  stop  up  all  cracks.  At  the  back  end  of  drier  this  iron  floor 
is  cut  short  one  foot,  allowing  an  opening  of  one  by  about  five  feet  to  allow  the 
hot  air  from  the  heater  below  the  iron  floor  to  pass  up  into  the  fruit  chamber 
above.  This  floor  must  be  made  tight  everywhere,  so  no  hot  air  can  possibly 
leak  upward  and  scorch  the  fruit  or  the  woodwork  above. 

The  brick  walls  should  be  built  about  eighteen  inches  above  the  iron  floor,  so 
that  the  wooden  frame  which  rests  on  top  will  be  safe  from  burning. 

The  furnace  may  be  about  four  feet  high  by  three  feet  wide,  with  an  ash 
pit  in  the  bottom  part,  and  six  or  eight  or  more  feet  long.  This  will  handle 
four-foot  cordwood  conveniently  and  make  a  liberal  combustion  chamber  for  the 
flames.  It  may  be  a  cylinder  or  shaped  like  a  boiler,  or  have  brick  walls,  with  a 
cast  iron  arch  on  top.  Or  it  may  be  a  big  wrought  iron  box  made  of  quarter-inch 
boiler  iron,  braced  with  angle  iron  to  prevent  warping. 

A  smoke  pipe  one  foot  in  diameter  connects  with  the  back  end  of  the  furnace, 
passes  horizontally  to  near  the  back  end  of  the  drier,  then  by  a  short  elbow 
doubles  back,  coming  to  the  front  over  the  top  of  the  furnace,  and  then,  by  an 
elbow,  to  right  or  left  through  the  side  brick  wall  to  connect  with  the  pipe  inside 
of  the  ventilator  shaft  or  flue. 


CONSTRUCTION    OF   A    FRUIT   DRIER  463 

If  the  furnace  is  four  feet  high  and  the  pipe  above  it  one  foot  thick,  allow 
six  inches  space  between  the  top  of  the  furnace  and  the  pipe  and  between  the 
pipe  and  sheet-iron  floor  above  it;  then  add  the  eighteen  inches  of  brick  wall 
above  the  iron  floor;  we  get  a  total  height  of  seven  and  a  half  feet  from  the 
ground  to  the  top  of  wall. 

But  only  the  furnace  needs  to  be  as  deep  as  this,  and  it  can  be  placed  in  a 
pit  at  one  end  of  the  drier.  The  brick  walls  back  of  the  furnace  do  not  need  to 
go  so  far  down  by  perhaps  two  feet.  The  smoke  pipe  leaving  the  furnace  close 
to  its  top  can  rest  on  a  brick  lying  on  top  of  the  ground,  so  the  part  of  the  heat- 
ing chamber  holding  the  long  flues  may  be  shallower,  thus  saving  some  expense 
in  masonry.  The  top  of  the  brick  wall  should  be  level  all  the  way  around  and 
even  with  the  floor  of  the  house,  so  the  operator  can  easily  handle  the  trays 
on  the  upper  track.  Do  not  insert  woodwork  of  any  kind  into  the  brickwork. 

Lay  2  x  4-inch  sills  on  top  of  the  brick  walls  all  around  the  four  sides.  Cut 
your  upright  studding  of  2x4  joists  six  and  a  half  feet  high,  spaced  two  feet 
apart,  and  nail  a  2  x  4  plate  on  top.  This  is  for  the  two  long  sides.  The  ends 
of  the  drying  chamber  are  to  be  supplied  with  close-fitting  doors.  Nail  surfaced 
matched  lumber  on  the  inner  face  of  the  studding.  These  boards  had  better  be 
of  redwood,  so  as  not  to  gum  up  the  trays  with  pitch. 

These  two  side  walls  should  be  perfectly  straight,  plumb  and  level  and  at 
equal  distance  apart  at  all  points,  so  the  trays  will  work  true  and  not  bind  or 
slip  off  the  tracks.  Nail  to  these  walls  tracks  or  slides  made  of  strips  one  and 
one-half  inch  square.  Fasten  to  these  tracks  wheels,  known  to  the  hardware 
men  as  "sash  rollers,"  one  inch  in  diameter  and  spaced  ten  inches  apart  along  the 
track.  Cut  a  little  notch  in  the  edge  of  the  track,  so  the  wheel  can  turn  freely, 
with  the  big  side  of  the  wheel  upward.  Put  twelve  of  these  tracks  on  each  wall, 
spaced  six  inches  apart,  beginning  six  inches  from  the  ceiling  to  the  top  of  the 
first  track,  then  six  inches  to  the  top  of  the  next  track,  etc.  One  strong  16-penny 
wire  nail  driven  into  each  stud  will  hold  these  tracks  securely.  Fasten  the  wheels 
with  screws  to  the  track  on  a  work  bench  before  nailing  them  to  the  walls. 

Nail  matched  lumber  on  top  of  the  plates  from  side  to  side  for  a  ceiling. 
This  wooden  shell  will  have  to  be  braced  from  the  outside  so  it  can  stand  up 
firmly  with  its  load  of  fruit.  • 

The  ventilator  or  exhaust  flue  should  be  about  two  by  three  feet  inside  and 
extend  about  twenty  feet  above  the  top  of  the  drier.  Build  it  against  the  side  of 
the  drier,  resting  on  top  of  the  brick  wall,  close  to  the  front  end  of  the  drier. 

The  smoke  pipe  must  be  carried  by  a  suitable  elbow  from  its  position  above 
the  furnace  through  the  side  brick  wall  to  a  point  under  the  center  of  the  venti- 
lator, thence  up  through  it  to  the  top.  A  sheet-iron  weather  cap  on  top  should 
protect  the  ventilator  and  smoke  pipe.  Make  the  bottom  of  the  ventilator  where 
smoke  pipe  enters,  air  tight  to  ensure  good  draft.  Provide  caps  or  covers  at 
the  elbows  to  facilitate  cleaning  out  the  soot. 

On  the  side  of  the  drying  chamber,  at  the  bottom,  cut  a  hole  into  the  venti- 
lator for  the  passage  of  the  damp  air  from  the  fruit  into  the  ventilator.  This 
opening  should  be  the  shape  of  a  right  angled  triangle,  in  such  position  as  though 
the  bottom  cover  of  the  side  wall  were  being  cut  off.  The  bottom  and  perpen- 
dicular side  of  opening  are  to  be  three  feet  long.  The  lower  tracks  go  past  this 
opening  to  carry  trays  to  the  door.  Some  kind  of  a  small  guide  rail  should  be 
placed  to  prevent  the  corners  of  the  trays  from  striking  against  the  edge  of 
opening.  The  trays  are  to  be  one-half  inch  shorter  than  the  drier  is  wide  inside, 
so  as  to  move  freely  without  danger  of  being  bound.  Two  or  three  rods  of 
half-inch  iron  provided  with  screws  and  nuts  should  pass  through  from  side  to 
side  of  drying  chamber  about  half  way  from  top  to  bottom,  to  prevent  the  walls 
of  the  drier  from  warping  or  bulging,  or  else  the  trays  will  drop  off  the  tracks. 

Make  four  sides  of  the  trays  of  stuff  one  and  a  half  inches  square,  notched 
at  the  corners  of  trays.  Tack  on  No.  3  mesh  galvanized  wire  cloth.  Over  this 
nail  strips  one  inch  thick  by  one  and  a  half  inches  wide  for  runners  to  roll  over 
the  wheels.  Nail  a  similar  strip  across  the  middle  of  the  tray  to  prevent  the  wire 
cloth  from  sagging.  From  twenty-five  to  fifty  extra  trays  will  be  found  con- 
venient in  operating  the  drier.  The  wire  cloth  is  two  feet  wide.  Make  the  tray 
frames  two  feet  one  inch  wide.  With  average  prices  for  labor  and  material  this 
drier  can  be  built  in  a  substantial  manner  for  about  $500. 


464  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

To  Operate  the  Drier. — Get  started  right  by  taking  all  day  in  gradually  filling 
the  drier,  so  that  by  night  time  the  first  trays  will  be  within  a  few  hours  of  being 
finished.  Start  a  good  fire  before  putting  in  the  fruit,  so  as  to  burn  out  the  oily 
smells  of  the  new  ironwork.  Use  the  eight  lower  tracks  for  the  fresh  fruit  Put 
eight  trays  in  at  a  time,  one  tray  on  each  of  the  eight  lower  tracks  about  every 
forty-five  minutes,  starting  them  at  the  front  end  over  the  furnace  and  pushing 
along.  After  ten  lots  have  been  so  placed  the  eight  lower  tracks  will  be  full. 
Then  take  out  one  tray  from  each  track  at  the  back  end,  and  put  them  in  on  the 
upper  four  tracks,  two  trays  on  a  track,  to  be  gradually  pushed  along  from  time 
to  time,  as  often  as  fresh  trays  are  put  in  at  the  front,  until  the  machine  is  full 
and  the  driest  trays  will  be  at  the  front  end  on  the  upper  four  tracks.  The 
fresh,  wet  fruit  will  in  this  way  have  its  vapor  drawn  out  through  the  ventilator 
close  by,  without  wetting  the  fruit  which  is  partly  dry. 

As  the  fruit  gets  drier  it  is  moved  into  drier  and  warmer  air  at  the  back  end. 
But  this  fresh  air  right  from  the  heater  below  is  180  degrees  hot  and  unsafe  for 
fruit  to  finish  in,  so  it  is  started  back  on  the  upper  tracks  to  finish  in  a  milder 
temperature,  with  enough  vapor  in  the  air  to  allow  the  fruit  to  finish  gradually 
without  danger  of  scorching,  turning  out  the  fruit  in  a  soft  and  flexible  condition, 
evenly  cured  and  right  in  color.  This  process  is  peculiar  to  this  evaporator  and 
yields  the  best  results  in  quality  of  work  done. 

If  fruit  is  rushed  too  fast  through  the  drier  it  will  get  back  to  the  front  and 
top  too  soon  and  will  be  too  wet  to  dry  readily  in  the  lower  temperature. 

If  the  beginner  gets  caught  this  way,  it  will  be  better,  after  waiting  a  little, 
to  take  it  out,  and,  if  still  too  wet,  carry  it  back  to  the  other  end  and  put  in  on 
the  upper  four  tracks  again  to  gradually  go  forward  again.  After  a  little  ex- 
perience he  will  learn  how  and  when  to  move  the  fruit. 

As  to  variations  of  heat  in  different  parts  of  the  drier  and  the  effects  thereof, 
it  may  be  added  that  the  thermometer  hanging  in  the  current  of  air  just  as  it 
strikes  the  fruit  may  register  190  degrees  and  do  no  harm,  for  the  fruit  at  that 
end  of  the  drier  has  enough  moisture  to  save  it.  The  air  cools  rapidly,  and 
when  it  reaches  the  other  end  of  the  drier  where  the  fruit  on  the  top  tracks 
is  nearly  dry,  the  temperature  will  be  about  40  degrees  cooler.  This  is  one  of 
the  most  valuable  points  in  this  evaporator,  finishing  the  fruit  in  a  lower  tem- 
perature and  yet  with  but  little  moisture  in  the  air. 

Wood  or  coal  fires  will  fluctuate  in  heat,  and  a  careless  operator  might  allow 
the  temperature  to  get  to  200  or  210  degrees,  but,  if  it  does  not  last  more  than  a 
few  minutes,  and  as  the  fruit  is  not  too  near  being  finished  at  the  exposed  end, 
no  harm  is  done.  A  thermometer  resting  on  the  tray  at  the  back  end  lying 
between  the  fruit  will  show  about  10  degrees  lower  temperature  than  when 
hanging  clear  in  the  draft  at  that  point. 

While  drying  the  trays  should  not  touch  the  ends  of  the  drier,  but  be  pushed 
back  about  a  foot  and  a  half  from  the  doors  to  allow  room  for  free  circulation 
of  air  at  the  back  end  of  drier  and  down  at  the  front  end.  It  takes  sixteen  to 
twenty-four  hours  to  dry  the  fruit,  according  to  kind  and  size.  Apples  are  dried 
in  six  to  eight  hours. 

The  furnace  may  be  made  to  use  any  fuel.  An  oil  burner  is  the  best,  because 
the  heat  can  be  kept  steadily  at  the  maximum. 


PART  NINE:    FRUIT  PROTECTION 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 
CALIFORNIA  METHODS  WITH  INJURIOUS  INSECTS 

The  California  climate,  which  so  favors  tree  and  vine  by  a  long, 
mild,  growing  season  also  enables  some  insects  to  multiply  much  more 
rapidly  than  they  do  in  wintry  climes ;  some  having  several  distinct 
broods,  others  carrying  on  the  work  of  reproduction  and  destruction  of 
plants  nearly  the  year  round.  The  difficulties  of  the  problem  of  the 
control  of  injurious  insects  are  constantly  being  increased  because 
new  pests,  in  spite  of  the  most  careful  efforts  to  keep  them  outside 
our  boundaries,  occasionally  find  their  way  into  our  orchards  and  vine- 
yards. Furthermore  native  species,  feeding,  unnoticed  perhaps,  upon 
wild  growths  have  found,  in  certain  instances,  that  cultivated  plants 
offer  to  them  most  satisfactory  food  and  then  suddenly  become  a 
factor  in  the  horticulturists'  problem, 

Undoubtedly  parasitic  and  predaceous  insects  preying  upon  the 
injurious  species  found  in  the  fruit  plantations  are  of  assistance,  in 
greater  or  lesser  measure,  in  reducing  the  pests,  and  this  service  is 
being  promoted  by  the  introduction  of  beneficial  insects  from  other 
parts  of  the  world.  There  are  many  of  our  native  species  of  insects, 
also  syrphus  and  ichneumon  flies,  ladybirds,  etc.,  that  are  valuable  in 
this  regard.  Other  factors  also,  such  as  untoward  weather-conditions 
at  the  time  of  hatching,  bacterial  and  fungous  diseases  of  insects,  etc., 
assist  the  horticulturist  in  his  warfare  against  injurious  insects.  It  is 
also  a  fact  that  California  conditions  have  demanded  and  favored  the 
development  of  ways  and  means  for  the  suppression  of  orchard  and 
vineyard  pests,  and  methods  and  appliances  have  been  invented  which 
have  demonstrated  notable  efficiency  and  value. 

While  the  literature  upon  the  subject  of  insect  pests  in  California 
is  quite  extensive,  much  of  it  is  beyond  the  reach  of  the  general 
reader.  Nevertheless  there  are  a  number  of  publications  which  should 
be  secured  and  studied  by  every  fruit  grower.  These  are  the  bulletins 
and  reports  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  the  University 
of  California,  at  Berkeley  (from  which  many  of  the  following  state- 
ments are  taken)  ;  of  the  State  Board  of  Horticulture,  at  Sacramento; 
and  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  at  Washington.  A  most  useful  addition  to  the  horti- 
culturist's library  will  be  found  in  Kellogg's  "American  Insects,"  pub- 
lished by  Henry  Holt  and  Company,  New  York.  This  excellent  work 
of  Professor  Vernon  Kellogg,  of  Stanford  University,  is  particularly 
valuable  because  of  its  California  observations  and  point  of  view.  The 
latest  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  specific  and  practically  valuable 
review  of  fruit  pests  and  their  control  is  "Injurious  and  Beneficial 
465 


466  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Insects  of  California,"  by  E.  O.  Essig,  State  Board  of  Horticulture, 
Sacramento,  1913.  Furthermore  as  the  study  of  the  pests  and  the 
invention  of  means  for  their  destruction  are  continually  progressing 
one  can  only  keep  himself  up  to  date  and  enable  himself  to  profit  by 
improvements,  by  diligent  reading  of  California's  periodicals  devoted 
to  practical  horticulture. 

CLASSES  OF  INSECTS 

In  order  to  arrange  injurious  insects  in  classes  in  a  popular  way, 
the  grouping  here  will  be  based  upon  the  character  of  the  work  they 
do.  This  arrangement  has  been  followed  by  other  writers  and  is 
perhaps  better  than  attempting  to  group  the  insects  which  prey  upon 
any  single  tree  or  plant,  because  injurious  insects  seldom  restrict 
themselves  to  a  single  food  plant.  Therefore  the  grouping  will  be  as 
follows  : 

(1)  Insects  destroying  foliage; 

(2)  Insects  upon  the  bark  or  upon  the  surface  of  leaf  and  fruit; 

(3)  Insects  boring  into  the  twig,  stem  or  root; 

(4)  Insects  boring  into  the  pulp  of  fruits. 


INSECTS  DESTROYING  FOLIAGE 

Cut  Worm's  and  Army  Worms. — These  are  the  larvae  of  Noc- 
tuid  moths,  which  often  become  abundant  over  limited  areas  and 
do  much  damage  to  trees  and  plants.  Cut  worms  and  Army  worms 
are  terms  applied  to  the  same  insects  in  California.  In  ordinary  years 
they  are  not  present  in  sufficient  numbers  to  cause  much  concern,  and 
in  such  years  they  are  known  simply  as  cut  worms.  When  all  condi- 
tions are  favorable,  however,  certain  species  develop  in  enormous 
numbers  and  having  exhausted  the  food  supply  where  they  breed,  they 
begin  to  migrate  or  march,  commonly  in  a  definite  direction,  as  an 
army  in  search  of  new  food.  When  they  thus  appear  in  such  large 
numbers  and  take  on  the  migrating  habit  they  are  called  army  worms. 

Some  of  the  caterpillars  have  the  habit  of  climbing  up  vines  and 
trees  and  eating  off  the  buds  in  the  early  spring.  These  are  called 
climbing  cut  worms.  Others  remain  at  or  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  feed  by  cutting  off  the  plants  at  this  point.  They  are 
more  commonly  found  in  the  grass  lands,  but  very  frequently  attack 
cultivated  crops,  particularly  on  land  that  was  in  grass  the  previous 
year. 

Of  the  methods  used  to  protect  trees  and  plants  from  cut  worms, 
poisoned  bait  is  probably  the  most  common.  This  consists  of  bran 
and  molasses  or  other  sweet  substance  poisoned  with  arsenic  and 
distributed  in  handfuls  about  the  plants.  The  proportions  are  as 
follows :  forty  pounds  of  bran,  two  gallons  of  cheap  molasses,  and 
five  pounds  of  arsenic.  Cheap  glycerine  may  be  used  to  prevent  the 
mixture  from  drying.  This  will  be  eaten  by  the  worms  in  preference, 
usually,  to  the  plants  which  it  is  desired  to  protect. 


CUT   WORMS   AND   CANKER   WORMS  467 

Cut  worms  and  army  worms  may  also  be  captured  by  means  of 
traps.  Because  of  their  habit  of  feeding  at  night  and  remaining  con- 
cealed during  the  day,  pieces  of  boards  may  be  placed  on  the  ground 
around  the  growth  to  be  protected  and  these  may  be  turned  over 
during  the  day  and  the  worms  killed. 

In  case  of  outbreaks  of  army  worms  the  most  important  and 
successful  means  of  fighting  them  is  to  keep  them  out  of  the  orchard 
or  vineyard  entirely.  This  can  be  successfully  done  if  they  are  dis- 
covered in  time,  or  if  already  in  one  portion,  they  can  be  kept  from 
spreading  over  the  rest  of  the  property.  They  travel  in  immense 
numbers  in  a  definite  direction,  coming  generally  from  an  adjoining 
or  nearby  grain  field.  If  a  Jpurrow  is  plowed  along  the  side  of  the 
place  to  be  protected  it  will  effectively  stop  their  progress.  This  fur- 
row should  be  plowed  as  deep  as  possible,  with  the  vertical  side  next  to 
the  field  to  be  protected.  It  can  be  further  trimmed  with  a  spade, 
preferably  cutting  under  slightly,  making  a  smooth  surface,  over 
which  few  if  any,  of  the  worms  will  make  their  way.  Above  this 
shoulder  a  fine  pulverized  earth  should  slope  as  abruptly  upward  as 
possible.  If  any  of  the  worms  succeed  in  climbing  up  over  the 
smooth  surface  made  by  the  spade  they  will  be  pretty  sure  to  fall 
back  as  they  reach  this  fine  loose  earth  in  an  attempt  to  ascend  over 
the  projecting  shoulder.  Pestholes  should  be  dug  on  the  straight 
edge  of  the  furrow  every  fifteen  or  twenty  feet.  The  worms  in  failing 
to  scale  the  vertical  side  of  the  furrow  will  crawl  along  in  the  bottom 
and  fall  into  these  holes.  Here  they  may  be  killed  by  pouring  in  a 
little  crude  oil,  or  by  pouring  in  a  little  distillate  and  dropping  in  a 
match,  thus  burning  them,  or  the  holes  filled  in  and  others  dug.  They 
may  also  be  killed  in  the  furrow  by  sprinkling  them  with  kerosene  or 
by  pouring  a  strip  of  crude  oil  along  the  furrow. 

Canker  Worms. — These  are  destructive  leaf-feeding  caterpillars, 
commonly  known  also  as  inchworms,  loopers  or  measuring  worms, 
because  of  the  peculiar  looping  gait  by  which  they  move  about.  The 
male  moths  are  slender  bodied  and  have  broad,  thin  wings,  while  the 
females  are  wingless,  heavy-bodied  creatures. 

While  these  caterpillars  can  in  large  measure  be  controlled  by 
spraying  with  lead  arsenate  or  Paris  green,  it  is  by  far  the  best  to 
use  the  trap  method  of  control  and  avoid  having  them  upon  the 
trees  at  all.  The  trap  method  depends  for  its  success  upon  the  fact 
that  the  wingless  female  moth  upon  emerging  from  her  cocoon  in 
the  ground  immediately  crawls  up  the  trunk  of  the  nearby  tree  and 
places  her  eggs  upon  the  twigs.  By  trapping  the  females  on  their 
way  up  into  the  trees  no  eggs  can  be  placed  near  the  foliage  and  the 
caterpillars  hatching  from  them  can  do  no  damage.  The  traps  are 
made  thus:  Take  No.  16  or  No.  14  wire  cloth  in  strips  six  inches 
wide,  draw  and  tack  the  top  edge  close  to  the  trunk  of  the  tree  over  a 
bandage  of  cloth  which  is  put  on  first  to  make  the  joint  tight.  The 
lower  edge  should  flare  out  about  an  inch  from  the  tree  all  around. 
This  trap  will  need  rather  frequent  cleaning  while  the  moths  are  active. 

Tent  Caterpillars. — Several  species  of  hairy  caterpillars  called 
"tent  caterpillars,"  or  "web  worms,"  from  their  spinning  covers  of 


468  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

cobweb-like  material,  under  which  they  take  shelter  in  large  colonies; 
but  one,  at  least,  of  the  group  does  not  spin  a  web,  though  it  lives 
in  clusters  on  the  tree.  The  worms  can  be  killed  by  cutting  off  and 
burning  the  twig  holding  the  cluster  or  by  burning  the  colonies  in 
place  with  a  torch  on  the  end  of  a  pole,  or  by  spraying  the  foliage 
with  lead  arsenate  or  Paris  green.  The  pest  can  be  reduced  while 
pruning  by  carefully  collecting  and  burning  the  egg  clusters,  which 
encircle  the  twig. 

Red-Humped  Caterpillar. — Striped  caterpillars,  not  hairy,  but 
having  two  rows  of  black  spines  along  the  back,  also  living  in  clusters ; 
of  reddish  color  with  yellow  and  white  lines;  a  short  distance  back 
of  the  red  head  of  the  caterpillar  is  a  red  hump  on  which  are  four 
black  spines ;  black  spines  are  also  scattered  over  the  body,  but  smaller 
than  those  on  the  back.  Spray  with  lead  arsenate  or  Paris  green,  or 
cut  off  and  burn  colonies. 

Caterpillar  of  Tussock  Moth. — A  conspicuous  caterpillar  with 
four  short,  brush-like  tufts  on  its  back,  and  two  long,  black  plumes 
at  the  front,  and  one  at  the  rear  of  the  body.  This  leaf-eater  is  found 
on  apple,  pear,  plum  and  sometimes  on  other  fruit  trees,  also  on  the 
walnut  and  oak.  The  caterpillars  are  peculiarly  resistant  to  arsenical 
sprays  and  can  not  be  successfully  controlled  by  these.  The  larva 
spins  a  cocoon  sometimes  in  the  fold  of  a  leaf,  more  commonly  in 
crotches  or  rough  places  on  the  bark,  or  even  on  adjacent  buildings 
Or  fences,  and  the  female,  after  emerging  from  the  cocoon,  deposits 
her  eggs  upon  the  outside  of  it.  The  insect  is  fortunately  very  freely 
parasitized  in  the  egg  form  and  prevented  from  wide  injury.  It  can 
be  controlled  by  destroying  the  egg  masses  during  pruning,  as  they 
are  white  and  very  conspicuous. 

Pear  and  Cherry  Slug. — A  small,  slimy,  dark-colored  worm,  with 
the  fore  part  of  the  body  notably  larger  than  the  rear  part,  eating 
the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves  but  not  usually  making  holes  through 
them.  The  insect  can  be  checked  by  throwing  fine  road  dust  or  air- 
slacked  lime  over  the  tree,  which  cakes  upon  the  slime  of  the  worm 
and  destroys  it.  On  a  large  scale  an  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green 
spray  is  best. 

Saw-Fly  Worm. — There  are  several  larvae  of  saw-flies  which 
do  much  injury  to  pear  trees,  currants,  etc.,  by  eating  the  whole  leaf 
substance  except  the  larger  ribs.  The  worms  are  small,  not  slimy  like 
the  pear  slug,  the  one  infesting  the  pear  being  about  half  an  inch 
when  fully  grown.  Its  general  appearance  and  work  are  shown  by 
the  engravings.  The  most  available  remedy  is  an  arsenate  of  lead 
or  Paris  green  spray. 

Large  Caterpillars  on  Grape-vines — The  grape-vine  is  often 
seriously  injured  by  the  attacks  of  very  large  leaf-eating  worms  two 
inches  and  upwards  in  length,  sometimes  with  a  large  horn,  or  spine, 
sometimes  without.  They  are  larvae  of  several  species  of  Sphinx 
moths  or  hawk-moths.  The  worms  when  new  hatched  can  be  killed 
by  an  arsenical  spray  or  by  hand-picking.  The  numbers  of  worms 
can  be  reduced  by  killing  the  large  moths  which  are  abundant  at 


THE   APHIS   OR    LEAF    LOUSE 


469 


nightfall  on  beds  of  verbenas,  or  other  garden  flowers.  These  worms 
are  related  to  the  other  large  caterpillars  which  feed  on  tobacco, 
tomatoes,  etc. 

Leaf  Eating  Beetles. — There  are  many  beetles,  large  and  sm^ll, 
which  infest  grape  leaves.  They  can  all  be  reduced  by  the  use  of 
arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green,  or  those  which  drop  to  the  ground 
when  disturbed  may  be  collected  in  large  numbers  on  sheets  spread 
below. 

The  most  notable  of  these  because  of  its  evil  work  in  the  central 
part  of  the  State,  and  because  the  grub  destroys  the  roots  of  the  vine 
causing  it  to  be  called  the  "grape  root  worm,"  and  the  beetle  riddles 
the  leaves  and  young  fruit.  It  is  Adoxus  vitis  and  a  special  study  of 
it  has  been  made  by  Professor  H.  J.  Quayle,  of  the  University  Experi- 
ment Station,  the  results  of  which  are  published  in  Bulletin  195  of 
the  station  and  remedies  suggested.  The  beetle  is  about  one-fifth  of 
an  inch  in  length  and  is  black  or  brown. 


INSECTS  UPON  BARK  OR  SURFACE  OF  LEAVES 
OF  FRUIT 

Leaf  Lice. — Leaves  of  fruit  trees,  especially  the  apple  and  plum, 
are  sometimes  almost  covered  with  lice  or  aphides  of  different  colors, 
from  light  green  to  black,  some  individuals  having  wings  and  some 
wingless.  Available  remedies  for  all  these  leaf  lice  are  the  kerosene 
emulsions  and  other  mixtures  which  will  be  given  later  as  summer 


Wingless  partheno-genetic  female.  Wingless  female. 

Forms  of  Aphids  or  Plant  Lice. 


470  CALIFORNIA   FRUITS  :   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

washes  for  scale  insects,  with  a  spray  nozzle  which  sends  spray 
upwards,  so  as  to  reach  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves.  Very  often 
these  pests  are  apparently  cleared  out  by  lady-birds  and  other  insects 
which  devour  them.  The  engraving  shows  the  general  form  of  the 
aphis  tribe. 

Thrips. — Very  minute  insects  infesting  buds,  leaves  and  blos- 
soms of  pears,  prunes,  cherries,  peaches  and  many  other  trees  and 
plants.  The  attack  on  leaves  and  buds  causes  them  to  wither  and  fall 
off.  Indeed  complete  defoliation  may  follow  their  attack.  When 
thrips  infest  fruit  blossoms  the  essential  parts  are  eaten  off  by  the 
insects  and  the  attacked  blossom  sets  no  fruit.  Much  damage  is  done 
by  the  insect  and  thorough  investigation  has  been  pursued  by  several 
investigators  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology  of  the  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  and  by  the  California  Experiment  Station.  Early 
results  indicate  that  the  insect  is  capable  of  control  by  spring  spraying 
with  several  insecticides.  A  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture bulletin  and  a  bulletin  by  Earl  Morris,  County  Commissioner  of 
Santa  Clara,  by  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley, 
both  deal  with  this  problem.  The  tobacco  emulsion  of  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture  is  considered  the  standard  spray.  It  is 
as  follows:  Water,  12  gallons;  whale  oil  soap,  30  Ibs. ;  distillate  (32 
to  34  degrees  Baume),  20  Ibs.  For  spraying,  use  one  part  to  twenty 
parts  of  water  and  then  add  to  each  200  gallons  of  the  spray,  one  pint 
of  tobacco  extract  containing  40  per  cent  nicotine  or  about  three  and 
one-half  gallons  of  tobacco  extract  containing  2%  per  cent  of  nicotine. 

Spraying  can  be  done  with  safety  to  opening  buds,  but  should  not 
be  sprayed  on  trees  in  full  bloom,  and  its  use  can  be  resumed  imme- 
diately after  the  blossoms  have  fallen,  and  later  on  the  foliage  for 
adults  and  larvae.  The  first  application  should  properly  be  made  when 
the  thrips  are  coming  from  the  ground  in  maximum  numbers  and 
before  the  cluster  buds  are  too  far  advanced.  This  period  in  the  San 
Jose  district  is  early  in  March,  but  it  of  course  differs  for  the  several 
varieties  of  fruits.  An  effort  should  be  made  to  kill  all  adults  in  an 
orchard  before  March  15,  when  practically  all  thrips  are  out  of  the 
ground  and  when  egg-laying  on  the  stems  of  leaves  or  bloom  begins. 

The  necessity  for  spraying  will  depend  upon  the  number  in  a 
blossom.  As  the  blossoms  are  barely  opening  the  thrips  should  be 
shaken  out  of  a  few  blossoms  on  white  paper.  If  only  two  or  three 
are  in  a  blossom,  it  is  probable  that  spraying  may  be  omitted.  If 
they  are  more  numerous,  it  is  quite  certain  that  spraying  will  be 
required. 

Vine  Hoppers. — Very  minute,  yellowish,  jumping  insects  infest- 
ing  grape-vines  very  early  in  the  season,  and  multiplying  rapidly.  The 
vine  hopper  (often  called  incorrectly  the  vine  thrips)  is  the  most 
widely  distributed  and  most  uniformly  present  of  all  the  grape  insects 
occurring  in  the  State.  It  occurs  in  injurious  numbers,  however, 
chiefly  in  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  Valleys.  It  is  also  present 
in  the  coast  counties,  but  rarely  in  sufficient  numbers  to  do  much  injury. 
Another  large  species  (Tettigonia  atropunctata)  occurs  in  these  locali- 
ties and  sometimes  does  considerable  injury  in  the  early  part  of  the 


TREATMENT    OF   VINE    HOPPERS  471 

season.  The  principal  injury  caused  by  this  insect  is  due  to  the  extrac- 
tion of  the  plant  juices.  These  are  sucked  out  by  means  of  a  sharp 
beak  or  proboscis,  which  is  inserted  into  the  plant  tissues. 

A  method  of  control  practiced  by  some  growers  is  the  use  of  a 
hopper  cage  in  the  early  spring  when  the  young  shoots  of  the  vine 
are  about  four  or  five  inches  long.  The  hopper  cage  consists  of  a 
framework  of  laths  over  which  is  tacked  a  double  layer  of  mosquito 
wire  netting  or  a  single  20-mesh  wire  screen.  The  bottom  consists  of 
a  shallow  pan  or  tray  made  by  turning  up  about  an  inch  of  the  edges 
of  a  sheet  of  light  galvanized  iron.  One  entire  side  of  the  cage  is  left 
open,  and  there  is  a  V-shaped  opening  in  the  tray  at  the  bottom  which 
allows  the  cage  to  be  pushed  over  the  vine.  The  base  of  the  V-shaped 
opening  in  the  bottom  is  padded  with  leather  and  the  vine  is  bumped 
and  the  hoppers  jarred  off,  at  the  same  time  that  the  cage  is  being 
swung  into  position.  The  sides  of  the  cage  and  the  tray  at  the  bottom 
are  smeared  with  crude  oil,  and  the  hoppers  as  they  are  jarred  off  are 
caught  in  the  oil. 

If  there  is  a  breeze  blowing  the  cage  can  be  operated  with  the 
open  side  facing  the  wind  and  practically  no  hoppers  will  escape.  If, 
however,  the  day  is  calm  and  warm  and  the  hoppers  are  particularly 
active  a  curtain  can  readily  be  dropped  over  the  open  side  as  the  cage 
is  pushed  on  to  the  vine,  and  it  will  prevent  any  from  escaping. 

The  V-shaped  opening  which  might  allow  hoppers  to  drop  to  the 
ground  in  front  of  the  vine  can  be  covered  with  canvas,  as  follows : 
Take  two  pieces  of  canvas  about  the  shape  of  the  opening  and  a  little 
wider.  Double  this  once  on  itself  and  between  the  two  layers  sew  in 
pieces  of  three-fourths  inch  rubber  tubing  transversely.  These  are 
then  firmly  tacked  on  the  sides  of  the  opening  as  shown  in  the  engrav- 
ing. This  will  allow  the  cage  to  be  pushed  in  on  the  vine  and  the 
flexibility  of  the  tubing  will  bring  the  canvas  immediately  into  position 
again.  This  with  the  curtain  in  front,  shuts  off  all  possibility  of  escape. 

If  catching  the  over-wintering  hoppers  is  not  practicable,  the  next 
opportunity  for  effective  work  lies  in  killing  the  young  insects,  as 
they  appear  from  eggs  placed  in  the  leaf-tissue  by  these  over-wintering 
adults,  before  they  get  their  wings.  These  young  hoppers  may  be 
killed  by  means  of  a  spray  applied  to  the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  and 
this  will  be  during  May  or  the  first  part  of  June,  depending  upon  the 
season  and  locality.  The  exact  time  may  be  determined  by  watching 
their  development.  When  some  of  them  have  reached  almost  full 
size  it  is  time  to  start  the  spraying.  The  spray  to  use  is  the  Standard 
spray  for  thrips  given  on  the  preceding  page.  The  spray  should  be 
thoroughly  applied  from  below  so  as  to  strike  the  under  side  of  the 
leaves,  for  the  spray  will  kill  only  such  hoppers  as  are  hit. 

False  Chinch-Bugs. — Small,  grayish-brown  insects  (about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  long  when  fully  grown),  which  injure  the  vine 
leaves.  They  drop  to  the  ground  when  the  vine  is  disturbed,  and  may 
be  caught  as  just  described  for  vine  hoppers. 

Grasshoppers. — These  pests  often  invade  orchard  and  vineyard, 
and  sometimes  kill  the  plants  outright  by  completely  defoliating  them. 
This  plague  has  been  successfully  met  by  the  use  of  the  arsenic  and 


472 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


bran  remedy,  prepared  as  already  described  for  cut-worms.  A  table- 
spoonful  is  thrown  by  the  side  of  each  vine  or  tree.  If  placed  on 
shingles  about  the  vineyard,  much  of  the  poison  not  eaten  may  be 
afterward  gathered  up  and  saved.* 

Red  Spider  and  Other  Mites. — Very  minute  insects,  usually  dis- 
cernible only  with  the  aid  of  a  magnifier,  sometimes  destroy  the  leaves, 
causing  them  to  lose  their  color  and  health  by  their  inroads  upon  the 
leaf  surface.  The  red  spider  and  yellow  mite  are  conspicuous  exam- 
ples ;  they  infest  nearly  all  orchard  trees,  especially  the  almond,  prune, 
and  plum.  The  eggs  of  the  red  spider  are  ruby-red  globules,  as 
seen  with  the  magnifier,  and  are  deposited  in  vast  numbers  upon  the 
bark  of  the  tree,  and  leave  a  red  color  upon  the  finger  if  it  is  rubbed 


Hawk  Moth  larva.     (Philampeles  achemon  Drury.) 


over  them.  The  eggs  are  very  hard  to  kill,  and  treatment  is  most 
effective  when  applied  in  the  spring  and  summer  after  the  mites  are 
hatched  out.  The  popular  remedy  is  a  thorough  dusting  of  the  trees 
with  sulphur.  On  a  large  scale  the  sulphur  is  applied  in  a  cloud  by 
means  of  a  modification  of  the  broad-cast  barley  sower  or  with  the 
sulphur  machines  specially  made  for  this  purpose.  On  a  small  scale 
it  may  be  applied  with  a  bellows  as  for  grape-vines,  or  shaken  from  a 
cheese-cloth  bag  at  the  end  of  a  pole.  Sulphur  sprays  have  been  found 
most  effective  in  controlling  the  red  spider.  The  ingredients  of  the 
sulphur  sprays  are  prepared  as  follows: 

*For  the  protection  of  nurseries,  orchards,  and  vineyards  it  is  often  necessary  to  resort 
to  various  devices  for  excluding  the  grasshopper,  or  for  destroying  them  upon  adjoining 
fields.  Publications  describing  such  devices  are  Bulletins  142,  170  and  192,  University 
Experiment  Station,  Berkeley. 


& 


FIGHTING   THE   RED   SPIDER  473 

Sulfid  of  Potash  Stock  Solution. — Granulated,  powdered  concen- 
trated lye,  15  pounds;  sulphur,  18  pounds;  water  to  make  20  gallons. 
Stir  the  sulphur  and  lye  together  in  a  vessel  which  will  allow  plenty 
of  room  for  boiling.  When  well  mixed,  add  about  one  pint  of  water, 
placing  it  in  a  slight  hollow  in  the  mixture,  and  stir  in  slowly.  The 
mixture  will  soon  begin  to  melt  and  boil,  forming  a  red  fluid;  stir 
until  the  boiling  ceases,  and  then  add  water  to  make  20  gallons.  This 
stock  solution  will  keep  for  awhile,  or  indefinitely  when  protected  from 
the  air. 

Preparation  of  the  Spray  Mixture  with  Sulfid  of  Potash. — Place 
10  to  15  pounds  of  sublimed  sulphur,  or  14  to  20  pounds  of  ground 
sulphur  in  a  spray  tank  with  4  gallons  of  flour  paste  and  1  to  2  gallons 
of  the  sulfid  of  potash  stock  solution;  add  water  to  make  100  gallons. 
For  summer  or  spring  spraying  after  the  danger  of  rains  is  over, 
the  minimum  amount  of  sulphur  is  sufficient. 

Flour-paste  Spray  for  Red  Spider. — Mr.  W.  B.  Parker  of  the 
Bureau  of  Entomology  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  has 
demonstrated  the  efficacy  of  a  paste  spray  to  be  used  during  the 
summer  while  the  insects  are  active: 

Take  8  pounds  of  cheap  flour  and  stir  into  a  thin  batter  by  adding  a  little 
cold  water  at  a  time  until  8  gallons  of  water  is  used.  Mash  out  all  lumps. 

Cook  until  paste  is  formed,  stirring  constantly  to  prevent  caking  or  burning. 
Cooking  slowly  until  the  paste  just  begins  to  boil  will  usually  be  about  right.  If 
the  paste  is  not  sufficiently  cooked,  the  resulting  spray  will  not  be  effective,  and 
if  overcooked  the  paste  will  harden  when  thoroughly  cool,  and  will  not  mix 
with  water  very  readily. 

Add  cold  water  to  the  properly  cooked  paste,  to  make  100  gallons  in  the 
spray  tank.  Keep  constantly  stirred  while  spraying.  Apply  thoroughly  to  both 
the  upper  and  under  surfaces  of  the  leaves.  Use  a  nozzle  making  a  coarse  spray 
under  150  Ibs.  pressure,  as  the  driving  force  is  necessary  to  penetrate  the  webs 
and  reach  the  spider.  A  fine  mist  spray  would  not  be  effective.  This  is  a 
contact  insecticide  and  the  liquid  must  actually  touch  the  spider.  Watch  care- 
fully, and  if  newly  hatched  spiders  are  appearing,  repeat  the  spraying  in  about 
seven  days.  Commercial  paste,  ready  for  diluting,  can  be  purchased  if  desired. 

Phylloxera. — This  pest  of  the  grape-vine  is  closely  allied  to  the 
aphides,  and  lives  both  upon  the  root  and  leaf,  though  in  this  State 
the  root  type  prevails  and  the  leaf  form  is  seldom  seen.  No  remedy 
has  yet  been  found  effectual,  but  escape  is  had  by  using  roots  resisting 
the  insects,  as  described  in  Chapter  XXVI.  The  insects  are  recognized, 
by  the  aid  of  a  magnifier,  as  minute  yellow  lice,  chiefly  on  the  rootlets. 
Full  account  of  the  insect  is  given  in  Bulletin  192,  University  of 
California  Experiment  Station. 

The  Woolly  Aphis. — A  louse  of  dark  red  color,  occurring  in 
groups,  covered  with  a  woolly  substance  which  exudes  from  the 
bodies  of  the  insects.  The  woolly  aphis  is  an  almost  universal  pest  of 
the  apple,  though  as  shown  by  experience,  some  varieties  are  prac- 
tically exempt  from  it.  As  the  pest  lives  both  upon  root  and  top,  its 
annihilation  is  impossible,  but  it  may  be  reduced  so  that  the  fruitful- 
ness  and  vigor  of  the  tree  are  not  impaired.  The  use  of  wood  ashes 
around  the  tree  close  to  the  trunk  has  been  beneficial.  Removing  the 
earth  above  the  main  roots,  in  a  circle  two  to  four  feet  in  diameter 
and  soaking  the  ground  with  kerosene  emulsion,  using  from  three  to 


474 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


Root  injury  by  Phylloxera  and  forms  of  insect 

A  healthy  root;  b,  root  on  which  the  lice  are  working,  representing  the  knots  and  swell- 
ings caused  by  their  punctures;  c,  root  deserted  by  lice  and  beginning  to  decay;  d,  d,  d,  show 
how  the  lice  appear  on  the  larger  roots;  e,  the  nymph;  g,  winged  female.  After  Riley. 


five  gallons  to  the  tree,  has  been  found  very  effective  in  killing  the  root 
form.  The  insect  on  the  branches  and  twigs  can  be  reduced  by  spray- 
ing with  the  summer  washes  soon  to  be  given  for  scale  insects.  Lady- 
birds often  clear  away  the  woolly  aphis,  after  reproduction  has  fallen 
below  the  normal,  from  the  tree  above  ground.  Some  attention  is 
being  given  to  trial  of  resistant  roots  and  it  is  likely  that  such  roots 
will  be  generally  used  here  as  in  Australia.  How  such  trees  are  grown 
is  described  on  page  197. 

Scale  Insects. — This  is  a  large  group  of  pests  which  occasion 
greater  loss  and  trouble  to  our  fruit  growers  than  all  other  pests 
combined.  There  are  many  species,  and  no  orchard  tree  is  exempt 
from  the  attacks  of  one  or  more  of  them,  though  some  trees  are  appar- 
ently more  popular  with  the  pests  than  others.  The  fruit  grower  should 
study  their  life  history  and  classification  as  laid  down  in  the  works 
on  entomology.  It  will  only  be  possible  in  this  connection  to  introduce 
a  few  engravings,  by  which  some  of  the  most  prominent  pests  can  be 
recognized,  and  to  give  some  of  the  remedies  which  are  now  being 
most  successfully  employed  against  them. 


VARIOUS  SCALE  INSECTS  475 

San  Jose  Scale  (Aspidiotus  perniciosus). — This  was  formerly  one 
of  the  worst  and  most  widespread  of  the  species  of  scales  preying 
on  deciduous  fruit  trees  in  California,  but  at  present,  owing  to  the 
energetic  war  that  fruit  growers  have  had  to  wage  against  it,  has 
become  of  minor  importance,  and,  in  fact,  has  practically  disappeared 
from  some  regions  where  it  was  formerly  most  injurious.  The  work 
of  this  species  is  generally  readily  distinguished  from  other  species 
of  scale  by  the  red  blotches  which  are  formed  wherever  it  stings  any 
part  of  the  tree — either  branch,  leaf  or  fruit.  These  red  blotches  are 
more  pronounced  in  some  varieties  than  in  others.  When  the  scales 
are  present  in  large  numbers,  it  causes  a  complete  discoloration  of  the 
bark  clear  to  the  sap-wood.  This  scale  has  its  preference  among  the 
deciduous  fruits.  The  apricot  and  certain  varieties  of  cherries  and 
plums  are  but  little  affected. 

The  Greedy  Scale  (Aspidiotus  rapax). — This  species  affects  many 
kinds  of  trees,  deciduous  as  well  as  evergreens.  Scale,  about  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  length ;  form,  ovoid ;  color,  drab ;  female,  bright 
yellow.  This  insect  is  found  in  many  places  along  the  coast.  It  is 
distinguishable  easily  from  the  Aspidiotus  periciosus  by  its  whitish 
yellow  color,  contrasting  with  the  dark  color  of  the  latter.  Generally 
this  scale  has  only  one  brood  in  the  season,  and,  as  compared  with  the 
San  Jose  scale,  it  is  of  little  danger,  owing  to  its  slow-breeding  pro- 
pensities. 

Oyster  Shell  Scale  of  Apple  (Lepidosaphes  ulmi). — This  scale 
affects  the  apple  chiefly,  although  sometimes  the  pear  also.  Owing  to 
the  thickness  of  the  armor,  it  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  of  the  scales 
to  exterminate.  It  is  easily  recognized  by  its  long  curved  form. 

Rose  and  Berry  Scale  (Aulacaspis  rosae). — This  scale  has  such 
striking  forms  that  it  can  be  readily  recognized.  The  round  white 
scale  is  that  of  the  female,  the  elongated  one  with  ridges  is  the  male. 
The  rose  scale  infests,  besides  roses,  various  fruit  bushes,  especially 
blackberries  and  raspberries.  Remedy:  For  raspberries  and  black- 
berries the  cutting  down  of  the  canes  to  the  ground  should  be  adopted, 
and  the  stumps  sprayed  or  washed  with  kerosene  emulsion,  recom- 
mended under  the  head  of  general  remedies  for  scale  insects. 

Oleander  Scale  (Aspidiotus  hcderac). — This  scale  is  small,  .flat, 
yellowish-white.  It  affects  a  great  many  trees,  especially  evergreens. 
Lemon  trees  become  badly  affected,  and  the  fruit  is  sometimes  com- 
pletely covered.  The  olive  is  also  subject,  and  the  fruit  of  the  olive 
when  infested  does  not  mature  well,  and  wherever  a  scale  is  found,  a 
green  blotch  makes  its  appearance. 

Red  Scale  of  Orange  and  Lemon. —  (Ckrysomphales  aurantii). — 
This  scale  affects  citrus  trees  in  both  the  coast  and  interior  regions. 
The  scale  fully  grown  is  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  or  a  little  more  in 
diameter,  center  yellow,  margin  light  brown.  The  appearance  of 
trees  infested  with  this  pestjs  very  striking,  very  much  resembling 
those  diseased  from  other  causes,  such  as  bad  drainage,  the  leaf  pre- 
senting a  mottled  appearance,  a  light  blotch  around  the  scale  contrast- 


476  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

ing  with  the  natural  green  of  the  leaf.  The  branches  are  but  little 
troubled,  but  the  fruit,  like  the  leaf,  becomes  completely  covered  with 
the  insects.  An  orange  tree  infested  with  this  scale  gradually  becomes 
sickly  and  languishes. 

Other  Citrus  Tree  Scales. — Two  scales  more  recently  brought 
into  this  State  from  Florida  are  the  "purple  scale,"  Lepidosaphes 
beskii,  and  the  "long  scale,"  Lepidosaphes  gloverii.  The  red  and  pur- 
ple scales  of  citrus  trees  are  only  treated  successfully  by  fumigation 
with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas.  This  treatment  is  an  elaborate  one,  requir- 
ing special  appliances  which  are  fully  illustrated  and  described  in 
publications  by  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley: 

The  Black  Scale  (Saissetia  oleae}. — This  scale  is  almost  a  uni- 
versal pest,  especially  in  regions  adjacent  to  the  coast,  though  it  has 
recently  demonstrated  its  ability  to  endure  interior  valley  conditions. 
It  affects  citrus  fruit  trees  and  some  deciduous  trees  as  well,  and  a 
fungus  growing  on  its  exudation  causes  the  black  smut,  which  renders 
tree  and  fruit  unsightly ;  but  this  smut  accompanies  other  scale  insects 
as  well  as  this  one.  It  is  especially  troublesome  on  the  olive,  and  will 
quickly  spread  to  ornamental  plants  and  vines  in  the  garden.  It  is  a 
very  difficult  scale  to  subdue.  On  citrus  trees  the  fumigation  method 
is  the  only  practical  recourse.  On  deciduous  fruits  it  requires  both 
winter  and  summer  spraying  to  hold  it  in  check.  It  spite  of  the  fact 
that  immense  numbers  are  killed  by  parasites,  and  perhaps  by  fungi  as 
well,  it  is  still  a  grievous  pest,  and  should  be  fought  unceasingly. 

Soft  Orange  Scale  (Coccus  Hesperidum). — This  scale  is  a  pest 
of  citrus  trees  the  world  over.  The  scale  is  ovoid,  a  little  wider  at 
one  end  than  the  other ;  length,  from  one-twelfth  to  one-seventh  of  an 
inch ;  color,  dark  brown  on  convex  part,  and  a  lighter  brown  surround- 
ing margin ;  it  has  two  indentations  on  each  side,  and  one  on  posterior 
end.  This  scale  prefers  to  collect  on  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves 
along  the  midrib,  the  upper  sides  being  covered  with  smut.  It  for- 
tunately is  usually  held  in  check  by  natural  agencies. 

Brown  Apricot  Scale. — The  apricot  tree,  though  defying  the 
most  ruinous  scales  of  some  other  trees,  is  beset  by  certain  scales. 
The  black  scale  is  one  and  the  brown  apricot  scale  another.  The 
brown  apricot  scale  (Eulecanium  Armeniacum)  is  boat-shaped;  when 
reaching  maturity,  wrinkled ;  the  color  is  a  shiny  brown,  darker  in 
the  center,  lighter  at  the  edges.  A  full-sized  scale  has  a  length  of  a 
quarter  of  an  inch,  and  a  width  of  one-eighth  of  an  inch.  This  scale 
attacks  nearly  all  kinds  of  deciduous  fruits,  but  especially  the  prune 
and  apricot.  It  is  a  very  hardy  scale,  and  the  remarks  about  the  black 
scale  apply  to  it  also. 

Other  Lecaniums. — There  are  several  other  scales  on  fruit  trees ; 
The  filbert  scale  (hemisphericum) ,  which  is  common  in  greenhouses 
and  occurs  to  limited  extent  on  citrus  trees ;  the  frosted  scale 
(pruinosum),  very  large  oval  and  convex,  covered  with  dense,  whitish 
bloom,  occurs  on  deciduous  fruit  trees. 


VARIOUS  BORERS  IN  FRUIT  TREES  477 

Cottony  Cushion  Scale  or  Fluted  Scale  (Icerya  purchasi). — This 
promised  at  one  time  to  be  the  most  grievous  of  all  scales  in  its  rapid 
increase  and  wide  range  of  food  plants,  but  it  was  speedily  reduced  by 
an  Australian  ladybird,  Novius  (Vedalia)  cardinalis,  introduced  by 
Albert  Koebele,  with  such  success  that  specimens  were  for  a  number 
of  years  rarely  seen,  but  have  recently  become  abundant  in  some 
localities. 

Mealy  Bugs. — Closely  allied  to  the  scales  are  the  mealy  bugs 
(species  of  dactylopius),  soft  and  of  a  pale  pink  color,  generally  cov- 
ered with  a  whitish  mealy  powder,  hence  the  name.  The  common 
species  is  found  in  nearly  every  greenhouse  in  the  world,  and  in  Cali- 
fornia climate  lives  in  the  open  air  on  many  kinds  of  plants,  and  has  at 
various  times  proved  quite  troublesome.  Unless  checked  by  natural 
enemies,  the  mealy  bugs  multiply  very  rapidly,  and  mass  themselves 
in  the  corners  of  the  leaves.  The  plants  turn  black  from  the  fungus 
growth  growing  on  the  honeydew,  and  the  bush  presents  the  same 
appearance  as  a  scale-infested  plant.  With  the  aid  of  a  magnifier  the 
appearance  of  the  mealy  bugs,  as  different  from  scales  can  be  readily 
recognized. 

Remedies  for  Scale  Insects. — Though  most  of  the  scale  insects 
are  attacked  by  parasitic  and  predaceous  insects,  as  already  stated, 
these  natural  agencies  have  generally  not  proved  rapid  enough  to  cope 
with  the  increase  of  the  scales,  and  insecticides  have  to  be  employed 
to  save  the  fruit  and  trees.  There  is  a  vast  number  of  these  washes, 
many  of  which  will  do  good  work  if  thoroughly  applied,  which  is 
usually  the  secret  of  success.  A  few  which  have  proved  of  special 
value  will  be  given  at  the  close  of  this  chapter. 


INSECTS  BORING  IN  TWIG,  STEM,  OR  ROOT 

Peach  Twig-Borer  or  Peach  Worm. — This  larva  is  probably 
the  most  serious  insect  pest  that  the  California  peach  grower  has  had  to 
contend  with.  The  creature  hibernates  as  a  young  larva  in  burrows 
in  the  crotches  of  the  tree. 

As  soon  as  the  tree  begins  to  grow  in  the  spring  the  larva  becomes 
active,  eats  its  way  out  of  its  winter  home  and  bores  into  the  new 
growing  twigs  causing  them  to  wither  and  die.  Later  generations  of 
the  worm  attack  the  fruit  and  from  the  two  forms  of  attack  much  loss 
may  accrue  to  the  orchardist. 

Destruction  of  the  larvae  in  their  winter  burrows  overcomes  all 
damage  from  these  pests.  This  can  be  accomplished  by  spraying  with 
the  lime-sulphur  compound  in  the  late  winter  or  very  early  spring 
when  the  buds  are  expanding. 

The  Common  Borer. — An  insect  which  has  done  vast  injury  in 
this  State  is  the  "flat-headed  apple  borer"  (chrysobothris  femorata). 
It  affects  chiefly  apples,  peaches  and  plums,  etc.,  which  have  been 
injured  by  sunburn.  It  is  a  pale-colored  grub  with  a  brown  head, 
the  forepart  of  the  body  being  greatly  flattened.  The  matured  beetle 


478 


CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  I   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 


is  greenish  black  or  bronze  colored,  copper  colored  on  the  under  side. 
If  any  tree  receives  any  damage  to  the  bark,  either  by  sunburn  or  other 
causes,  the  borer  is  sure  to  find  it,  and  it  works  itself  into  the  tree,  its 
castings  being  the  only  guide  to  its  presence.  The  best  remedy  is  pre- 
vention by  protection  from  sunburn,  as  described  in  Chapter  XI. 
Whenever  a  borer  is  removed,  the  debris  and  dead  wood  should  be 
entirely  cleaned  out  and  the  smooth  surface  left,  taking  care  to  pre- 
serve the  bark  as  much  as  possible.  Then  the  wound  should  be  smeared 
over  with  grafting  wax,  and  a  rag  tied  about  it.  In  this  manner  young 
trees  have  been  saved,  but  if  seriously  attacked,  it  is  better  to  put  in 
a  sound  tree  and  protect  it. 

Sun-Scald  Borer. — Another  borer  which  delights  in  sunburned 
trees  is  a  minute  beetle,  making  a  burrow  hardly  larger  than  a  pinhole. 
It  is  known  as  the  sun-scald  beetle  (Xyloborus  xylographus).  The 
remedy,  as  in  the  former  case,  is  to  prevent  injury  to  the  bark,  for  this 
precedes  the  attack  of  the  beetle. 


Peach  twig  showing  winter  burrow,  natural  size. 

The  Olive  Twig-Borer.— A  reddish  brown  beetle  boring  into 
twigs  of  olive  and  other  orchard  trees,  and  grape  canes,  at  the  axils 
of  the  leaves.  It  is  Polycaon  confertus,  and  it  breeds  in  decaying  logs 
and  stumps  and  old  grape-vines,  apparently  visiting  the  fruit  trees 
merely  to  gratify  its  appetite.  Its  work  is  not  fatal  to  the  tree,  but 
unless  proper  pruning  and  attention  be  afterwards  given,  it  may  spoil 
the  shape  of  the  young  tree.  Remove  the  affected  branches  below  the 
burrows  of  the  beetle,  or  if  it  would  be  difficult  to  replace  a  branch, 
see  that  the  beetle  is  destroyed  and  the  entrance  to  the  hole  stopped  up 
— this  to  prevent  decay  and  a  weak  branch  following.  Spraying  with 
ill-smelling  solutions  may  prevent  their  attack,  but  the  insect  has  not 
been  sufficiently  abundant  to  invite  serious  effort  thus  far. 

Peach  Crown-Borer. — A  grub  boring  into  peach  trees  just  below 
the  ground  surface,  its  presence  being  shown  by  copious  gumming. 
The  insect,  which  has  become  quite  troublesome  in  Santa  Clara  County, 
resembles  the  Eastern  crown-borer  of  the  peach,  but  is  a  distinct  species 
(Sanninoidea  opalescens).  The  best  methods  of  suppressing  this  insect 


PEACH    TWIG   AND   ROOT   BORERS 


479 


are  three.  A  preventive  treatment  consists  in  coating  the  base  of  the 
tree  a  few  inches  below  the  surface  and  a  foot  above  with  a  whitewash, 
with  a  pint  of  coal  tar  to  each  five  pounds  of  quicklime,  put  in  while 
the  lime  is  slacking1.  More  recently  the  application  of  asphaltum  has 
been  demonstrated  by  Earl  Morris,  horticultural  commissioner  of  Santa 
Clara  County,  to  be  very  efficient.  Hard  asphaltum  (grades  "C"  and 


Peach  Worm  Burrow  laid  open,  the  worm  beginning  spring  work — 
greatly  enlarged. 

"D")  was  applied  early  in  the  spring  to  badly  infested  trees  from  which 
the  borers  had  not  been  dug.  A  thick,  heavy  coating  prevents  both  the 
issuance  and  the  entrance  of  about  95  to  98  per  cent  of  the  insects,  the 
degree  of  efficiency  depending  upon  the  thoroughness  of  the  applica- 
tion. Asphaltum  does  not  penetrate,  crack,  or  deteriorate,  or  bind  the 
tree,  since  it  yields  to  the  slightest  pressure. 


A  nearly  full-grown  larva  of  the  Peach-tree  Borer,  Magnified  four  diameters. 


The  material  is  applied  warm  with  a  brush  from  five  inches  below 
to  five  inches  above  the  ground.  It  is  easier  to  apply  two  or  more  coat- 
ings than  to  try  to  put  on  more  at  one  time  than  will  adhere  firmly. 
The  first  coating  will  harden  very  quickly,  and  the  second  can  be  ap- 
plied without  loss  of  time.  Two  coatings  are  generally  sufficient  unless 
the  bark  is!  very  rough.  But  in  any  case,  a  thick  uniform  covering  is 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  best  results. 


480  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:   HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

The  method  in  most  general  use  is  known  as  the  "worming  process."  This 
consists  essentially  in  carefully  cutting  out  and  killing  the  individual  borers. 
Special  tools  have  been  devised  for  this  work.  A  full  description  of  these 
processes  can  be  found  in  Bulletin  143,  University  of  California,  College  of 
Agriculture. 

Strawberry  Root-Borer. — The  larva  of  another  clear-winged 
moth  (Aegeria  impropria),  boring  into  the  root  of  the  strawberry 
plants,  found  in  various  portions  of  the  State,  and  doing  considerable 
damage,  forcing  the  growers  to  resort  to  replanting  much  earlier  than 
otherwise  would  be  necessary.  Flooding  the  vines  has  a  great  tendency 
to  kill  out  the  worms,  and;  if  the  water  was  retained,  say  four  or  five 
days  during  the  winter,  all  over  the  plants,  doubtless  all  the  larvae 
would  be  killed. 

Currant  and  Gooseberry  Borer. — A  white  worm  eating  out  the 
central  pith  of  currant  and  gooseberry  plants — the  larva  of  another 
clear-winged  moth  (Aegeria  tipuliformis).  Spraying  with  whale-oil 
soap  after  the  crop  is  gathered,  pruning  out  and  burning  in  the  fall  of 
all  old  wood  which  can  be  spared,  will  reduce  the  evil. 

The  Raspberry  Cane  Borer. — This  intruder  is  one  of  the  family 
Tenthredinideae,  or  saw  flies.  The  very  small  maggot  or  larva  will  be 
found  by  peeling  the  bark  carefully.  This  larva  can  not  crawl,  there- 
fore if  the  tips  be  cut  and  the  worm  is  taken  out  he  will  die.  A  better 
way  is  to  cut  all  tips,  -as  fast  as  they  show  signs  of  wilting,  and  burn 
them.  Thorough  work  in  topping  is  alsolutely  necessary,  so  as  to  be 
sure  that  none  of  the  worms  remain  to  produce  flies.  Topping  causes 
the  canes  to  throw  out  laterals,  thus  producing  more  fruit.  The  canes 
are  not  affected  after  July. 

Another  cane-borer,  occurring  in  the  foothills,  has  been  identified 
by  E.  O.  Essig,  as  the  larva  of  a  horn-tail.  It  is  fully  described  in 
Bulletin  12  of  the  California  State  Board  of  Horticulture.  Its  treat- 
ment is  like  that  just  described. 


INSECTS  DEVOURING  THE  PULP  OF  FRUITS 

The  Apple  Worm. — The  codlin  moth  (Carpocapsa  pomonella)  is 
one  of  the  great  pests  of  the  State.  It  preys  chiefly  upon  the  apple 
and  pear,  but  the  quince  and  other  large  fruits  are  sometimes  invaded 
by  it.  The  first  moths  appear  at  some  time  after  the  blossoming  of 
the  apple,  and  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  young  fruit,  or  on  adjacent 
leaves.  The  young  worm  hatches  in  from  seven  to  ten  days,  generally 
seeks  the  eye  or  calyx,  and  eats  its  way  into  the  fruit,  and  in  twenty 
days  its  full  growth  is  attained,  and  it  goes  out  through  the  side  of  the 
apple,  and,  by  means  of  its  spinnaret,  reaches  the  ground  or  some  large 
branch.  If  landed  on  the  ground,  it  usually  seeks  the  trunk,  which  it 
ascends  and  soon  finds  a  hiding-place  under  the  loose  bark,  where  it 
spins  its  cocoon,  and  in  eight  or  ten  days  comes  forth  a  moth,  ready  to 
lay  eggs  anew.  The  egg  is  laid  all  over  the  fruit  and  especially  at  a 
point  where  two  fruits  touch.  Usually  we  have  in  this  State  two 
broods,  at  least,  but  sometimes  three,  and,  naturally,  if  unchecked,  the 


C/JT3 


FIGHTING   THE   APPLE   WORM  481 

increase  from  the  first  to  the  last  is  enormous.  The  worms  escaping 
from  the  fruit  in  the  fall  hibernate  as  larvae  under  the  loose  bark  of 
the  tree,  or  in  store-houses,  or  in  any  available  dry  place. 

On  the  basis  of  long  experience  in  the  Watsonville  district  Mr. 
W.  H.  Volck,  county  entomologist,  gives  the  following  outline  of  opera- 
tions against  the  apple  worm : 

There  are  two  broods  in  a  season.  The  first  develops  from  worms  that  have 
wintered  over  in  protected  places  both  above  and  in  the  ground.  The  moths 
of  the  first  generation  begin  emerging  in  April,  but  very  few  eggs  are  laid  before 
the  middle  of  May.  In  this  locality,  egg-laying  is  then  continuous  until  the  last 
of  June. 

The  full-grown  worms  of  the  first  generation  after  emerging  from  the  apples 
seek  some  hiding  place  where  they  may  rest  for  a  few  days,  transforming  into 
pupa  and  then  into  full-grown  moths. 

The  moths  of  the  second  generation  begin  laying  eggs  early  in  August  and 
may  continue  to  do  so  as  late  as  October  or  November.  It  is  the  worms  of  the 
second  generation  that  do  the  greatest  amount  of  damage. 

The  codlin  moth  lays  its  eggs  on  the  surface  of  the  leaves  and  fruit.  The 
eggs  are  about  the  size  of  a  small  pin-head,  circular  and  flat.  The  color  varies 
from  white  to  pink  and  red.  These  eggs  are  easily  seen  when  the  observer 
knows  what  to  look  for. 

The  young  worms  hatch  from  the  eggs  about  ten  days  after  laying,  and 
then  begin  crawling  about  in  search  of  fruit  to  burrow  into.  This  short  period 
between  the  hatching  of  the  egg  and  the  entrance  into  the  apple  is  the  only 
time  that  spraying  operations  can  prove  effective.  It  is  clearly  impossible  to 
accomplish  anything  by  the  use  of  sprays  that  will  only  kill  by  contact,  for  such 
sprays  would  have  to  be  applied  nearly  every  day.  The  spraying  operation  must 
then  leave  a  deposit  of  some  substance  on  the  fruit  that  will  kill  the  worms 
when  they  attempt  to  burrow  through  the  rind.  The  only  substance  now 
known  that  answers  these  requirements  are  the  compounds  of  arsenic. 

Arsenic  is,  however,  poisonous  to  plants  and  must  be  applied  with  caution. 
The  arsenic  compound  used  must  be  entirely  insoluble  in  water,  and  not  subject 
to  weathering,  in  order  that  it  shall  be  perfectly  safe.  The  wet  fogs  of  the 
Pajaro  valley  summers  give  arsenical  spray  compounds  a  very  severe  test,  and 
it  has  been  found  that  only  the  best  quality  of  arsenate  of  lead  is  able  to  stand  it. 
Arsenate  of  lead  may  do  very  severe  burning,  however,  if  it  is  not  of  the 
proper  quality. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  a  large  percentage  of  the  worms  of  the  first 
generation  enter  at  the  blossom  ends  of  the  apples.  This  part  is  protected  or 
more  or  less  closed  over  by  the  leaves  of  the  calyx. 

The  calyx  cups  close  very  shortly  after  the  petals  fall,  and  so  it  is  advised 
by  the  best  authorities  to  spray  as  soon  after  the  falling  of  the  blossoms  as 
possible  in  order  to  leave  a  deposit  of  poison  there.  In  the  Pajaro  valley  and 
adjoining  sections,  weather  conditions  often  prevent  spraying  at  this  time,  but 
where  possible  to  apply,  the  calyx  cup  spraying  is  advised. 

Good  results  have  been  obtained  by  spraying  in  the  early  part  of  May, 
which  is  considerably  after  the  calyx  cups  have  closed.  Spraying  at  this  time 
gives  much  the  same  effect  as  the  calyx  cup  application,  especially  where  it  is 
applied  with  proper  thoroughness.  This  early  spraying  is  applied  before  any 
worms  have  appeared  and  is  intended  merely  to  have  the  poison  in  readiness 
for  the  insects  when  they  do  come. 

The  first  codlin  moth  spraying  should  contain  Bordeaux  Mixture  as  a  pre- 
caution against  the  scab: 

Bordeaux  Mixture — Copper  sulphate  3  pounds,  lime  4  pounds,  water  50 
gallons. 

Arsenate  of  Lead — Use  2l/2  to  3  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  each  50  gallons 
of  Bordeaux. 

The  Bordeaux  Mixture  should  be  prepared  first,  and  enough  space  left  in 
the  tank  to  allow  for  the  addition  of  the  arsenate  of  lead  and  the  water  required 
to  mix  it. 


482  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

The  second  spraying  should  be  applied  from  the  last  of  May  to  the  first 
ten  days  in  June,  and  is  intended  to  augment  the  effect  of  the  first  spraying  by 
further  covering  the  rapidly  expanding  fruit. 

For  this  spraying  use  2  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  50  gallons  of  water. 
No  Bordeaux  should  be  used  with  this  spraying,  for  the  previous  sprayings  con- 
taining Bordeaux  will  have  controlled  the  scab,  and  the  further  use  of  the 
fungicide  is  likely  to  russet  the  apples. 

Very  few  eggs  are  laid  during  July,  so  if  the  second  spraying  has  been 
applied  about  the  first  of  June  it  should  suffice  to  control  the  first  generation 
attack.  The  second  generation  worms  begin  to  appear  about  the  first  of  August, 
so  a  spraying  is  due  at  this  time. 

For  the  third  spraying,  use  2  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  50  gallons  of 
water. 

If  the  apples  are  to  remain  on  the  trees  through  September  they  should  receive 
another  spraying  about  the  first  of  this  month. 

For  the  fourth  spraying,  if  the  other  three  have  been  applied  according  to 
directions,  use  ll/2  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  50  gallons  of  water. 

The  schedule  of  sprayings  above  laid  out  should  control  the  codlin  moth 
under  average  conditions,  and  even  where  the  insect  is  extremely  abundant 
should  yield  95  per  cent  clean  fruit. 

The  codlin  moth  is  much  affected  by  weather  conditions,  and  if  there  is  a 
large  amount  of  cold  fog  during  the  summer  the  damage  will  be  much  reduced. 

The  Peach  Worm, — As  already  stated,  the  larva  of  the  peach 
moth,  which  early  in  the  spring  bores  into  the  twigs,  is  sometimes  found 
later  in  the  season  in  the  flesh  of  the  peach.  Hence  the  importance  of 
saving  the  fruit  by  proper  treatment  of  the  hibernating  worms  which 
emerge  as  the  blossom  buds  are  opening. 

The  Diabrotica.— A  light  green  beetle  with  twelve  spots  on  his 
back  (Diabrotica  soror),  is  sometimes  very  injurious  to  early  fruit,  by 
eating  into  it  when  ripe.  The  insect  also  eats  leaves  and  blossoms.  As 
the  insect  attacks  the  fruit  just  as.  it  is  ready  to  pick,  it  is  impossible 
to  apply  any  disagreeable  or  poisonous  spray.  Sometimes  the  insects 
are  driven  away  by  dense  smoke  from  fires  in  and  around  the  orchard. 

The  Dried  Fruit  Worm. — Dried  fruit  is  often  seriously  injured 
after  packing,  by  a  small  worm,  larva  of  a  moth  not  yet  determined. 
The  eggs  are  deposited  on  the  fruit  either  while  drying  or  while  in  the 
packing-house,  or  through  the  cloth  of  the  sacks,  or  seams  of  the 
package.  The  eggs  may  be  killed  on  the  fruit  before  packing,  by 
dipping  in  boiling  water,  or  by  heating  in  an  oven  and  after  that  pre- 
venting the  access  of  the  moth.  Infested  fruit  can  also  be  treated  by 
bisulphide  vapor,  the  method  being  the  same  as  described  for  nursery 
stock  below. 

ANTS  AND  YELLOW  JACKETS 

These  insects  are  often  of  serious  trouble  during  fruit  drying.  Ants 
are  most  effectually  disposed  of  by  slightly  opening  their  holes  in  the 
ground  by  thrusting  down  a  crowbar  and  pouring  in  a  couple  of  ounces 
of  carbon  bisulphide  and  closing  again  with  earth.  Yellow  jackets 
also  nest  in  the  ground  in  old  squirrel  or  gopher  holes,  and  they  too 
can  be  suffocated  with  carbon  bisulphide  or  by  pouring  in  gasoline  or 
kerosene  and  firing  it.  Hornets  which  nest  in  trees  are  troublesome,  but 
are  much  less  numerous  than  the  cave-dwelling  species. 


DISINFECTING    NURSERY   TREES  483 

To  destroy  yellow  jackets  by  trapping  and  poison  is  also  feasible. 
W.  F.  Moyer,  of  Napa,  proceeds  in  this  way : 

Make  a  thin  fruit  syrup  by  mashing  the  boiling  ripe  fruit,  strain  it  and  add 
a  little  sugar.  Place  the  soup  dishes  on  the  drying  ground  where  the  "jackets" 
are  thickest.  When  the  top  of  the  syrup  is  covered  with  drowned  and  drowning 
"jackets,"  scoop  them  out  with  the  hand  and  crush  them  with  the  foot.  They 
won't  sting  unless  you  pinch  ihem.  As  the  syrup  evaporates  fill  up  the  dishes 
with  water.  If  a  day  or  two  should  elapse  when  no  fruit  is  cut,  be  sure  the 
traps  are  well  cared  for,  as  they  will  swarm  around  them  thicker  than  ever, 
especially  if  the  weather  is  hot.  For  dishes  to  place  the  syrup  in,  cut  kerosene 
cans  so  as  to  make  two  cans,  each  about  six  and  one-half  inches  deep. 

Poisoning  to  carry  destruction  to  the  young  brood  is  also  practicable. 
Dr.  J.  H.  Miller,  of  San  Leandro,  saved  his  fruit  in  this  way : 

I  bought  half  a  dozen  beef  livers,  five  pounds  of  arsenious  acid  and  several 
pounds  of  baling  wire.  Cutting  the  liver  into  pieces  as  large  as  a  man's  fist,  I 
put  them  into  a  hot  solution  of  arsenious  acid,  and,  bending  the  wire  into  a  hook 
at  each  end,  I  suspended  the  pieces  from  the  lower  limbs  of  trees  all  around 
my  drying-ground.  The  fruit  was  soon  deserted,  and  the  little  insects  busily 
working  at  the  fragrant  liver.  The  insects  carried  pieces  of  the  liver  up  to  their 
nests,  and  besides  causing  the  death  of  those  that  had  been  destroying  my  fruit, 
the  next  generation  of  yellow  jackets  was  also  destroyed,  and  so  complete  was 
the  destruction  that  there  were  not  enough  of  the  little  pests  in  that  neighborhood 
the  following  year  to  require  a  repetition  of  the  treatment.  There  is  no  risk 
in  so  using  the  poison,  for  the  yellow  jackets  will  not  return  to  the  fruit,  and 
bees  will  not  go  near  the  meat. 

DISINFECTING  NURSERY  STOCK 

Cuttings,  scions,  young  trees  and  vines,  etc.,  can  be  freed  from 
insects  by  inclosing!  in  a  tight  box  or  cask  and  placing  a  saucerful  of 
carbon  bisulphide  on  the  top  of  them,  covering  it  with  canvas  or  any 
tight-fitting  cover.  The  bisulphide  vapor  will  destroy  all  insect  life  in 
forty  minutes. 

Disinfecting  such  materials  on  a  larger  scale  may  be  done  in  this 
way: 

Use  square  canvas  sheets,  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  in  diameter,  made  of  the 
best  ducking,  double  stitched  and  then  painted  with  boiled  linseed  oil  to  make 
it  gas  proof.  The  canvas  must  be  perfectly  dry  before  it  is  rolled  up,  or  it  is 
liable  to  be  destroyed  by  spontaneous  combustion.  To  fumigate  evergreen 
stock  use  one  ounce  of  cyanide  of  potassium  (in  lumps,  not  pulverized),  one  fluid 
ounce  of  commercial  sulphuric  acid,  and  two  fluid  ounces  of  water  to  one 
hundred  cubic  feet  of  enclosed  space.  For  deciduous  and  hardy  trees,  when 
dormant,  use  one-fourth  more  of  each  of  the  above.  When  the  canvas  has 
been  placed  over  the  stock  to  be  fumigated,  prepare  the  charge.  Take  a  three  or 
four-gallon  glazed  earthenware  jar,  into  which  pour  the  necessary  quantity  of 
water,  then  the  sulphuric  acid,  and  place  it  well  under  the  canvas,  the  edges  of 
which  are  secured  with  soil  or  in  some  way  so  as  to  prevent  the  gas  escaping, 
with  the  exception  of  the  edge  immediately  in  front  of  the  jar.  The  proper 
amount  of  cyanide  of  potassium  is  then  dropped  into  the  jar  from  a  long  scoop, 
and  the  tent  is  immediately  closed,  and  remains  so  for  one  hour. 


INSECTICIDES 

It  is  hoped  that  this  chapter  will  convey  useful  hints  in  the  warfare 
against  insects.  Whenever  questions  arise  which  are  not  met  thereby, 
appeal  should  be  made  to  the  University  Experiment  Station  at  Berke- 


484  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

ley.     A  condensed  statement  of  useful  insecticides  is  issued  by  the 
Station,  prepared  by  Professor  H.  J.  Quayle,  as  follows : 

1.  LIME  SULPHUR: 

Quicklime,  33  pounds ;  sulphur,  66  pounds ;  water,  200  gallons. 
Sift  sulphur  through  box  with  screen  bottom  into  boiling  tank  with 
50  gallons  of  water.  Add  the  lime  and  boil  45  minutes  to  one  hour. 
Stir  frequently.  Strain  through  cheese  cloth  or  burlap  and  dilute  to 
make  200  gallons.  If  extra  lime  is  desired  strain  in  milk  of  lime  when 
spray  is  ready  for  use. 

2.  COMMERCIAL  LIME  SULPHUR: 

If  of  32°  Baume  dilute  1  to  9.     If  36°  dilute  1  to  11. 
Either  of  the  above  for  San  Jose  and  other  armored  scales  to  be 
applied  during  dormant  season,  preferably  in  early  winter  or  early 
spring.    For  Peach  Moth,  as  the  buds  are  expanding  in  the  spring. 

3.  DISTILLATE  28°  to  34°  Baume : 
Distillate,  10  to  20  gallons ;  water,  200  gallons. 

For  use  only  with  power  sprayer  with  good  agitator,  which  is  neces- 
sary to  make  a  mechanical  mixture  of  the  oil  and  water. 

For  the  Brown  Apricot,  Black,  and  other  unarmored  scales,  and  for 
Woolly  Aphis,  to  be  applied  during  dormant  season,  preferably  in  early 
winter. 

4.  DISTILLATE  POTASH  : 

Distillate,  10  gallons ;  lye  or  caustic  soda,  5  pounds ;  water,  200  gallons. 
Preparation  and  uses  same  as  under  3.    Has  the  advantage  of  free- 
ing tree  from  moss. 

5.  DlSTILLLATE  EMULSION  : 

Stock  emulsion:     Hot  water,   12  gallons;   fish  oil    (see  10)    or  whale-oil 

soap,  30  pounds ;  distillate  30°  to  34°,  20  gallons. 

Add  soap  to  hot  water  in  spray  tank  with  agitator  going.  After 
soap  is  dissolved  add  oil  slowly,  keeping1  mixture  agitated.  Pump  out 
through  nozzle  at  175  pounds  pressure  in  storage  tank. 

For  use  take:     Stock  emulsion,   11  gallons;  blackleaf  40,   1  pint;  water, 

200  gallons. 

Place  oil  emulsion  in  spray  tank,  start  agitator  and  add  the  water. 
When  diluted  add  the  Blackleaf. 

For  thrips,  Black  Peach  Aphis,  and  other  plant  lice. 

6.  KEROSENE  EMULSION: 

Dissolve  y-z  pound  soap  in  1  gallon  hot  water;  add  1  gallon  kerosene. 
Mix  thoroughly  with  spray  pump  by  turning  nozzle  back  into  mix- 
ture. 

a.  For  plant  lice  and  other  sucking  insects  during  growing  season, 
dilute  with  15  to  25  gallons  water. 

b.  For  scale  insects,  Woolly  Aphis  and  other  sucking  insects  during 
dormant  season,  dilute  with  5  to  10  gallons  water. 

For  use  on  small  scale  with  hand  sprayer. 


WELL   TESTED    INSECTICIDES  485 

6a.  KEROSENE  EMULSION.    Kitchen  formula : 

Dissolve  1  inch  cube  soap  in  1  pint  hot  water ;  add  1  pint  kerosene.    Churn 

with  egg  beater. 

For  growing  plants,  dilute!  to  2  or  3  gallons  water.  For  dormant 
plants,  1  gallon. 

7.  MISCBIBLE  OILS: 

Commercial  preparations  of  oil  so  treated  as  to  mix  directly  with 
water.  Follow  directions  on  container.  Uses  same  as  3,  4,  5,  6,  8,  9, 
and  10. 

8.  STRAIGHT  KEROSENE  OR  WATER  WHITE  OIL  : 

Water  white  oil  (42°  Baume)  or  kerosene,  20  gallons;  water,  200  gallons. 
In  use  for  scale  insects  of  citrus  trees.    Application  by  power  outfit. 

9.  SOAP  SOLUTION  : 

Soap,  1  pound;  water,  5  to  15  gallons. 

Whale-oil  or  fish-oil  soap  preferable,  but  for  small  amounts  any 
yellow  laundry  soap  will  answer. 

For  plant  lice  and  other  sucking  insects  during  summer. 

9a.  SOAP  SOLUTION.    Kitchen  formula : 
1*4  inch  cube  soap;  1  gallon  warm  water. 

10.  HOMEMADE  SOAP: 

Water,  6  gallons;  lye  (98%),  2  pounds;  fish  oil,  \l/2  gallons. 

Add  lye  to  water  in  boiler.  When  dissolved  and  water  boiling,  pour 
in  the  fish  oil,  stirring  in  mean  time,  and  boil  slowly  for  two  hours. 
This  will  give  about  40  pounds  soap. 

For  use,  dilute  with  5  to  15  gallons  water  for  each  pound. 

For  same  pests  as  No.  9. 

11.  TOBACCO  OR  NICOTINE  : 

a.  Blackleaf  40  (40%  nicotine),  1  pint;  water,  200  gallons. 

b.  Tobacco  stems,  1  pound;  water,  4  gallons. 

Steep  stems  in  1  gallon  warm  water  and  dilute  to  4  gallons. 

For  plant  lice  and  other  sucking  insects  during  growing  season. 
For  Woolly  Aphis  and  Peach  Aphis  underground.  A  liberal  solution, 
or  the  dry  dust  in  early  winter,  about  the  base  of  the  tree,  the  surface 
soil  first  being  removed. 

12.  TOBACCO  SOAP  : 

Blackleaf  40,  1  pound  (1-10  gal.)  ;  cresol  soap,  1  gallon — or 
Whale-oil  soap,  10  pounds ;  water,  200  gallons. 

The  cresol  soap  requires  no  heating. 

Uses  same  as  11.    Penetrating  and  wetting  power  better. 

13.  LIME  SULPHUR  TOBACCO: 

Commercial  lime  sulphur  36°,  2.1  gallons;  blackleaf  40,  14  fluid  ounces; 
water,  200  gallons. 

For  Orange  Thrips. 

14.  CARBOLIC  LIME: 

Quicklime,  150  pounds ;  crude  carbolic  acid,  2  gallons ;  water,  200  gallons. 
For  Pear  Thrips. 


486  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

15.  SULPHUR: 

a.  Dry.     Thoroughly  dust  over  foliage,  preferably  when  moist  with  dew. 
Hydrated  lime  about  equal  parts  with  sulphur  will  increase  adhesiveness. 

b.  Spray.     Sulphur,  30  pounds;  lime;  (as  milk  of  lime),  15  pounds;  water, 
200  gallons. 

c.  Spray.     Commercial  lime  sulphur,  4  to  5  gallons ;  water,  200  gallons. 

For  Red  Spiders  and  Silver  Mite. 

16.  LEAD  ARSENATE: 

Lead  arsenate,  6  to  12  pounds;  water,  200  gallons. 
First  mix  arsenate  with  2  or  3  gallons  of  water. 

For  Codlin  Moth  and  most  defoliating  insects. 

16a.  LEAD  ARSENATE.    Kitchen  formula : 

Lead  arsenate,  1  tablespoonful  (1  oz.)  ;  water,  1  gallon. 

17.  PARIS  GREEN: 

Paris  green,  1  1-3  to  2  pounds ;  water,  200  gallons. 
For  Codlin  Moth  and  most  defoliating  insects. 

Not  to  be  used  along  coast  or  moist  situations  where  injury  is  likely 
to  result  to  foliage. 

170.     PARIS  GREEN.     Kitchen  formula : 

Paris  green,  1  teaspoonful  (>4  oz.)  ;  lime,  3  teaspoonfuls ;  water,  2  gallons. 

18.  ZINC  ARSENITE: 

Zinc  arsenite,  2  to  6  pounds ;  water,  200  gallons. 

A  powerful  poison  for  resistant  insects,  as  the  Tussock  Moth,  or 
for  early  spraying  for  Canker  Worm  and  Codling  Moth  in  the  dry 
interior  climates. 

I9a.  POISONED  BAIT.    Kitchen  formula: 

Bran,  10  pounds;  Paris  green,  1  pound — or 

White  arsenic,  J/2  pound;  molasses,  J4  gallon;  water,  2  gallons. 

Mix  paris  green  with  the  bran  dry.  Acjd  the  molasses  to  the  water 
and  mix  into  the  bran,  making  a  moist  paste. 

For  Cut  Worms  and  Grasshoppers,  distribute  a  small  handful  about 
the  base  of  the  vine  or  tree,  or  scatter  about  plants  in  the  garden.  May 
be  distributed  broadcast  for  Grasshoppers  and  Army  Worms. 

20.  CARBON  BISULPHIDE: 

For  treatment  of  stored  products  and  underground  insects. 
Usual  dosage,  1  pint  to  1,000  cubic  feet  space. 
Place  liquid  in   saucers  or  shallow  vessels   above  material  to  be 
treated.     Inflammable ;  avoid  lights. 

For  underground  insects,  a  tablespoonful  in  holes  3  or  4  feet  apart. 

21.  RESIN  DIPPING  SOLUTION  : 

Resin,  20  pounds;  caustic  soda  or  lye,  8  pounds;  fish  oil,  3  pints;  water, 
100  gallons. 

Boil  resin  and  caustic  soda  in  50  gallons  of  water  for  1  hour.  Dilute 
to  100  gallons. 

In  use  for  dipping  citrus  nursery  stock  for  scale  insects  and  Red 
Spiders. 

Kerosene  emulsion  and  lime  sulphur  solution  also  used  for  dipping 
deciduous  nurserv  stock. 


WELL  TESTED  INSECTICIDES  487 

22.     HYDROCYANIC  ACID  GAS  : 

Potassium  cyanide    1  ounce 

Sulphuric    acid    1  fluidounce 

Water   3  fluidounces 

or 

Sodium  cyanide    1      ounce 

Sulphuric  acid  1H  fluidounces 

Water   2      fluidounces 

Place  water  and  acid  in  earthenware  vessel  and  add  cyanide.  To  be 
used  under  tents  or  tight  rooms  or  boxes. 

For  fumigating  buildings  or  nursery  stock,  1  ounce  of  cyanide  to 
each  100  cubic  feet  for  1  hour. 

For  scale  insects  on  citrus  trees,  maximum  or  Purple  Scale  dosage 
found  by  mutiplying  distance  around  by  distance  over  top  of  tented 
tree  and  pointing  off  two  places.  Example : 

Distance  around  Distance  over 

40  feet  X  20  feet  =  8  ounces  cyanide 

For  Red  or  Black  Scale,  reduce  one  quarter. 

For  details  of  fumigation  processes  for  scale  insects  on  citrus  trees, 
apply  for  publications  to  the  University  Experiment  Station  and  td 
Horticultural  Commissioners  in  citrus  fruit  growing  counties. 


CHAPTER  XL 
DISEASES  OF  TREES  AND  VINES 

A  few  suggestions  concerning  pathological  conditions  which  arise 
in  trees  and  vines  and  prescription  of  treatment  and  remedies  may  be 
helpful:  First,  diseases  demonstrated  to  be  caused  by  fungi  and  bac- 
teria ;  second,  abnormal  conditions,  of  which  the  causes  are  not  yet  clear. 

Powdery  Mildews. — Fungi  which  bring  upon  the  leaf  surface  the 
appearance  of  a  whitish  powder  and  afterwards  cause  the  leaf  to  curl 
and  dry  without  producing  marked  swelling,  perforation  or  discolora- 
tion, can  be  checked  by  the  use  of  sulphur.  The  chief  of  these  is  the 
mildew  of  the  grape,  the  mildew  of  the  apple,  appearing  chiefly  on 
the  young  growth,  etc.  The  way  to  use  sulphur  for  vine  mildew  is  to 
freely  apply  finely  ground  or  sublimed  sulphur  on  the  young  foliage  at 
the  first  sign  of  the  trouble,  or  before  it  appears  in  regions  where  it 
may  always  be  expected,  either  by  hand  or  with  suitable  machinery 
which  is  fully  discussed  in  Bulletin  186  of  the  California  Experiment 
Station.  Apple  mildew  is  treated  by  spraying  with  iron  sulphide  added 
to  the  poison  used  for  the  codlin  moth,  as  described  in  the  preceding 
chapter. 

Leaf-Spotting,  Puncturing  or  Deforming  Fungi. — These  classes 
are  usually  distinguishable  by  the  results  they  produce.  The  mildew 
of  the  peach  produces  dense,  whitish  patches  on  the  leaves  and  grow- 
ing fruit;  the  curl-leaf  fungus  of  the  peach  produces  swellings  and 
contortions  of  the  leaf;  the  scab  of  the  apple  and  pear  produces  first 
a  smoky  appearance  on  the  leaf  and  afterwards  causes  black  scabby 
patches  on  the  fruit  and  on  the  young  twigs ;  the  slot-hole  fungus  of 
the  apricot,  plum,  cherry,  and  almond  cuts  roundish  holes  in  the  leaves 
as  though  a  shotgun  had  been  discharged  through  the  foliage,  and 
then,  in  the  case  of  the  apricot,  produces  roundish,  dark  red  pustules 
on  the  fruit ;  the  brown  rot  which  attacks  both  twigs  and  fruit  of  apri- 
cots, prune,  blackberry,  etc.,  produced  eruptions  on  plums  and  peaches ; 
the  rust  fungi  of  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves,  first  of  a  yellowish  or 
orange  color,  changing  to  dark  brown  or  black,  and  causing  the  leaf 
to  fall.  These  fungi  are  only  slightly,  if  at  all,  checked  by  the  dry 
sulphur  treatment,  and  are  best  subdued  by  the  use  of  copper  solutions : 

The  Bordeaux  Mixture. — Lime,  four  pounds;  bluestone  (sulphate  of  copper), 
four  pounds ;  water,  forty  gallons.  Use  part  of  the  water  to  slake  the  lime  and 
dissolve  the  bluestone,  which  should  be  done  in  separate  vessels.  The  bluestone 
should  not  be  put  in  a  metal  vessel.  If  put  into  a  bag  and  suspended  near  the 
surface  of  the  water,  it  will  dissolve  more  readily,  or  hot  water  may  be  used 
in  making  the  solution.  Both  should  be  cold  when  mixed,  and  the  resultant 
mixture  will  be  a  beautiful  blue  wash.  If  mixed  hot,  a  black  compound  (copper 
oxide)  is  produced,  which  reduces  the  value  of  the  wash.  After  thorough 
mixing  of  the  solution,  water  should  be  added  to  bring  the  bulk  up  to  forty 
gallons. 

488 


THE    BORDEAUX    MIXTURE  489 

This  is  safe  to  use  on  foliage.  It  may  be  used  much  stronger  when 
trees  are  dormant — as  strong  as  ten  pounds  of  lime  and  ten  pounds  of 
bluestone  to  fortyi  gallons  of  water  to  kill  spores  of  fungi  on  the  bark, 
but  the  chief  advantage  of  the  stronger  mixture  is  not  directly  in  spore- 
killing  but  in  the  longer  resistance  to  removal  by  rains,  ^his  winter 
treatment  is  a  successful  preventive  of  curl-leaf  on  the  peach,  shot-hole 
on  the  apricot,  scab  on  the  apple  and  pear,  rust  on  the  prune,  etc.  In 
the  case  of  the  peach  blight,  which  is  an  invasion  of  the  young  bark 
by  the  shot-hole  fungus,  an  autumn  spraying  is  imperative  to  protect 
the  dormant  twigs.*  When  the  fungus  survives  winter  treatment  or 
when  it  attacks  the  fruit,  as  in  case  of  the  apricot  particularly,  or  the 
leaf  in  the  peach,  there  should  follow  the  weaker  Bordeaux  in  the 
spring  or  summer,  as  early  as  indications  of  the  diseases  may  appear. 
In  spraying  for  apple  and  pear  scab,  the  addition  of  five  pounds  of 
lead  arsenate  to  each  one  hundred  gallons  of  the  Bordeaux  Mixture 
makes  the  application  answer  also  for  the  codlin  moth,  as  described 
in  the  preceding  chapter. 

When  it  is  desirable  to  use  a  fungicide  on  fruit  near  the  picking 
season,  or  on  ornamental  plants,  which  would  be  disfigured  with  the 
lime  wash,  the  ammonical  copper  carbonate  may  be  submitted  for  the 
Bordeaux  Mixture,  viz. :  Copper  carbonate,  four  ounces ;  ammonia, 
forty  ounces ;  water  forty  gallons. 

The  usual  way  of  making  this  wash  is  to  dissolve  copper  carbonate 
in  ammonia,  and  then  dilute.  If  the  carbonate  is  not  fully  dissolved 
before  the  water  is  added,  it  can  not  be  further  dissolved,  and  not 
only  is  the  carbonate  wasted,  but  the  fluid  will  not  be  up  to  standard 
strength.  It  is  well,  therefore,  to  give  the  ammonia  ample  time  to  act, 
say  over  night,  before  adding  the  water. 

The  lime,  salt  and  sulphur  mixture,  as  already  prescribed  for  scale 
insects  in  the  preceding  chapter,  is  an  active  fungicide  for  winter  use. 
It  is  sometimes  a  satisfactory  curl-leaf  preventive  in  the  interior  valleys 
especially. 

Toadstool  Destruction. — Trees  are  often  destroyed  through  in- 
vasion by  toadstool  fungi  from  the  decaying  roots  or  wood  with  which 
their  roots  come  in  contact.  The  injury  is  often  not  detected  until  the 
tree  is  ruined  and  it  is  too  late  for  treatment.  If  only  part  is  affected, 
the  disease  may  sometimes  be  arrested  by  cutting  away  the  diseased 
parts  and  disinfection  of  the  exposed  tissue  with  Bordeaux  Mixture. 
Stone  fruits  are  most  susceptible  to  this  trouble,  the  cherry  being  least 
affected.  Young  apples  are  sometimes  attacked,  but  mature  trees  resist 
it.  Pears  and  figs  are  also  largely  resistant. 

Moss,  Lichens,  etc.,  on  the  Bark. — It  has  been  clearly  shown  by 
investigation  at  the  University  Experiment  Station  that  the  growth  of 
moss,  etc.,  upon  the  bark  of  fruit  trees  is  a  decided  injury.  All  trees 
should  be  assisted  to  maintain  clean,  healthy  bark.  This  is  accomplished 
by  the  use  of  the  lime,  salt  and  sulphur  mixture  already  prescribed  for 
scale  insects.  It  can  also  be  done  by  winter  spraying  with  caustic  soda 
or  potash,  one  pound  to  six  gallons  of  water. 

'Consult  Bulletin  191  of  the  University  Experiment  Station  on  "California  Peach  Blight." 


490  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS  :  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Blights  and  Decays. — There  are  several  blights  which  are  trace- 
able to  bacteria,  parasitic  growths  which  are  not  discernible  as  are  the 
fungi,  and  not  usually  amenable  to  spray  treatment,  because  they  exist 
wholly  within  the  tissues  of  the  plant  and  are  not  reached  by  applica- 
tions. The  blights  of  the  pear,  the  black  heart  of  the  apricot,  the  olive 
tuberculosis,  etc.,  are  instances.  Cutting  back  to  healthy  wood  (with 
tools  dipped  after  each  cut  in  corrosive  sublimate,  one  part  to  one 
thousand  parts  of  water),  and  burning  all  removed  parts,  is  the  best 
treatment  which  can  at  present  be  prescribed. 

The  walnut  blight,  demonstrated  by  Newton  B.  Pierce,  of  Santa 
Ana,  to  be  caused  by  a  bacterium,  has  so  far  resisted  treatment,  though 
there  seems  to  be  promise  of  good  results  from  spraying  in  February 
or  March,  before  growth  begins,  with  the  lime-sulphur  wash.  This 
serves  also  for  the  reduction  of  walnut  aphis,  which  is  sometimes  very 
injurious  to  the  tree  and  the  crop.*  The  disease  also  affects  the  leaves 
and  young  wood.  The  recourse  seems  walnut;  generally  worst  at 
the  blossom  end  and  usually  first  seen  there  early  in  the  season ;  later 
the  spots  run  together  and  encompass  considerable  areas  of  the  surface. 
As  the  disease  progresses  the  nut  is  transformed  into  a  hateful  black 
mass  and  is  utterly  destroyed.  The  disease  also  affects  the  leaves  and 
young  wood,  but  does  not  attack  the  old  wood  and  the  roots  as  the 
pear  blight  does.  It  is  therefore  more  easily  controlled.  The  recourse 
seems  to  be  toward  resistant  varieties,  as  stated  in  the  chapter  on  the 
walnut. 

DISEASES  NOT  TRACEABLE  TO  PARASITIC  GROWTHS 

There  are  a  number  of  prominent  troubles  which  are  not  traceable 
to  parasitic  invasion  of  any  kind,  and  yet  may  be  in  some  cases  pro- 
moted by  bacterial  growth  invited  by  preceding  conditions. 

Sour  Sap. — There  is  a  fermentation  of  the  sap,  quite  noticeable 
by  its  odor,  which  may  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the  tree,  from  the  root 
to -the  topmost  twigs;  sometimes  in  one  part  and  not  in  another.  Sour 
sap  in  the  root  is  generally  due  to  standing  water  in  the  soil,  and  the 
remedy  is  drainage.  Trees  thus  affected  make  an  effort  to  grow  and  then 
the  young  growth  shrivels.  Severe  cutting  back  of  the  top  to  reduce 
evaporation  until  the  roots  can  restore  their  feeding  fibers  is  the  only 
treatment  of  the  tree,  and  its  success  depends  upon  the  extent  of  the 
root  injury.  Sour  sap  may  also  be  caused  in  the  branches  by  the  occur- 
rence of  frost  after  the  sap  flow  has  actually  started.  Cutting  back  the 
diseased  parts,  as  soon  as  discovered,  to  sound  wood,  is  the  proper 
treatment. 

Die-Back. — Dying  back  of  twigs  or  branches  may  occur  without 
parasitic  invasion  through  root-weakness  or  partial  failure.  It  may 
be  due  to  standing  water  or  to  lack  of  soil  moisture,  either  of  which 
will  destroy  the  root-hairs  and  bring  the  tree  into  distress.  The  treat- 
ment is  cutting  back  to  sound  wood  and  correcting  the  soil  conditions, 
either  by  irrigation  or  drainage,  as  one  or  the  other  may  be  needed  to 
advance  vigorous  growth  in  the  tree. 

*See  Pacific  Rural  Press,  March  7,   1914. 


GUMMOSIS   AND   ROOT    KNOTS  491 

Gummosis. — This  is  a  convenient  term  to  designate  the  gumming 
which  is  seen  on  many  kinds  of  trees.  As  has  been  said  of  die-back, 
gumming  may  result  from  excess  of  water  or  of  drouth  in  the  soil. 
Gumming  is,  therefore,  not  always  to  be  considered  in  itself  a  disease, 
but  rather  an  indication  of  conditions  unfavorable  to  the  thrifty  growth 
of  the  tree.  It  has  been  usually  found  by  investigation  that  trees  in 
perfect  condition  of  health,  with  the  moisture  just  enough  and  not 
excessive,  are  not  troubled  with  gumming ;  but  there  are  cases  in  which 
this  statement  does  not  wholly  apply.  Prof.  H.  S.  Fawcett  has  dem- 
onstrated that  in  some  cases  it  is  communicable  because  of  a  fungus 
cause.  Full  accounts  of  this  may  be  expected  in  University  publica- 
tions. 

When  there  is  an  outbreak  of  gum  where  it  can  be  treated  it  is 
desirable  to  cleanly  remove  all  the  unhealthy  bark — cutting  clean  to 
sound  bark  and  covering  the  wound  with  paint  or  wax  to  exclude  the 
air.  Prof.  Fawcett  gives  these  detailed  suggestions : 

The  treatment  for  the  gummosis  caused  by  fungi  is  still  somewhat  in  the 
experimental  stage.  All  that  can  be  said  at  present  is  that  in  several  lemon 
groves  where  the  Bordeaux  paste  was  used  over  a  year  ago  the  results  appear 
very  promising. 

Before  applying  the  paste  on  lemon  trees  the  bark  that  is  dead  to  the  wood 
should  be  removed  to  allow  the  Bordeaux  to  get  in  to  kill  out  the  infection. 
In  case  the  outer  bark  is  infected  over  a  large  area  and  the  inner  or  cambium 
is  still  alive,  the  outer  layer  may  be  scraped  off  with  a  curved  sharp  tool  made 
on  purpose  for  this  work,  leaving  the  cambium  covered  by  inner  bark  still 
attached.  In  this  way  the  infection  is  killed  and  a  new  bark  is  built  up  under 
the  Bordeaux.  One  must  expect  the  gum  to  run  out  freely  for  several  weeks 
or  months  after  treatment.  One  should  watch  for  the  formation  of  new,  healthy 
tissue,  rather  than  the  amount  of  gum  that  may  run  out  after  treatment.  The 
gum  that  has  formed  under  the  bark  beyond  where  any  fungus  has  gone  will 
continue  to  drain  out.  The  gum  itself  does  not  as  a  rule  have  any  infectious 
principle  in  it.  The  fungus  is  in  the  diseased  bark  at  the  junction  of  the  live 
and  dead  tissue.  The  fungus  does  not  manufacture  the  gum,  but  causes  the  tree 
to  produce  it  from  its  own  products. 

The  formula  for  the  Bordeaux  paste  is  as  follows: 

One  pound  of  bluestone  dissolved  in  1  gallon  of  water  in  a  wooden  or  earthen 
vessel  by  hanging  it  in  the  top  in  a  sack.  Two  pounds  of  unslaked  lime,  slaked 
in  about  one-half  gallon  of  water.  Stir  together  when  cool,  making  a  light  blue 
mixture  about  the  consistency  of  whitewash.  Apply  with  a  brush.  This  may 
also  be  applied  to  healthy  bark  as  a  preventive  against  new  infections. 

Root  Knots. — These  are  excrescences  upon  the  roots  or  at  the 
root  crown  of  various  trees  and  of  grape-vines,  and  they  have  been 
a  serious  trouble  in  this  State  for  a  good  many  years.  Some  of  the 
knots  have  been  studied  by  experts  in  plant  pathology  and  the  cause 
of  the  trouble  demonstrated  to  be  a  fungus  and  the  disease  infectious. 
A  satisfactory  treatment  has,  however,  been  discovered.  If  the  knot 
has  not  increased  in  size  sufficiently  to  seriously  interfere  with  the 
growth  of  the  tree  it  can  be  smoothly  removed,  the  wound  treated  with 
the  Bordeaux  Mixture,  and  the  knot  will  not  reappear  at  the  same 
place.  Success  has  also  been  had  with  boring  a  hole  into  the  knot  and 
rilling  the  hole  with  bluestone  solution,  but  some  trees  have  been  killed 
in  this  way.  Bluestone  can  be  used  with  least  danger  when  the  tree 
is  dormant. 


492  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

As  for  treatment,  however,  it  seems  to  be  clear  that  if  the  trees  are 
not  too  large,  the  knots  can  be  removed  with  a  chisel  and  the  wound 
painted  with  the  Bordeaux  Mixture  to  the  advantage  of  the  tree;  but 
if  the  trees  are  old  and  the  knots  so  large  that  their  removal  would 
almost  girdle  the  tree,  it  is  a  question  whether  it  is  not  better,  on  the 
whole,  to  take  out  the  trees  and  plant  new  ones.  It  really  depends  upon 
the  condition  of  the  trees  whether  it  is  worth  while  to  remove  the  knots 
or  not.  If  the  tree  has  the  start  of  the  knot,  it  will  be  helped  by  re- 
moval ;  if  the  knot  has  the  start  of  the  tree  so  that  it  is  unthrifty,  there 
is  small  chance  of  reinvigorating  the  knots.  This  is  apparently  true, 
both  with  young  and  old  trees.  Old  trees  are  sometimes  badly  knotted 
and  still  productive  and  profitable. 


CHAPTER  XLI 
SUPPRESSION  OF  INJURIOUS  ANIMALS  AND  BIRDS 

The  beasts  of  the  field  and  the  fowls  of  the  air  are  sometimes  such 
grievous  trespassers  upon  the  fruit  plantation  that  protection  has  to 
be  sought  against  them.  The  animals  which  figure  in  this  evil  work 
are  mainly  species  of  rodentia,  some  of  them  burrowers;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  ground-squirrel  and  gopher;  others,  surface  dwellers,  like 
the  hare  or  jackass  rabbit.  Occasionally  there  is  injury  done  by  deer  in 
the  orchard  and  vineyard,  and  coons  in  the  melon  patch,  but  these 
larger  animals  may  usually  be  left  to  the  hunters  and  the  dogs. 


RABBITS 

Though  there  are  three  species  prevalent,  none  are  burrowers. 
This  fact  has  led  to  united  efforts  at  their  suppression  by  driving  them, 
with  mounted  horsemen,  from  a  wide  stretch  of  country  into  a  narrow, 
fenced  inclosure,  where  they  are  killed  with  clubs.  During  the  last 
few  years  tens  of  thousands  have  been  killed  in  this  way,  and  com- 
paratively few  are  now  found  in  the  localities  where  the  method  has 
been  adopted.  Still,  however,  there  are  plenty  at  large  to  vex  the  fruit 
planter,  and  he  must  protect  himself  against  them. 

Rabbit  Fences. — The  surest  protection  against  rabbits  is  a  fence 
which  prevents  their  entrance,  and  many  miles  of  such  fence  have  been 
built  in  this  State.  Several  styles  prevail.  The  ordinary  board  fence, 
with  the  boards  running  horizontally,  is  made  rabbit-proof  by  placing 
the  lower  boards  close  together,  with  openings  of  but  about  two  inches 


A  rabbit-proof  fence  in  successful  use  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley 

between  them.  A  barbed  wire,  with  barbs  about  two  and  one-half 
inches  apart,  can  be  used  to  advantage  by  running  it  along  at  or  a  little 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground  to  prevent  scratching  under. 

The  cost  of  board  fences  has  led  to  the  use  of  barbed  wire  and  wire 
netting,  or  of  perpendicular  slats  interwoven  with  wire.  Such  ma- 
terials are  sold  in  large  quantities.  A  very  effective  combination  of 
barbed  wire  and  netting,  which  is  used  in  the  upper  San  Joaquin  Val- 
ley, is  described  as  follows : 

493 


494  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

The  tall  posts  are  regular  split  redwood  posts.  The  intermediate  small  ones 
are  made  by  sawing  in  two  the  regular  posts  and  splitting  them  into  eight  small 
posts,  or  rather,  large  stakes.  The  netting  is  of  galvanized  wire,  No.  19  gauge, 
and  one  and  one-half  inch  mesh.  This  netting  is  stapled  to  the  posts  and  stakes 
on  the  inside,  or  toward  the  field.  This  is  of  prime  importance,  as  it  will  not 
serve  the  purpose  if  it  is  placed  on  the  outside.  The  bottom  of  the  netting  is  to 
come  down  to  the  ground,  and  the  ground  must  be  left  hard,  and  not  plowed  to 
prevent  burrowing,  or  scratching  the  dirt  from  underneath,  which  can  be  easily 
done  if  the  dirt  is  softened  up.  It  is  not  at  all  necessary  to  set  the  netting 
below  the  ground.  In  the  sketch  are  shown  three  barbed  wires,  with  barbs  two 
and  a  half  inches  apart.  These  wires  must  be  placed  on  the  outside  of  the 
posts.  This  position  is  also  a  prime  necessity.  The  lower  wire  is  stretched 
just  clear  of  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  middle  wire  is  one  inch  higher 
than  the  top  of  the  netting,  and  the  top  wire,  which  is  intended  only  as  against 
cattle,  is  at  a  height  suitable  for  the  purpose.  The  rabbit-proof  portion  is 
comprised  in  the  netting  and  the  two  lower  wires.  Hence,  if  cattle  are  not 
feared,  and  rabbits  are  the  only  foe,  the  top  wire  can  be  dispensed  with,  and  the 
posts  can  be  all  short  with  a  greater  proportion  of  stakes,  having  only  enough 
stout  posts  to  stand  the  strain  of  the  wires.  The  theory  of  this  construction  is 
that  a  rabbit  can  only  pass  the  fence  over  the  top  or  under  the  bottom  of  the 
netting,  and  this  is  effectually  prevented  by  the  barbed  wires,  which  tear  the 
animal  if  it  attempts  either  to  leap  or  climb  over  or  to  scratch  under. 

Smears  Distasteful  to  Rabbits. — Where  the  expense  of  a  fence 
can  not  be  assumed,  measurable  protection  can  be  had  by  sprinkling 
the  leaves  or  smearing  the  stems  of  plants  with  substances  distasteful 
to  the  animals,  which  are  quite  dainty  in  this  respect.  Commercial 
aloes,  one  pound  to  four  gallons  of  water,  both  sprinkled  on  leaves  and 
painted  on  the  bark,  gives  a  bitter  taste,  which  repels  rabbits.  A  tea 
made  of  steeping  quassia  chips  is  said  to  produce  the  same  effect. 
Rancid  grease,  liquid  manure,  putrescent  flesh  or  blood,  have  been 
approved  as  a  daub  for  tree  trunks,  but  the  efficacy  is  only  of  limited 
duration. 

Rabbit  Poison. — Pieces  of  watermelon  rind,  cantaloupe,  or  other 
vegetable  of  which  they  are  very  fond,  may  be  poisoned  with  strych- 
nine and  then  scattered  around  the  orchard.  Rabbits  will  not  touch 
the  bark  as  long  as  they  can  find  this  bait,  and  one  meal  is  effective, 
for  the  rabbit  never  gets  far  away  from  it.  The  same  results  can  be 
obtained  by  the  following  mixture :  To  one  hundred  pounds  of  wheat 
take  nine  gallons  of  water  and  one  pound  of  phosphorus,  one  pound 
of  sugar,  and  one  ounce  of  oil  of  rhodium.  Heat  the  water  to  boiling 
point  and  let  it  stand  all  night.  Next  morning  stir  in  flour  sufficient  to 
make  a  sort  of  paste.  The  rabbits  eat  it  with  avidity  if  scattered  about. 

Another  preparation  is  half  a  teaspoonful  of  powdered  strychnine, 
two  teaspoonfuls  of  fine  salt,  and  four  of  granulated  sugar.  Put  all  in 
a  tin  box  and  shake  well.  Pour  in  small  heaps  on  a  board.  It  hardens 
into  a  solid  mass.  They  lick  it  for  the  salt,  and  the  sugar  disguises  the 
poison,  which  kills  great  numbers. 


GROUND-SQUIRRELS 

Ground-squirrels  are  poisoned  by  the  use  of  the  poisoned  wheats 
which  are  sold  in  the  markets,  or  by  use  of  bisulphide  of  carbon,  or 
"smokers,"  which  are  arranged  to  force  smoke  or  poisonous  vapors 


GROUND    SQUIRRELS   AND    GOPHERS  495 

into  the  holes.  A  small  quantity  of  bisulphide  of  carbon  poured  into 
the  hole,  and  the  hole  closed  with  dirt,  is  probably  the  most  effective 
squirrel  killer,  when  the  ground  is  wet,  so  that  the  vapor  is  held  in  the 
burrow.  Smokers  are  also  most  effective  when  the  soil  is  moist.  When 
the  ground  is  dry,  poison  is  the  best  means  of  reducing  squirrels.  The 
following  is  an  exceedingly  effective  preparation,  of  which  a  few  grains 
should  be  placed  in  or  near  each  hole : 

Take  strychnine,  one  ounce ;  cyanide  of  potassium,  one  and  one-half  ounces ; 
eggs,  one  dozen;  honey,  one  pint;  vinegar,  one  and  one-half  pints;  wheat  or 
barley,  thirty  pounds.  Dissolve  strychnine  in  the  vinegar;  and  you  will  have  to 
pulverize  it  in  the  vinegar,  or  it  will  gather  into  a  lump.  See  that  it  is  all  dis- 
solved. Dissolve  the  cyanide  of  potassium  in  a  little  water.  Beat  the  eggs.  Mix 
all  the  ingredients  together  thoroughly  before  adding  to  the  barley.  Let  it  stand 
twenty-four  hours,  mixing  often.  Spread  to  dry  before  using,  as  it  will  mold  if 
put  away  wet. 

What  is  known  as  the  "government  formula,"  being  used  by  various 
departments  of  the  United  States  government  in  the  effort  to  eradicate 
ground  squirrels  from  California,  is  as  follows : 

Strychnine    (pulverized  alkaloid),  3  ounces. 

Starch,  ]/2  pint. 

Barley,  13  gallons. 

Water,  3  pints. 

The  water  is  placed  over  a  fire  and  heated  to  boiling;  the  starch 
is  dissolved  in  a  half-pint  of  cold  water  and  added  to  the  boiling  water, 
which  is  stirred  carefully  to  insure  uniform  consistence.  When  the 
starch  has  become  clear,  remove  it  from  the  fire  and  add  the  strych- 
nine. Mix  this  poisoned  paste  with  the  barley  until  every  kernel  is 
coated. 

To  keep  squirrels  from  gnawing  fruit  trees,  or  climbing  and  getting 
the  fruit,  tying  a  newspaper  around  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  letting  the 
paper  extend  out  four  inches  at  the  upper  edges,  is  said  to  be  effective 
by  some  growers,  though  this  is  denied  by  others.  The  rattle  of  the 
paper  when  the  squirrels  attempt  to  get  over  it  will  frighten  them. 


GOPHERS 

Gophers  can  often  be  destroyed  by  the  use  of  r^'soned  wheat, 
especially  prepared  with  a  little  oil  of  rhodium,  which  .  eems  to  be  very 
attractive  to  all  rodents.  Pieces  of  fruits  or  vegetable,  or  the  succulent 
stems  of  alfalfa,  into  which  a  few  grains  of  strychnine  have  been  in- 
serted by  making  a  cut  with  a  knife-blade  and  then  squeezing  it  together 
again,  are  also  handy  conveyors  of  death  to  gophers.  There  are  two 
ways  to  put  poisoned  materials  into  a  gopher  runway.  One  is  to  look 
for  fresh  open  holes  and  put  in  the  poison  as  far  as  possible  with  a 
long-handled  spoon ;  another  is  to  take  a  round,  pointed  stick  and  shove 
it  into  the  ground  near  the  gopher  mounds  until  it  strikes  their  run- 
way, then  drop  in  the  poisoned  bait.  Close  up  the  hole  with  some  grass ; 
level  down  mounds,  so  that  if  the  poison  does  not  kill  all  the  gophers, 
you  will  soon  discover  their  new  mounds.  If  there  are  many  mounds, 
put  the  poison  in  a  number  of  places. 


496  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

Bisulphide  of  carbon  is  also  successfully  used  in  killing  gophers, 
while  the  ground  is  wet,  using  an  injector  which  is  furnished  with  the 
poison  to  force  the  vapor  through  the  long  burrows. 

Trapping  Gophers. — Some  are  very  successful  in  using  gopher 
traps,  of  which  there  are  several  styles  sold.  Gophers  come  to  the  sur- 
face in  the  night,  and  generally  close  their  holes  soon  after  daybreak. 
They  frequently  emerge  again  about  noon,  and  a  third  time  late  in  the 
afternoon.  It  is  best  to  set  the  trap  in  an  open  hole ;  still  the  holes  may 
be  opened  if  the  dirt  is  still  fresh,  with  a  good  prospect  of  the  gopher's 
return.  Therefore,  the  trapper  may  make  his  rounds  three  times  a  day, 
as  above  indicated.  Care  should  be  exercised  in  preparing  the  hole  for 
the  insertion  of  the  trap,  a  straight  hole  for  a  distance  of  at  least  ten 
inches,  with  no  lateral  branches,  otherwise  the  gopher  in  pushing  out 
the  dirt  will  likely  enough  thrust  the  trap  to  one  side,  cover  it  up,  or 
spring  it  without  being  exposed  to  its  grasp.  The  trapper  should  be 
supplied  with  at  least  two  varieties  of  traps — one  for  the  larger  gophers, 
and  the  other  for  the  smaller  ones.  The  common  iron  gopher  trap, 
which  springs  downward,  is  excellent  for  the  former,  and  the  small 
wire  trap,  which  springs  upward,  is  generally  successful  with  the  latter. 
The  size  of  the  hole  is  indicative  of  the  size  of  the  gopher.  Either  trap 
should  be  inserted  nearly  its  full  length  into  the  hole,  pressed  down 
firmly,  and  a  little  dirt  piled  at  the  outer  end  to  prevent  its  being  easily 
pushed  out.  After  the  trap  is  set,  it  is  well  to  cover  the  opening  with 
some  grass  or  weeds.  Sometimes  the  holes  require  a  little  enlarging, 
but  care  should  be  taken  to  make  the  fit  as  close  as  possible,  that  the 
body  of  the  gopher  may  be  kept  near  the  center,  and  thus  more  exposed 
to  the  prongs  of  the  trap.  In  the  fourth  place,  the  trapper  should  have 
a  small  spade  and  a  little  gouge-shaped  instrument  for  trimming  the 
hole. 

Gopher  Pitfalls. — If  gophers  are  abundant,  large  numbers  can 
be  captured  in  this  way :  Dig  a  trench  around  the  orchard  or  vineyard 
about  the  width  of  a  spade  and  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  inches  deep. 
In  the  bottom  of  the  ditches,  about  a  hundred  feet  apart,  sink  five- 
gallon  oil  cans,  leaving  the  tops  level  with  the  ditch  bottom.  The 
gophers  migrate  in  the  night,  and  in  attempting  to  come  into  the  in- 
closure  will  fall  into  the  ditch  and  then  run  along  the  bottom  until  they 
drop  into  the  cans.  Of  course  the  ditch  must  not  be  wider  than  the 
cans.  As  many  as  fifteen  live  gophers  have  been  found  in  one  can. 
The  cats  soon  learn  to  help  themselves  out  of  the  cans.  The  ditch  must 
be  kept  clean,  and  if  any  roads  cross  the  tract,  set  up  a  board  at  night, 
to  compel  the  gophers  to  tumble  in  the  ditch.  This  ditch  should  be  con- 
structed about  the  first  of  June,  when  the  oustide  feed  begins  to  dry 
up,  and  the  pests  rush  for  the  cultivated  ground.  With  such  protection 
from  the  outside,  and  the  use  of  poison  and  traps  inside,  the  trees  and 
vines  can  be  saved. 

DESTRUCTIVE   BIRDS 

Fruit  growers  generally  appreciate  the  value  of  insectivorous  birds, 
but  there  are  feathered  pests  which  do  such  ruinous  work  in  disbudding 
the  trees  in  spring-time,  and  in  destroying  ripe  fruit  that  protective 


DESTRUCTIVE    BIRDS  497 

measures  have  to  be  adopted  against  them.  The  so-called  "California 
linnet,"  which  is  not  a  linnet,  but  a  finch  (Carpodacus  frontalis),  a  per- 
sistent destroyer  of  buds,  and  the  English  sparrow,  infamous  the  world 
over,  are  probably  the  most  grievous  pests,  though  there  are  other  de- 
structive birds,  including  the  beautiful  California  quail,  which  is  pro- 
tected by  law,  and  yet  must  be  destroyed  in  some  parts  of  the  State  or 
the  grape  crop  must  be  abandoned. 

For  the  killing  of  the  smaller  birds  poison  is  usually  employed,  and 
it  is  the  best  administered  in  water.  Poisoned  water  made  of  one-eighth 
ounce  of  strychnine  to  three  gallons  of  water  and  placed  in  shallow  tin 
pans  in  the  trees,  has  been  widely  approved.  Cutting  oranges  in  halves, 
spreading  strychnine  over  the  cut  surface  and  empaling  the  half  oranges 
on  twigs  high  up  in  the  apricot  trees,  has  destroyed  hundreds  of  linnets. 
Some  advocate  the  use  of  the  shotgun,  No.  30  caliber,  with  a  small 
charge  of  good  powder  and  No.  10  shot.  As  many  as  five  hundred 
linnets  have  been  killed  in  two  days.  The  advantage  of  this  plan  is 
that  one  kills  linnets  and  not  other  birds,  while  poison  kills  both  friends 
and  foes. 


CHAPTER  XLII 
PROTECTION  FROM  WIND  AND  FROSTS 

Though  the  climate  of  California  renders  unnecessary  the  protection 
against  rigorous  weather  which  fruit  growers  in  some  other  parts  of 
the  world  have  to  provide,  there  is  often  advantage  in  securing  shelter 
from  winds  and  protection  from  late  frosts. 

The  general  subject  of  forest  planting  in  California,  and  the  effect 
of  preservation  and  extension  of  our  forest  area  upon  our  fruit  indus- 
tries, has  received  the  attention  of  our  best-informed  growers.  The 
planting  of  shelter  belts  at  intervals  across  our  broad  valleys  at  right 
angles  to  the  courses  of  prevailing  or  most  violent  winds,  has  also  been 
urged  with  great  force.  These  greater  enterprises  and  projects  are 
beyond  the  scope  of  this  treatise.  It  is  rather  concerning  the  planting 
of  trees  to  shelter  individual  possessions  that  a  few  suggestions  will 
be  offered. 

It  has  been  already  remarked  that  on  the  immediate  coast  the  suc- 
cessful growth  of  fruit  will  sometimes  be  wholly  dependent  upon  proper 
shelter  from  prevailing  winds,  and  in  regions  farther  from  the  ocean 
the  topography  may  induce  strong  currents  of  air  which  will  illy  affect 
trees  and  vines.  In  all  such  places  the  fruit  grower  should  plant  wind- 
breaks, and  will  find  himself  well  repaid  for  the  ground  they  occupy, 
by  the  successful  production  on  the  protected  area. 

In  the  interior  valleys  there  is  also  need  of  shelter  from  occasional 
high  winds  which  may  visit  the  orchards  either  in  summer  or  winter, 
and  prove  destructive  both  to  trees  and  fruit.  In  some  cases  long  lines 
of  the  sheltering  trees  have  been  cut  down  because  they  affected  the 
fruiting  of  orchard  trees  planted  too  near  them,  and  afterwards  the 
losses  through  lack  of  protection  were  far  greater  than  would  have 
been  incurred  by  retaining  them. 

What  Kind  of  Trees  to  Plant. — This  is  a  question  concerning 
which  there  is  much  to  be  learned.  Data  is  accumulating  in  the  growth 
of  trees  planted  to  test  their  suitability,  and  the  future  planter  will  have 
more  certain  ground  to  proceed  upon  than  is  now  available.  Mention 
will  be  made,  however,  of  a  few  trees,  which  are  now  most  widely 
grown. 

The  most  widely  planted  shelter  tree  is  the  Eucalyptus  globulus, 
or  Australian  blue  gum.  It  is  a  rapid  grower  and  voracious  feeder, 
and  wonderful  for  root  extension,  for  which  it  has  been  roundly  abused. 
It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  we  have  a  better  tree  for  high  growth, 
and  consequent  large  area  over  which  its  shelter  will  be  felt.  It  is 
deficient  in  undergrowth,  and  if  a  close  screen  is  desired,  the  planting 
of  eucalyptus  and  Monterey  cypress  ( Cupressus  macrocarpa)  is  a  com- 
mon practice.  The  latter  also  attains  a  good  height,  but  its  broad,  thick 
base  fills  the  gaps  between  the  bare  stems  of  the  gum  trees.  Another 
tree  which  has  often  been  planted  with  the  blue  gum,  to  supply  a  thick, 

498 


TREES  FOR  WIND  BREAKS  499 

low  growth,  is  the  pepper  tree  (Schinus  molle).  It  is  also  grown  in 
rows  by  itself.  It  makes  a  dense  head,  grows  rapidly,  and  flourishes 
without  much  care.  Trees  planted  eighteen  feet  apart  will  soon  come 
together  and  make  a  dense  wall  of  very  beautiful,  bright,  light-green 
foliage.  The  pepper  is  not  only  a  good  windbreak,  but  also  an  excel- 
lent dust-catcher.  Unlike  most  trees  which  are  used  for  this  purpose, 
it  does  not  become  laden  with  dust.  The  leaves  are  smooth  and  glossy, 
and  therefore  repel  the  dust  particles,  which,  stopped  in  their  flight  by 
the  dense  foliage  of  the  tree,  instead  of  clinging  to  it  drop  to  the 
ground.  The  growth  of  the  pepper  tree  near  the  coast  is  much  slower 
than  that  of  the  Monterey  cypress.  The  eucalyptus  and  the  cypress 
for  the  coast,  and  the  eucalyptus  and  pepper  for  the  interior  valleys, 
make,  probably,  as  perfect  a  wall  of  foliage  all  the  year  round  as  can 
be  had.  The  blue  gum  is,  however,  somewhat  subject  to  frost  killing, 
especially  when  young,  and  in  very  frosty  places  is  objected  to  on  that 
account.  A  number  of  other  species  of  eucalyptus  are  now  being 
planted,  and  are  being  found  more  hardy  than  the  blue  gum.  The 
rostrata,  rudis,  tereticornis,  polyanthema,  amygdalina,  viminalis  and 
others  are  of  this  character. 

The  Monterey  pine  (Pinus  insignis)  is  a  rapid,  high-growing  tree, 
and,  though  a  native  of  the  coast,  has  proved  itself  well  adapted  to  the 
interior  valleys  of  the  central  portion  of  the  State.  Its  foliage  is  dense 
for  a  pine,  and  its  shelter,  therefore,  the  more  complete.  A  native  white 
cedar  (Libocedrus  decurrens)  has  also  been  employed  as  a  shelter  tree 
in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  and  is  commended  as  a  rapid  grower  in  the 
interior  as  on  the  coast.  Its  ability  to  stand  drouth,  heat  and  frost  is 
said  to  exceed  that  of  any  of  the  conifers  of  the  seacoast.  It  stands 
well  in  the  most  exposed  situations,  as  its  roots  run  very  deep  into  the 
earth  and  it  is  claimed  that  it  does  not  sap  the  fertility  from  the  soil 
around  its  base,  as  with  the  blue  gum.  It  is  also  said  to  be  less  subject 
to  frost  injury  than  the  Monterey  cypress  and  pine. 

All  the  foregoing  are  evergreen  trees,  and  therefore  afford  protec- 
tion summer  and  winter  alike.  Of  deciduous  trees  there  are  many 
which  may  be  well  employed.  The  California  black  walnut  makes  a 
very  satisfactory  growth  both  in  the  interior  and  upon  the  coast,  and 
is  largely  used  for  roadside  planting.  The  California  broad-leaved 
maple  (Acer  macrophylla)  is  very  beautiful,  rapid  in  growth,  and  dense 
in  foliage,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  box  elder  (Acer  negrundo),  but 
probably  both  trees  are  especially  suited  to  the  coast  regions.  Of  the 
poplars,  the  Carolina  (Populus  monilifera)  is  best,  because  of  its 
breadth,  density  of  foliage,  and  comparative  freedom  from  suckering. 
The  locust  (Robinia  pseudacacia)  is  used  to  some  extent,  but  its  suck- 
ering is  very  objectionable. 

Quite  a  number  of  the  larger-growing  deciduous  fruit  trees  are  used 
to  some  extent  along  the  exterior  lines  of  orchards  for  the  protection 
of  the  inclosure.  The  fig,  the  walnut,  the  chestnut,  seedling  almonds, 
and  apricots  are  especially  commended  for  such  use. 

Growing  Trees  from  Seed. — Much  that  has  been  said  in  Chapter 
VIII  will  be  suggestive  to  one  who  desires  to  grow  his  own  shelter 
trees  from  seed.  Trees  from  small  seeds  are  best  grown  in  boxes,  and 


500  CALIFORNIA  FRUITS:  HOW  TO  GROW  THEM 

in  many  cases,  as  with  eucalyptus  and  cypress  especially,  do  best  when 
put  in  permanent  place  when  quite  small.  Whether  put  at  once  in 
permanent  place,  or  in  nursery,  the  land  should  be  deeply  worked  and 
the  young  plant  well  planted  and  cared  for. 

Cultivation  of  Shelter  Trees. — If  one  desires  rapid  growth  of 
shelter  trees,  they  should  be  cultivated  the  first  few  years  as  thoroughly 
as  an  orchard.  Much  disappointment  results  from  allowing  roadside 
trees  to  shift  for  themselves  in  a  hard,  dry  soil.  With  such  treatment 
the  root  extension  is  naturally  most  rapid  into  cultivated  orchard 
ground,  which  is  undesirable.  Cultivate  and  enrich  the  roadside,  and 
the  tree  will  grow  chiefly  on  the  waste  land.  At  the  same  time  the 
roadside  will  be  prevented  from  producing  vast  quantities  of  weed  seed, 
to  be  blown  over  the  fence,  and  the  place  will  have  a  name  for  neatness, 
which  is  too  rare  even  in  California. 


PROTECTION  FROM  FROSTS 

Much  attention  has  been  given  during  recent  years  to  the  protection 
of  citrus  fruits  as  they  approach  maturity,  and  of  deciduous  fruits  as 
they  are  starting  on  their  growth,  from  occasional  fall  of  the  mercury 
a  few  degrees  below  the  freezing  point.  It  has  been  shown  by  ample 
experience  that  fruits  may  escape  injury  by  a  temperature  of  28  degrees 
if  the  ground  surface  is  wet  and  the  exposure  be  but  of  short  duration. 
Fruit  has,  therefore,  been  saved  by  irrigation,  while  that  over  dry 
ground  has  been  nipped  by  the  same  temperature.  About  the  same  re- 
sult has  been  secured  by  checking  radiation  of  heat  by  covering  the  or- 
chard or  vineyard  with  a  cloud  of  smoke.  Both  these  protective  meas- 
ures fail  when  the  temperature  falls  a  few  degrees  below  28  degrees  or 
when  such  freezing  temperature  is  continued  for  several  hours. 

During  recent  years  much  progress  has  been  made  in  preventing 
frost  by  numerous  small  fires  distributed  among  the  trees  to  be  pro- 
tected and  many  devices  to  secure  such  distributed  heat  easily  and 
economically  are  being  enterprisingly  promoted  by  inventors  and  manu- 
facturers. The  extreme  low  temperatures  of  January,  1913,  gave  full 
opportunities  for  testing  orchard  heating  appliances  and  very  striking 
success  was  had  with  them.  Comparative  tests  and  observations  have 
been  made  by  the  experts  of  the  University  Experiment  Station,  but 
conclusions  are  not  available  at  this  date.  They  must  be  looked  for  in 
Experiment  Station  bulletins,  in  the  publications  of  the  U.  S.  Weather 
Bureau  and  in  the  horticultural  journals.  The  subject  is  clearly  seen 
to  be  too  complex  to  admit  of  a  brief  generalization  except  to  say  that, 
when  orchard  heating  is  thoroughly  and  economically  done,  it  is  a  most 
profitable  investment  and  should  be  studied  by  all  growers. 


SUSCEPTIBILITY  OF  DECIDUOUS  FRUITS 

No  systematic  observations  of  danger  points  in  deciduous  fruits 
have  been  made  in  this  State,  but  work  elsewhere  is  suggestive.  Pro- 
fessor W.  L.  Howard,  of  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station,  after  arti- 


OBSERVATIONS    ON    FROST    INJURIES  501 

ficially  freezing  thousands  of  peach  buds,  summarized  the  critical  tem- 
peratures as  follows : 

"Fully  dormant  peach  buds  can  stand  8  or  9°  below  zero,  F.  When  they 
are  appreciably  swollen,  zero  is  the  danger  point.  When  the  buds  are  showing 
pink,  they  can  stand  15°  above  zero.  When  the  buds  are  almost  open,  25°  is 
the  danger  point.  When  they  are  newly  opened,  about  26°  would  be  the  point 
of  danger.  When  the  petals  are  beginning  to  fall,  28°  above  zero  is  dangerous. 
When  the  petals  are  off  they  can  stand  30°  above  zero.  When  the  'shucks' 
(calyx  lobes)  are  beginning  to  fall  off,  32°  is  the  danger  point."  Presumably 
these  limits  would  apply  also  to  the  apricot  and  almond. 

Apple  buds,  when  the  petals  begin  to  show,  can  stand  from  10  to  12  degrees 
of  freezing.  When  the  petals  are  well  emerged,  but  have  not  opened,  they  can 
stand  from  4  to  6  degrees  of  freezing,  but  when  open,  but  not  yet  fertilized, 
there  would  be  great  danger  at  two  or  three  degrees  below  the  freezing  point. 
When  the  flowers  have  been  fertilized,  the  petals  dropped,  and  the  young  fruit 
increasing  in  size,  the  slender  stems  which  support  the  apples  are  unable  to 
resist  a  temperature  lower  than  the  freezing  point.  The  apples  seem  to  be 
more  hardy  than  their  stems,  but  if  the  latter  are  injured  of  course  the  fruit 
also  suffers.  Similar  behavior  may  be  expected  from  the  pear,  cherry  and  plum. 

Orchard  Frost  Studies. — In  connection  with  the  foregoing  it  is 
interesting  to  note  conclusions  which  Prof.  Fabian  Garcia  draws  from 
several  years'  observation  of  frost  effects  in  the  orchard  of  the  New 
Mexico  Experiment  Station  and  of  which  full  details  are  given  in 
Bulletin  89  of  that  station,  under  date  of  February,  1914 : 

The  data  recorded  at  the  Station  show  that  the  fruit-buds,  particularly  those 
of  the  peach,  at  their  different  stages  of  development  are  somewhat  more  resist- 
ant to  cold  than  has  been  reported  by  observers  from  others  parts  of  the  United 
States.  The  data  further  show  that  the  degree  of  resistibility  to  frost  varies 
with  different  stages  of  growth. 

The  peach  is  least  resistant  when  it  is  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  when  the 
calices  are  falling  off.  Contrary  to  the  findings  of  other  observers,  the  bloom 
is  not  the  most  tender  stage  of  growth.  In  other  words,  the  data  indicate  that 
the  newly  set  peach  is  more  delicate  than  the  newly  opened  blossom. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  a  temperature  of  26  degrees,  lasting  only  a  short 
time,  did  little  or  no  injury  to  the  opening  bud,  newly  opened  blossom  or  newly 
set  fruit  of  the  peach,  native  plum,  pear  and  apple;  while  one-half  a  degree 
below  this,  or  2$*/2  degrees,  although  lasting  only  a  few  minutes,  killed  a  large 
percentage  of  the  opening  buds,  newly  set  blossoms  and  young  fruits  of  the 
peach,  in  a  number  of  cases.  In  other  words,  26  degrees  was  the  danger  point, 
and  any  temperature  below  this  is  liable  to  do  more  or  less  injury;  depending 
on  how  low  it  gets  and  how  long  it  remains  at  that  temperature.  In  some  cases, 
however,  a  temperature  of  24  degrees  lasting  only  a  short  time  left  about  25% 
of  the  blooms  and  9%  of  the  newly  set  fruits  uninjured. 

Three  important  factors  that  influence  the  amount  of  damage  done  by  spring 
frosts  are :  the  degree  of  killing  temperature,  the  time  of  day  at  which  it  occurs, 
and  the  length  of  time  the  temperature  remains  below  the  danger  point.  The 
longer  the  time  the  killing:  temperature  remains  and  the  nearer  it  is  to  sunrise, 
the  greater  the  amount  of  damage  that  should  be  expected. 

As  a  rule,  the  killing  temperature  recorded  in  these  experiments  occurred 
in  the  morning,  from  one  to  two  hours  before  sunrise.  Whenever  the  killing 
temperature  occurred  this  late  in  the  morning,  and  remained  below  the  danger 
point  until  sunrise,  the  injury  was  great.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  minimum 
occurred  at  midnight,  or  a  little  later,  and  then  gradually  rose  to  the  freezing 
point,  so  that  the  frozen  buds,  blooms  and  fruits  had  time  to  thaw  out  slowly 
before  sunrise,  the  injury  was  insignificant.  This  was  the  case  April  5,  1910, 
when  at  2:15  A.  M.  the  temperature  was  24^4  degrees.  By  5:30  it  had  risen  to 
31  degrees,  and  the  injurv  done  to  the  Alexander  peaches — which  were  in  full 
bloom — was  estimated  at  2^2%. 

As  the  young  fruit  develops  it  seems  to  get  more  tender,  until  it  grows 
beyond  a  certain  size,  when  it  seems  to  get  hardier  again ;  so  that  the  later  frosts 


502  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS  I    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

which  come  after  the  young  fruits  have  made  quite  a  growth  are  liable  to  do 
more  injury  than  the  same  degree  of  cold  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  season,  when 
the  fruits  are  less  developed.  At  this  stage  of  growth,  26l/2  to  27  degrees  would 
probably  be  dangerous  to  peaches.  The  very  late  frost  of  25  degrees  on  May  4, 
1912,  killed  practically  all  the  peaches  in  the  experimental  orchard,  while  24^4 
degrees  on  April  17,  1910,  left  about  30%  of  the  Elbertas. 

On  the  whole,  apples  and  pears  seem  to  be  more  resistant  than  peaches  and 
plums.  This  was  strongly  indicated  in  1912,  when  practically  all  the  peach  crop 
was  destroyed  on  May  4,  by  a  temperature  of  25  degrees;  while  there  was  a 
very  heavy  crop  of  pears  and  apples  harvested  the  following  fall. 

European  and  native  plums  seem  to  be  slightly  hardier  than  Japanese  plums 
and  apricots,  which  are  the  least  resistant  of  all  the  fruits  included  in  the  test. 


DELAYING  BLOOM  BY  WHITEWASH 

Another  suggestion  conies  from  Missouri.  It  is  concerning  delay- 
ing activity  in  deciduous  trees  by  spraying  with  whitewash  to  reflect 
heat — the  absorption  of  which  by  -dark  bark  causes  the  activity  of  the 
tree  to  begin.  Prof.  J.  C.  Whitton  of  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station 
says: 

Purple  coloring  matter  on  untreated  peach  trees  often  absorbs  heat  enough 
on  a  sunny  cold  day  in  winter  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  trees  25  degrees 
or  more  above  the  temperature  of  the  atmospehere.  Whitened  trees  remain  at 
atmospheric  temperature  or  usually  a  degree  or  so  below. 

For  ten  consecutive  years  we  whitewashed  diagonal  rows  of  peach  trees 
across  the  Experiment  Station  orchard  just  before  midwinter.  In  this  section 
we  had  five  general  peach  crops  during  that  ten  years  on  untreated  trees;  on 
whitewashed  trees  of  the  same  varieties  we  had  eight  crops.  The  five  crops  on 
untreated  trees  were  not  all  full  crops;  the  eight  crops  on  treated  trees  were  all 
but  two  full  crops.  More  than  double  the  amount  of  fruit  was  secured  in  ten 
years  on  the  whitewashed  trees.  The  treated  trees  were  anywhere  from  a  few 
days  up  to  ten  days  later  in  blooming.  In  years  when  normal  weather  prevailed 
until  sudden  warm  spells  brought  the  trees  into  bloom  hurriedly,  there  was  only 
a  little  difference  in  time  of  blooming,  and  under  normal  conditions  there  was  a 
week  or  more  difference  in  their  blooming.  This  is  less  important,  however, 
than  the  fact  that  the  whitewashed  trees  began  their  first  starting  into  slight 
growth  on  sunny  days  in  late  winter  fully  six  weeks  later  than  the  naked  trees. 


PART  TEN:     MISCELLANEOUS 


CHAPTER  XLIII 
UTILIZING  FRUIT  WASTES 

Some  progress  has  been  recently  attained  in  the  securing  of  horti- 
cultural by-products  from  various  kinds  of  fruit  wastes.  There  is  a 
considerable  product  of  cream  of  tartar  from  the  pomace  and  lees  of 
the  wineries  in  central  California.  In  southern  California  citric  acid 
factories  have  to  some  extent  used  lemons  rejected  in  packing,  and 
some  other  by-products  of  citrus  fruits  have  been  secured  in  small 
quantities.  Vinegar  from  wine  and  cider  are,  of  course,  made  here  as 
everywhere  in  fruit  countries. 

There  has  arisen  also  a  profitable  export  demand  for  fruit  pits  and 
apricot  and  peach  pits,  which  formerly  were  burned,  are  now  selling 
profitably — machinery  for  cheap  extraction  of  the  kernels  have  been 
contrived  by  California  inventors.  The  kernels  are  bought  by  agents 
of  European  manufacturers  of  oils  and  essences.  Apricot  kernels  are 
used  by  confectioners  in  place  of  almonds. 

Comparative  value  of  fruits,  and  hay,  grains,  meals,  etc. 

100  Pounds  Fruit  Equivalent  to  Pounds  of 


FRESH  FRUITS. 


Apples    ..........  34 

Oranges     ........  33 

Pears    ...........  40 

Plums   ...........  50 

Prunes    ..........  46 

Apricots     ........  40 

Nectarines     ......  43 

Figs     ............  50 

Grapes    ..........  50 

Watermelons     ----  22 

Nutmeg     Melons..  19 

DRIED  FRUITS. 


O 

24 
23 
30 
36 
33 
29 
30 
37 
37 
16 
13 


15 
14 
18 
24 
22 
18 
20 
24 
24 
10 
9 


O 

17 

16 
20 
25 
23 
20 
22 
26 
26 
11 
9 


I 

16 
15 
19 
24 
22 
19 
21 
25 
25 
11 
9 


!     1 

u      uS 

13 

12 
15 
20 
18 
15 
17 
20 
20 
8 
7 


Dried  prunes  . 
Dried  apricots 
Dried  peaches 
Dried  figs  .... 

.  ..  175 
..  194 
.  ..  190 
.  ..  186 

104 
115 
113 
110 

125 
138 
135 
132 

78 
86 
85 
83 

82 
90 
88 
85 

88 
97 
95 
93 

84 
93 
91 
89 

92 
102 
100 
97 

84 
93 
91 
89 

67 
74 
72 
71 

48 
53 
51 
50 

68 
76 
74 
7? 

.  .  216 

128 

153 

97 

100 

108 

103 

111 

103 

82 

59 

84 

The  disposition  of  waste  fruit  by  growers  must,  however,  always 
lie  chiefly  in  the  line  of  feeding  animals  unless  denatured  alcohol  enter- 
prises should  arise  to  consume  it  at  prices  to  pay  something  more  than 

503 


504  CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 

cost  of  handling1.  Refuse  fresh  fruits  of  all  kinds,  and  especially  refuse 
dried  fruits  have  nutritive  value  which  should  not  be  lost.  A  statement 
of  the  value  of  various  fruits  as  compared  with  various  cattle  foods 
has  been  prepared  by  Prof.  M.  C.  Jaffa,  of  the  University  Experiment 
Station,  in  the  adjacent  table. 

A  good  average  of  the  pitted  fresh  fruits  is  represented  by  prunes. 
Using  the  equivalents  in  the  table  above  for  computation,  it  appears 
that  if  wheat  bran  costs  $15  per  ton,  fresh  prunes  would  be  worth  as  a 
substitute  $3  per  ton ;  likewise,  if  cottonseed  meal  is  selling  for  $21  per 
ton,  the  prune  value  would  be  about  $2.75.  At  the  market  price  of  oat 
hay,  the  figures  for  fresh  prunes  should  be  nearly  $3  per  ton. 

The  dried  fruits  naturally  rank  far  above  the  fresh  material  as  stock 
feed.  Of  the  dried  fruits  represented  in  the  table,  raisins  lead  in  food 
value ;  containing  one  and  one-fourth  to  one  and  one-half  times  the 
nutritive  ingredients  of  alfalfa  and  oat  hays,  respectively ;  100  pounds 
of  the  fruit  being  practically  equal  to  the  same  quantity  of  grain,  but  to 
only  eighty-two  and  fifty-nine  pounds  respectively  of  rice  bran  and 
cottonseed  meal. 

Dried  apricots  rank  slightly  lower  than  raisins,  because  they  contain 
more  water.  Apricots  are,  however,  of  equal  value  as  a  feeding  stuff 
with  wheat  bran  and  almond  hulls  about  half  as  much  as  alfalfa  hay, 
bran  or  middlings. 

Concerning  the  feeding  of  raisins  to  hogs,  the  following  statements 
are  made :  "With  raisins  selling  at  2J^  cents  per  pound  they  are  much 
cheaper  food  for  hogs  than  corn  or  barley.  Raisins  give  the  hog  a 
hard,  sweet  meat  and  are  much  sought  after  by  the  butchers.  Care 
must,  however,  be  exercised  in  feeding  raisins  to  hogs,  as  they  are  full 
of  sugar,  and  consequently  too  rich  when  fed  alone.  They  heat  the 
animal  up  so  that  the  hogs  lose  flesh  and  will  kill  the  little  pigs  of  a 
farrowing  sow.  For  fall  and  winter  feeding,  pumpkins,  citrons  and 
alfalfa  are  the  best  feed  to  give  the  hogs  in  conjunction  with  the  raisins, 
but  in  the  spring  a  change  is  found  very  beneficial. 

Many  people  feeding  raisins  to  hogs  are  not  having  the  success 
they  should  because  they  overfeed  their  porkers.  A  pound  of  raisins 
a  day  is  ample  to  start  in  with.  After  the  system  of  the  hog  has  become 
accustomed  to  the  raisins  the  amount  can  be  increased  so  that  the  last 
three  weeks  each  hog  should  get  about  four  pounds  of  raisins  a  day. 
The  last  ten  days,  when  the  finishing  touches  are  being  put  on,  the  hogs 
should  be  allowed  all  they  can  get." 

Wine  grapes  rich  in  sugar  have  been  cheaply  dried  on  the  ground 
and  used  to  advantage  for  hog  feed.  One  grower  says  that  in  1908 
failing  to  get  $6  per  ton  for  his  grapes,  he  dried  them  and  fed  them  to 
hogs.  Having  more  than  the  hogs  required,  grapes  were  fed  to  the 
horses :  "The  horses  soon  got  a  taste  for  them  and  seemed  to  thrive 
well  on  the  new  diet  and  in  a  short  time  became  fat  and  sleek,  while 
they  were  being  worked  as  hard  as  ever,  and  we  continued  to  feed  them 
dried  grapes  and  have  kept  it  up  for  a  whole  year.  The  effect  seems 
to  have  made  the  old  horses  five  years  younger,  both  in  looks  and  in 
ability  to  work.  The  hogs  fattened  up  so  quick  that  we  thought  the 


VALUE  OF  FRUITS  AS  STOCK  FEED  505 

pork  would  be  soft  and  sloppy,  but  to  our  surprise,  we  never  had  better 
bacon  and  ham  than  was  produced  from  these  grape-fed  porkers.  It 
was  not  only  solid,  but  sweet  and  tender." 

Prune-fed  and  raisin-fed  pork  is  indeed  an  accomplished  fact  in 
California.  As  to  the  acceptability  of  the  fruit  diet  to  the  hog,  what 
could  be  more  pertinent  and  more  fitting  appendix  to  this  treatise  than 
this  little  tale?  It  is  stated  that  Mr.  Balaam,  of  Farmersville,  used  to 
have  a  pet  pig  that  ran  under  the  fig  trees  near  the  house.  When  the 
fruit  began  to  drop,  he  ate  figs  and  rested  in  the  shade  until  he  finally 
grew  too  fat  to  move  about  to  gather  the  sweet  morsels.  By  this  time 
his  owner  became  so  much  interested  in  the  case  as  to  carry  him  his 
figs  regularly  three  times  daily.  Gradually  he  grew  so  fat  that  his  eyes 
closed  entirely,  but  still  he  ate  figs  in  contentment  and  delight. 


PLATE  ILLUSTRATIONS 

OPPOSITE 
PAGE  NO. 

Plate  I.     California  homes  submerged  in  a  sea  of  winter  blossoms 3 

II.    Apricot  trees  with  and  without  summer  cultivation 105 

III.    Ground  view  of  good  job  of  fruit-thinning 121 

"  IV.     Cement  ditches  and  irrigation  by  check  system 169 

"  V.    Orchard  irrigation  by  furrow  system 185 

"  VI.    A  good  start  toward  an  apple  orchard 201 

VII.    Typical  aspect  of  a  bearing  apricot  orchard 217 

"          VIII.     Young  cherry  orchard  in  good  form 225 

"  IX.     Bearing  peach  orchard  in  an  irrigated  district 257 

"               X.  Development  of  strong-branching  form  in  the  French  prune. .  265 

XI.    Orchard  of  shipping  plums  in  a  foothill  district 281 

XII.     Shaping  the  grape  clusters  for  shipping 289 

XIII.     Profuse  bearing  of  vine  by  long  pruning 321 

"          XIV.     Bearing  of  the  young  date  palm  in  California  329 

XV.     The  Sevillano  olive  as  grown  in  Tehama  County 345 

XVI.     Olives  popular  in  California   353 

"        XVII.     Partial  view  of  Riverside  citrus  district 385 

"       XVIII.    Orange  trees  with  sucker  growth  and  good  growth 393 

XIX.     Bearing  of  young  budded  orange  tree  and  orchard  view  with 

cover  crop 409 

XX.    The  Mammoth  Blackberry 417 

XXL    The  Loganberry 449 

"        XXII.     Strawberry  patch  with  cane  windbreak  and  almond  trees  in 

bloom 457 

"       XXIII.     Cleft  graft  of  walnut  and  method  of  supporting  grafts 473 

"       XXIV.     California  sunshine  evaporator  with  accessory  buildings 481 


506 


INDEX 


Page 

Acorns,  edible   40 

Alfalfa  in  orchard  131,  439 

Alkaline  Soils   34 

Alligator  Pear   401 

Almond,  The  424 

growing  from  seed 68 

hulling  and  bleaching  426 

pollination    428 

propagation    68,  425 

pruning    426 

situations  and  soils 425 

wild    40 

varieties    194,  429 

Animals,  injurious   493 

Ants,  killing  482 

Apple  in  California 195 

aphis,   resistant    197 

aphis,  woolly   473 

drying    454 

exposures   for    196 

gathering    200 

irrigation    200 

localities  for  196 

mildew     488 

mission    42 

native  crab   36 

planting  distance    198 

picking  and  packing  202 

pollination    204 

propagation    197 

pruning    198 

scab  or  smut  488 

second  crop  196 

seedlings,   growing    66,  67 

shipping    203 

soils    for    197 

storehouse    for    201 

summer  and  fall 203 

table  of  varieties 209 

thinning    125,  200 

varieties,  most  popular 193 

when  to  pick 200 

winter    203 

worm    480 

varieties    193,  204 

Apricot    210 

climatic   requirements    211 

diseases  of   217 

distances  for  213 

drying     454 

exposures  for  211 

growing  seedlings    68 

irrigation    216 

localities  for   211 

mission    42 

507 


Page 
Apricot — continued 

old  trees    210 

on  almond  root 213 

planting    213 

pruning    214 

shot-hole  fungus  218 

stocks  and  soils  for 212 

table  of  varieties 218 

thinning    125,  216 

varieties    193,  219 

Army  Worms 466 

Atmospheric  humidity   21 

Banana,  The    393 

Barberry,  native   39 

Bear  berry   39 

Bergamot    392 

Berries  and  currants  404 

Berries,  various  wild  38 

Birds,  poisoning   496 

Blackberry,  The   405 

cultivation 406 

hybrids    417 

distances  for    405 

irrigating    408 

longevity  of   408 

propagation    405 

pruning    406,  410 

wild    38 

varieties    408 

Blasting  for  planting  94 

Borers  104,  477,  480 

Bones,  treatment  of  143 

Bordeaux  Mixture    488,  491 

Brush,  cutting  to  kill 62 

Budding,   common  method 73 

June 73 

over  old  trees 82 

spring    76 

Bud,  cutting  to  a 123 

Buds,  dormant 81 

Buffalo    berry    39 

Cactus   fruits    40 

Canned  fruit  product   445 

Canning  industry  445 

Canker   worms    467 

Caterpillars 467 

Chain  for  laying  out 93 

Chamisal  and  chanarral  57 

Charcoal  making   61 

Cherimoyer    394 

Cherry   221 

delayed  fruiting  of 223 

distances   for    225 

exposures  for  224 

gum  disease  228 


508 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS:    HOW    TO   GROW    THEM 


Page 
Cherry — continued 

grafting  the   227 

localities  for 221 

moisture  requirements    222 

old  trees   221 

pests  and  diseases  228 

pruning  the 225 

seedlings  growing   67 

slug    468 

soils  for  the  222 

stocks  for  the  224 

table  of  varieties    230 

wild    37 

varieties    193,  229 

Chestnut,  The  430 

seedlings  68 

wild    40 

Choco  or  Chayota  394 

Cipoletti  Weir  183 

Citron,  The    392 

Clearing  land  for  fruit 57 

brushy    60 

cost  of  58 

grading    63 

steam  puller   59 

stump  puller 60 

with  powder 60 

time  to  cut  to  kill 62 

Climate,  divisions  of  California 11 

of  California,  characteristics  of.  .9,  18 

of  California,  why  mild... 10,  18 

foothill    15 

mountain  16 

coast    13 

valley    14 

value  of 23 

Cloudiness,  east  and  west 21 

Coast  pests  and  diseases 14 

Codlin  moth 480 

Composting    146 

Corner,  to  find  true 90 

Cover  crops  150 

Cranberries    412 

wild    39 

Crops  between  trees  or  vines 131 

Crystallizing   fruit    446 

Cultivation    128 

adequate    129 

hillside       134 

methods  of  132 

purposes  of  128 

shallow,  results  of 130 

summer    135,  137 

to  retain  moisture 128 

without  plowing  136 

Currants    412 

culture  of   413 

regions  for  413 

varieties  grown  414 

wild    38 

Custard  apple   394 

Cutworms    .  466 


Page 

Cuttings,  fruit  trees  from 70 

Dates    319 

at  the  missions  319 

bearing  age  of 322 

bearing  in  Solano  County 320 

blooming  of 322,  323 

first  fruit   320 

from  seed  321 

from  suckers   322 

propagation  of 320 

requirements  of 320 

transplanting    321 

Dewberry    409 

Diabroticas   482 

Die-back    490 

Dormant  buds   82 

Drainage  desirable 63,  189 

Dried  fruits  (see  fruits) 447 

boxes  for  453 

covering    450 

cutting  sheds  451 

dipping    453 

drying  floors    450 

grading  and  cleaning  451,  452 

packing    453 

product  of  448 

sulphuring    451 

sweating    453 

trays  for  450 

worm    482 

Elderberries   37 

Evaporated  Fruits    460 

Evaporator,  sunshine  450 

Fertilizers  in  California J40 

caution  in  use  of 141,  148 

for  trees  and  vines 141 

lime  and  gypsum   144 

methods  of  applying   149 

value  of  green  150 

when  necessary    141 

sources  of  nitrogen   144 

sources  of  phosphoric  acid 143 

sources  of  potash   143 

waste  products  for  147 

Feijoa  Sellowiana  396 

Fig    324 

bearing  age   329 

budding   326 

caprification    320 

drying    454 

foes  of  331 

from  cuttings    326 

from  seeds 328 

grafting   327 

mission    42 

planting  and  pruning 328 

regions  for  324 

size  of  old  trees  324 

soils  for 325 

varieties   194,  330,  331 

Filbert  growing  431 

wild  40 


INDEX 


509 


Page 

Frosts,  susceptibility  of  fruits 500 

protection  from  500 

Fruit  cultivation    128 

Fruit  gardens,  early 46 

Fruit  industries,  influence  of 53 

Fruit  industries,  outlook  of 54 

Fruit  interest,  extent  of  52 

Fruit  shipments     51 

Fruit  thinning   125 

Fruit  tree  acreage   52,  448 

Fruit  products,  value  of  53 

Fruits,  crystallizing   446 

drying    447 

drying  floors    450 

graders    451 

grafted,  first  in  California 46 

locations  for  12 

value  as  stock  food  503 

Fruit  shipments,  eastern 50,  51 

Fruit  trees,  dwarf 46 

Fruits,  commercial  varieties  191 

Fruits,  locations  for  12 

Fruits,  mission    42 

Fruits,  native    36 

Fruits,  Russian    45 

Fruit,  soil  ingredients  of  142 

Goat  nut,  or  jajoba  40 

Gooseberry,  The  414 

culture  of  414 

requirements  of   414 

varieties   415 

wild 38 

Gophers,  killing    495 

pitfall  for    496 

trapping  496 

Grafting    76 

bark    84 

cleft    79 

old  trees    83 

root    80 

side    79,  84 

time  for  85 

top    83 

whip     80 

wax  for  78 

waxed  bands   78 

Graft,  time  to   85 

Grafts,  planting  out   80 

Granadilla    396 

Grape,  area  of  285 

budding    292 

conditions  of  ripening 19 

cutting  grafts   296 

dibbles  for  planting  299 

diseases  of   312 

distance    298 

from  cuttings    289 

from  layers    288 

from  seed   288 

frost  injuries    311 

grafting    292,  295 

insects    470,  474 


Page 
Grape — continued 

industry    285 

length  of  season  286 

mildew    488 

mission  42,  44 

number  per  acre  298 

planting  devices    298 

planting  in  rows  297 

products    285 

pruning    302,  311 

pruning,  long 308 

pruning,  short   285 

resistant     296 

rooting  in  nursery  292 

shipping    285,  286 

soils  for  . ; 286 

stakes,  twine,  etc   302 

suckering    310 

sulphuring    488 

summer  pruning  305,  310 

syruo    460 

topping    306 

trellising    309 

varieties    313 

wild 37 

wine,  varieties  of  318 

Grasshoppers,  killing  471 

Growing  season,  long 23 

Guava,   The    395 

Gummosis    491 

Gypsum,  uses  of 145 

Hardpan,  breaking  up  94 

Heat,  deficient  on  coast 13 

importance  of   18 

summer,  records  of  19 

Heeling  in  young  trees 99 

Hexagonal  planting   91,  92 

Hillside,  rows  on   90 

use  of  triangle  on   93, 

Holes  for  trees  94,  95 

Huckleberries,  wild  39 

Humidity,  atmospheric  21 

deficient    24 

east  and  west 22 

excessive    24 

Insects,  injurious   465 

Insects,  remedies   483 

Irrigation    153 

distributing  manure  by 149 

ditches    178 

drainage  and  188 

evils  of  excessive 154 

flooding    163 

for  citrus  fruits 157 

for  deciduous  fruits  157 

flume  building  for  176 

hillside  173 

how  much   155,  157 

implements  for   165 

in  early  days   49 

in  basins    168 

in  checks    .  163 


510 


CALIFORNIA    FRUITS:    HOW    TO    GROW    THEM 


Page 
Irrigation — continued 

in  furrows    170,  174 

leveling  for  63 

locating  contour  lines 178 

manure  with  irrigation  water 149 

manurial  value  of 150 

measurement  of  water 182,  184 

methods  of 163 

nursery   72 

objections  answered  154 

overhead  177 

relation  to  cultivation   160 

relation  to  rainfall  156 

relation  to  soil   158 

relation  to  tillage  159 

reservoirs,  small  179 

running  ditches  for  178 

subirrigation    188 

suggestions  for  187 

summer    162 

taken  from  ditches  181 

wells  and  pumps  for 182 

wheels  for 181 

when  desirable   153,  161 

winter 161 

Jajoba   40 

Jujube  of  commerce   396 

Jujube,  native  40 

June  buds 73,  81 

Kai  Annie  403 

Laying  out  land  for  fruit 87 

Leaf  lice   469 

Legumes  in  orchard 151 

Lemon  berry   40 

Lemon,  The  354 

curing  388,  390 

picking    388 

planting  and  pruning 387 

propagation    70,  387 

situations  and  soils  for 355 

varieties    391 

Lemon  berry  40 

Lice,  leaf 469 

Lime,  The 391 

Lime,  uses  of 144 

Loganberry  417 

Loquat,  The  397 

Manure,  care  of 145 

green    150 

poultry    147 

sheep,  use  of    ]47 

Manuring  at  planting 103 

Manzanita  berries    39 

Map  of  orchard  and  vineyard 104 

Marls    145 

Mealy  bugs  477 

Measuring  wire   88 

Melon  shrub  400 

Melon  tree   400 

Mildew  488 

Miner's  inch  182 

Mission  fruits   .  42 


Page 

Moisture  lost  by  weed  growth 130 

retained  by  cultivation  128 

Morning  Glory,  killing 138 

Moss,  removing 489 

Mulberry,  The 415 

Mulching,  after  planting   104 

Mulching  as  substitute  for  cultivation   139 

Nectarine 252 

compared  with  peach 252 

dried  253,  456 

future  of  254 

varieties  253 

Nitrogen  for  fruits   144,  150 

Nursery   64,  365 

budding  and  grafting  73 

classes  of  nursery  stock 81 

growing  seedlings 66 

imported  seedlings 69 

irrigation    72 

laying  out  and  planting 70 

pruning  in 81 

selection  of  site  for 64 

soil,  preparation  of 66 

soil,  proper  for  64 

trees,  ages  of  80,  81 

trees,  digging  98 

trees,  disinfecting  483 

trees,  selecting    97 

when  to  plant  100 

Nuts  growing  in  California 424 

growing  from  seed 68 

wild  40 

Olives 335 

at  old  missions 43 

budding    338 

canning   348 

climate  for   335 

from  cuttings  337 

from  seed   336 

grafting   340 

localities  for 336 

oil  making  344,  345 

planting    341 

preferred  varieties   349 

pruning  342 

pickling    335,  346 

small  cuttings    337 

soils   for    336 

truncheons    338 

twig  borer    478 

wild    40 

varieties 194,  348 

Orchard  land,  preparation  of 86 

laying  out  in  squares 87 

alternating  squares   88 

equilateral  triangles    91 

measure  and  sight  88 

measuring  wire  88 

quincunx  planting  91 

time  for  planting   100 

Orange    351 

all  the  year  from  California.  .354,  378 


INDEX 


511 


Page 
Orange — continued 

budding  and  grafting 366 

California  regions  discussed 356 

conditions  for  citrus  fruits 363 

diseases    377 

distances  for 368 

from  cuttings    70,  364 

from  layers  364 

from  seed 364 

in  central  California  357 

in  southern  California 359 

mission    42 

nursery    365 

outlook    361 

packing    380 

planting  in  orchard  368 

product  53,  351,  353,  355 

propagation    363 

pruning  371 

ripening  first  at  the  north 360 

seedlings,  care  of  365 

situation  and  soils  for 362 

superiority  of  semi-tropical 354 

transplanting    368 

world's  industry  351 

varieties    194,  378 

Orchard  planting   94 

Oregon  grape   39 

Oso  berry 37 

Popular  fruit  varieties  191 

Palm  nuts  40 

Peach   233 

age  at  planting  ; 238 

approved  lists  of 247 

blight 489 

blooming  of  varieties 246 

curl-leaf    244 

diseases    243 

distance  in  planting 238 

dormant  buds 238 

drying    455 

early  bearing    234 

grafting    243 

growing  season  of  23 

irrigation  242 

localities  for   235 

longevity  of   233 

mildew   244 

mission 42 

moth    477,  482 

"peach  almond" 23$ 

pitting  clings   455 

propagation 237 

pruning   116,  234,  239 

ripening  of  varieties   246 

root  borer 478 

seedlings    66 

soils  for  236 

stocks  for  238 

table  of  varieties 245 

thinning    125,  241 

varieties    193,  246 


Page 

Peanut  growing   431 

Pear   255 

Bartlett,  why  popular  256 

blight    .........258,  261 

characteristics  in  California  256 

diseases    261 

distances  for  the 259 

drying    455 

dwarf   258 

for  alkali  soil  258 

irrigation  260 

largest  on  record  <  255 

localities  for   256 

mission    42 

on  quince  stock 258 

pollination    260 

propagation  of 258 

pruning    259 

seedlings,  growing  66,  67 

slug    468 

soils  for 257 

storing  and  ripening  262 

tables  of  varieties  267 

thinning    '. 260 

varieties    193,  264 

Pear,  Alligator  401 

Pecan,   The 432 

Persimmon,  Japanese   397 

Persimmon,  Virginian    397 

Persimmons,  curing 398 

Phenomenal  berry   417 

Phosphates    143 

Phyloxera   474 

Pioneers,  planting  by 46 

Pineapple    398 

Pine  nuts    40 

Pistachio,  The   433 

Planting,  conditions  favoring 100 

bar  for  setting   96 

cutting  back  after   105,  112 

depth  of 103 

digging  holes  for  94 

laying  off  for   87,  88,  89 

mulching    104 

operation  of   101 

preparing  land  for  86 

speed  in  103 

time   for    100 

triangular  tree  setter 96 

use  of  manure  103 

use  of  water 102 

Plowing,  devices  for  132 

orchard  and  vineyard 133 

on  hillside  134 

to  break  hardpan   87,  133 

Plow,  laying  off  with 88 

Plums  and  prunes  268 

California  false  37 

confusion  in  names   274 

definition  of  a  prune 268 

drying     456 

from  the  root   271 


512 


CALIFORNIA   FRUITS  I    HOW    TO   GROW    THEM 


Page 
Plums  and  Prunes — continued 

grafting   273 

in  southern  California 270 

length  of  season 269 

localities  for 268 

mission    43 

myrobalan    270 

planting   271 

pollination  276 

propagation    270 

pruning  the    271 

seedlings    68 

stocks  and  soils   270 

table  of  varieties 277 

varieties    193,  277 

wild    36 

Plumcot,  The   274 

Pomegranate,   The    43,  399 

Pomelo 383 

packing 383 

varieties   194,  384 

Potash   143 

Prickly  Pear  41,  400 

Prune  curing  456 

Pruning 106 

bearing  trees   115 

California  style   109 

effects  of  109 

gathering  brush 124 

influenced  by  location  109 

low,  advantages  of   109 

nursery 81 

prunings  as  fertilizer  124,  148 

purposes  of   107 

times  for  119 

tools 123 

to  renew  old  trees  122 

vase  form,  securing 109 

wounds,  covering  124 

Quince  282 

demand  for    282 

propagation  282 

pruning 283 

soils  for 283 

varieties 283 

Quincunx  planting   91 

Rabbit,  fences   493 

Rabbits,  destroying   . , 494 

poisons  for  494 

smears  for 494 

Rainfall,  records  of 12 

Rainfall  or  irrigation  153,  156 

Raisin  making  193,  318,  458 

Raspberry,  The  416 

black-caps  417 

hybrids 417 

pruning 416 

varieties,  popular   194,  417 

wild 38 

Red  Spider   472 

Root  rot   489 

Root-knots  491 


Page 

Russian  introduction  of  fruits 45 

Salal  39 

Salmon  berry 38 

Scale   Insects    474 

black 476 

brown  apricot    476 

cottony  cushion   477 

pear 475 

orange,  red  475 

orange,  soft  A76 

oyster  shell  475 

rose  and  berry 475 

San  Jose  475 

remedies   for    484 

Sapota,  white 402 

Scions,  care  of  76 

selection  of   77 

Sea  Fig  40 

Seed,  growing  trees  from 68 

Seedlings,  imported    69 

Septuple,  laying  off  92 

Service  Berry   39 

Soils  for  fruits  25 

adobe  33 

alkali 34 

alluvial 31 

bed-rock  or  hard-pan  34 

blasting  94 

characteristics  of  California  26 

classification  of  28 

clay  33 

defective 33 

desert 30 

examination  of   35 

first  aid  to   143 

granitic 32 

loams  28,  29,  32 

mesa  30 

organic  matter    151 

plains   29 

red  32 

river  bottom    31 

sedimentary  or  silty   31 

shallow,   blasting    94 

Sour  sap   490 

Snider,  red   472 

Stock,  fruit  as  food  for 503 

Squares,  laying  off  in 87 

Squirrels,  destroying  494 

Strawberry  418 

care  of 421 

continuous   bearing 421 

laying  out  for  420 

planting 421 

propagation 419 

situations  and  soils   419 

varieties,  popular    194,  421 

wild 38,  421 

Strawberry  tree   400 

Summer  pruning 120 

Sunburn,  protection  from 104,  478 

Sunlight,  value  of  direct  20 


INDEX 


513 


Page 

Sunshine,  evaporating  450 

Sunshine,  records  of  21 

Temperature,  lowest   18 

Temperature,  records  of  18 

Thinning   fruit    125 

Thrips  470 

Tomato,  tree 402 

Toyon 40 

Trees,  activity  and  rest  of  17 

heeling  in    99 

selecting 97 

Tree-setters   95,  96 

Triangle  for  laying  out 92 

Tuna   fruit    41 

Tussock  moth   468 

Varieties,  chiefly  planted   193 

Vine  hoppers   470 

Vine-puller   61 

Vineyard — see  grape 

Walnut,  black   40 

Walnut  English  433 

hacteriosis  or  blight  443,  490 

bleaching  440 

blossoms  of   440 

budding 435 

culture  and  soils   434,  439 


Page 
Walnut — continued 

gathering  and  drying   440 

grafting 436 

growing   seedlings    68 

hybrids 435 

propagation  and  planting  434,  438 

pruning 438 

soils 434 

varieties 194,  442 

wild 40 

Water  measurements 182 

Weed  killing  by  cultivation 138 

Weeds,   evaporation  by   128 

Weir   measurement    184 

Whitewash  against  sunburn  104 

Whitewash  to  delay  bloom 501 

Wild  fruits  of  California 36 

Windbreaks 498 

trees  for   498 

Wine  grapes 318 

Winery  refuse  as  manure  148 

Winter-killing,  unknown   18 

Wire,   measuring    88 

Woolly  aphis   ^ 473 

Wounds,  covering   . ._ 124 

Yellow  jackets,  killing  482 


California  Vegetables 

IN 

GARDEN  AND   FIELD 

A  MANUAL  OF  PRACTICE  WITH  AND  WITHOUT  IRRIGATION 


By  EDWARD  J.   W1CKSON,  A.  M. 


CONTENTS 


Chapter. 

I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 


Vegetable    Growing   in    California. 
Farmers'    Gardens    in    California. 
California  Climate  as  Related  to 

Vegetable    Growing. 
Vegetable  Soils  of   California. 
Garden  Irrigation. 
Garden  Drainage  in  California. 
Cultivation. 
Fertilization. 
Garden    Location    and    Arrange 

ment. 

The  Planting  Season. 
Propagation. 
Asparagus. 
Artichokes. 
Beans. 
Beet. 

Cabbage   Family. 
Carrot,   Parsnip  and   Salsify. 
Celery. 
Chicory. 


Chapter. 

•nia.                     XX. 

Corn. 

lia.                    XXI. 

Cucumber. 

to                   XXII. 

Egg  Plant. 

XXIII. 

Lettuce. 

XXIV. 

Melons. 

XXV. 

Onion    Family. 

i.                    XXVI. 

Peas. 

XXVII. 

Peppers. 

XXVIII. 

Potatoes. 

e-                   XXIX. 

Radishes. 

XXX. 

Rhubarb. 

XXXI. 

Spinach. 

XXXII. 

Squashes. 

XXXIII. 

Tomato. 

XXXIV. 

Turnip. 

XXXV. 

Vegetable   Sundries. 

XXXVI. 

Vegetables   for    Canning 

XXXVII. 

and  Drying. 
Seed   Growing  in   California. 

XXXVIII. 

Garden    Protection. 

XXXIX. 

Weeds   in    California. 

Third  Edition— Revised  and  Extended 


COMMENDATION  OF  "CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES" 

The  work  will  be  found  of  inestimable  assistance  to  those  who  are  interested  in  vegetable 
growing  in  California,  not  only  on  a  large  scale,  but  to  the  large  number  who  cultivate  these 
products  for  their  own  consumption. — San  Francisco  Call. 

We  take  no  risk  in  advising  every  Californian  who  has  a  garden  spot  to  procure  a  copy. — 
San  Francisco  Chronicle. 

Not  only  interesting  but  valuable  to  every  one  in  this  State  who  cultivates  ever  so  small 
a  lot  of  ground.  The  author  is  eminently  qualified  for  the  work  which  he  has  just  completed. 
— San  Francisco  Bulletin. 

It  treats  of  the  proper  culture  of  all  leading  vegetables  in  California.  It  is  full  of  infor- 
mation and  instruction.  It  is  so  clear  that  whoever  uses  it  as  a  guide  book  can  not  go 
astray  in  vegetable  culture.  The  work  is  freely  illustrated  and  handsomely  bound. — Sacra- 
mento Record-Union. 

Covers  every  part  of  the  State  in  technical  analysis  and  physical  demonstration. — Peta- 
luma  Courier. 

It  treats  of  every  feature  of  vegetable  production  in  plain,  common-sense  terms,  and  gives 
reasons  for  its  assertions. — Pomona  Times. 


Price  $2.00,  Postpaid  Anywhere 

Address,  PACIFIC  RURAL  PRESS    Publishers  SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 


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